Metall-Praxis

New Materials and New Design Criteria for

Heat Exchangers
Cotton, N. (1) This paper reviews current trends in the design of radiators, charge air coolers (CACs), oil coolers and climate control systems, in vehicles and equipment such as heavy-duty (HD) highway trucks, construction & agricultural equipment, other off-road diesel engines, light trucks & SUVs, and passenger cars.
he essence of vehicular heat exchanger design is to maximize heat transfer from the tubes to the fin surface. This design criterion requires fin materials with exceptional thermal conductivity. Only two metals are practical candidates for use as fin materials: copper and aluminum. Of these two, copper is the better heat conductor; however, aluminum is less dense, so fatter fins or more fins can compensate for its poorer conductivity. Given the lack of alternative materials, one might assume that heat exchanger design has already been perfected; yet, that assumption is not valid. As design criteria become better defined and more stringent, competing materials systems are being scrutinized as never before. Brazed aluminum heat exchangers are being pushed to their limits in terms of durability and operating temperatures. Meanwhile, heat exchangers made with new copper/brass brazing processes are being made in production volumes and new designs are being introduced and field-tested on a regular basis. From the 1970s to the 1990s, however, especially for passenger cars, the pendulum gradually shifted from soldered copper-brass to brazed aluminum. Aluminum was adopted for a variety of reasons. Although thermal conductivity is poorer for aluminum than copper, the former could compensate with a larger volume of material, e.g., larger fins, more fins and larger radiators. The lower density of aluminum just made up for its poorer thermal conductivity, keeping aluminum on par with copper in radiator design. Another factor that propelled the switch from copper-brass to aluminum in the past was the elimination of lead from manufacturing processes. Previously, many of the solders used in soldered copper-brass radiators contained lead. As the toxic effects of lead became widely recognized, radiator makers were eager to eliminate lead from their processes.

Fin-mill
Rather than retool with lead-free solders, many switched to aluminum processes. Although aluminum brazing also involved hazardous materials, including the use of fluorine compounds as a flux, many manufacturers embraced aluminum to eliminate lead from their processes.

Looking Forward: Brazed Copper/Brass

In the early 1990s, the International Copper Association sponsored

Looking Backwards: Brazed Aluminum and Soldered Copper

Prior to the seventies, most radiators were made of brass tubes that were joined to copper fins using conventional soldering techniques at relatively low temperatures. Many truck radiators still are made using conventional soldering.

Assembly station (all photos: International Copper Association)

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research on the development of a lead-free brazing process for copper and brass. This research was directed at the development of anneal-resistant copper alloys and brass alloys. These alloys would not weaken at the relatively high brazing temperatures. The brazing process would result in stronger joints, allowing for the use of thinner fins and hence new radiators designs. Also, the brazing process, with its high processing temperatures, eliminated the need for lead in the joining process. In this case, the brazing alloy melts above 600 C and so there is no need for lead in its composition. In fact, the brazing alloy is non-toxic and the resulting processes are simpler than the corresponding aluminum brazing processes. Interestingly, with the development of this new brazing process for copper and brass, the pendulum is now swinging in the other direction. Radiator makers are replacing conventional soldered copper-brass heat exchangers with the new brazed copper-brass heat exchangers and, where performance criteria favor copperbrass, they are switching back to copper-brass from aluminum. The availability of a new, alternative materials system for the design of heat exchangers makes it more important than ever to fully understand the performance criteria for heat exchangers.

Brazing furnace
performance and manufacturing cost. These criteria can be further refined. The International Copper Association recommends careful consideration of the following eight factors: efficiency, size, durability, elevated temperature operation, emissions, manufacturability, environmental impact and cost. Applications today demand more heat transfer capacity in the same space. Cooling systems engineers are on the lookout for new materials systems and new technology to meets those demands.

Size
The advantage in efficiency is equivalent to a size advantage. In other words, if there is an efficiency advantage, then the same heat rejection can be achieved with a smaller-sized core. A significant reduction in frontal area and volume is typical for CuproBraze copper-brass. More airflow can be directed to other heat exchangers in the same vehicle, e.g., for the radiator downstream from the charge air cooler in a heavy-duty truck. In the final analysis, one of the best figures of merit for evaluating heat exchanger designs is the air pressure drop. The air pressure drop for two heat exchangers cores with the same frontal area and the same heat rejection can be compared in a wind tunnel. The pressure drop advantage belongs to that heat exchanger core with the smallest drop in air pressure from the front to the back of the core (i.e., from the windward to the leeward side in a wind tunnel test). Air pressure drops typically are 24% less for CuproBraze versus aluminum heat exchangers. This pressure drop advantage that results from using a

Efficiency
The main performance criterion for heat exchangers is the cooling efficiency. It is a measure of the heat rejection from a given space by a heat exchanger. Efficiency is determined not only by materials but also design. The efficiency of typical mobile heat exchangers is influenced by the spacing, size, thickness and shape of fins; the spacing, size, wall thickness and shape of tubes; the velocity of the air passing through the core; and other factors. Efficiency can be readily calculated and measured. Recent heat-transfer simulations and wind-tunnel tests show that copper-brass cores hold the advantage for the most efficient rejection of heat per unit volume. It can be shown that copper-brass cores can reject more heat per unit volume than any other material system. In other words, copper-brass designs offer a lot of cooling capacity in a small size.

Design Criteria Redefined

Like most automotive sub-systems, heat exchangers are evaluated in terms of two main criteria: product

Fin-mill dies

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CuproBraze core can be used in different ways: More airflow can be directed to other heat exchangers in the same vehicle The frontal area can be decreased, keeping the fin count and heat rejection the same. A 6% reduction in frontal area is typical. Heat rejection can be increased, keeping the frontal area the same and increasing the fin count. A 6% increase in heat rejection is typical. longer fatigue life of critical CuproBraze joints compared to similar soldered copper-brass or brazed aluminum joints. The corrosion properties of the base metal and joints are also important. The galvanic differences between the CuproBraze alloys have been practically eliminated. During lengthy exposure to road environment pollutants (REP), very limited attacks were found in the brazed joints between tubes and fins. To compare corrosion resistance, fully assembled CuproBraze, soldered copper-brass and brazed aluminum heat exchangers have been subjected to at least four different corrosion tests, including road environment pollutant (REP), salt spray (SS), sea water acetic acid (SWAAT) and marine air corrosion (MAC) tests. Test results confirm that CuproBraze resists corrosion better than soldered copper-brass and is very competitive with brazed aluminum. Thanks to strong, brazed joints and the reduction of galvanic corrosion at the joints, heat exchangers made by the CuproBraze process are extremely rugged and durable. Their excellent resistance to fatigue and corrosion adds up to a long service life in many applications. Ongoing laboratory and field tests on various CuproBraze product designs predict long service lives for CuproBraze heat exchangers in real world applications.

Fins close-up
strength of aluminum above 250 C. Problems with fatigue cracking are greatly exacerbated in aluminum at elevated temperatures. On the other hand, copper and brass heat exchangers can operate at temperatures well above 250 C. Some cores can withstand temperatures of 290 C and above, which are still well below the melting point of copper and brass.

Durability
Brazing of copper and brass in a furnace at temperatures of 650 C results in the formation of a strong joint. Special anneal-resistant alloys ensure that the radiator cores retain their strength despite exposure to these high brazing temperatures. Compared to other materials, brazed copperbrass provides stronger, tougher joints, allowing for more durable products. Thanks to strong brazed joints and the reduction of galvanic corrosion at the joints, heat exchangers made by the CuproBraze process are extremely rugged. Their excellent resistance to fatigue and corrosion adds up to a long service life in many applications. Extensive laboratory testing quantifies the superb resistance of CuproBraze heat exchanger cores to fatigue cracking. Typical in-service cyclic stresses have been applied at the critical tube-to-header joints commonly found in heat exchangers designs. Test results demonstrate a much

Emissions
New legislation in Europe, Japan and the United States aims at reducing emissions from diesel engines. These new laws call for a dramatic reduction in the oxides of nitrogen released from heavy-duty (HD) over-the-highway truck engines as well as off-road diesel engines. Diesel engine manufacturers must develop engine technologies such as exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR) to reduce the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) released from diesel engines. These solutions invariably result in significantly higher operating temperatures, since engine designs must cope with additional heat rejection from exhaust gas coolers, radiators and charge air coolers (CACs). CACs must be highly efficient and durable in order to meet the stringent emissions regulations. Previously, most CACs were made of aluminum, but the tensile strength of aluminum declines rapidly at 150 C and repetitive thermal cycling between 150 and 200 C substantially weakens the product. The average inlet temperature in current charge air coolers is 190 C; however, to comply with the reduced

Elevated Temperature Operation

The ability to withstand elevated temperatures is a crucial benefit. CuproBraze alone is qualified for use at high temperatures. Aluminum heat exchangers simply cannot withstand high temperatures without a total breakdown in their mechanical properties. Aluminum alloys are temperature challenged above 200 C. This inherent property of aluminum is a consequence of its low melting point. CuproBraze is clearly superior for applications that must withstand elevated temperatures without failure. The yield strength of aluminum is severely compromised above 200 C, and it is meaningless to talk of the

Strenght vs. temperature

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ume production. A worldwide network of materials suppliers and equipment makers stands ready to guide you, whether you plan to build a high-volume CuproBraze production facility or purchase CuproBraze heat exchangers from another source. Participating companies are listed at www.cuprobraze.com. when they analyze costs. The production of millions of heat exchangers per year significantly affects the allocation of natural resources on a global scale, yet the quality of life worldwide has been greatly improved by the use of off-road diesel engines, heavy-duty trucks and passenger cars. Today, the concept of sustainable growth that is, the improvement of conditions through the judicious use of natural resources guides conservationists. Environmentally, the CuproBraze process has important

Environmental Impact Fin tubes

emission standards, the industry expects the average inlet temperature to reach temperatures exceeding 240 C. New CuproBraze charge air coolers cope easily with higher temperatures and the greater strength of brass can withstand high pressure. Already many companies have switched to CuproBraze charge air coolers, and high volume production of CuproBraze CACs has begun. Higher operating temperatures also place greater cooling requirements on the radiators of both on-road and offroad heavy-duty trucks. Many truck makers are switching to CuproBraze from soldered copper-brass for this application. New designs of diesel engines for SUV applications are increasing demand for compact, high-efficiency heat exchangers that can withstand high temperatures. In todays world of regulations, forward-thinking manufacturers are taking the environment into account

What is CuproBraze technology?

CuproBraze technology consists of certain materials and processes that allow for high-temperature brazing of copper and brass. It can be better appreciated in terms of the metallurgy. The CuproBraze process requires 1) an anneal-resistant copper alloy for fins, 2) an anneal-resistant brass alloy for tubes and 3) a brazing material for joining fins and tubes. 1) Alloy for copper fins Chromium is used as an alloying element in anneal-resistant copper alloys for copper fins. Coherent precipitates induced during rolling deformation serve as nuclei for the growth of larger precipitates during subsequent annealing. These precipitates, which are about three nanometers in size, effectively prevent softening at temperatures as high as 650 C. In comparison, conventional copper alloys for radiators can only withstand soldering processes of 450 C (842 F). Electrical conductivity is restored to 92 percent of the unalloyed value when precipitates form in the fin alloy. Since heat conductivity closely tracks electrical conductivity, this copper alloy is well suited for use in the fins of heat exchangers. The combination of strength and thermal conductivity allows the construction of lightweight heat exchangers. 2) Alloy for brass tubes Similarly the new brass alloy developed for tubes also resists softening at elevated temperatures. The tubing alloy consists of 85% copper and 15% zinc plus about 1 percent iron, which forms particles about 200 nanometers in size. The latter particles prevent re-crystallization of grains even at elevated temperature. The high copper content contributes to improved resistance against stress corrosion cracking and dezincification. This anneal resistant brass alloy retains its strength after heating to elevated temperatures much better than conventional brass alloys. 3) CuproBraze filler material Finally, CuproBraze technology uses copper-nickel-tin-phosphorus brazing materials, which melt at 600 C. This filler material is typically converted to a powder, which is mixed with a binder to form a brazing paste. The special attributes of this brazing powder are its relatively low melting point, its compatibility with fin and tube materials and its compatibility with existing manufacturing processes. Together these three alloys enable the CuproBraze processes for the manufacture of heat exchangers.

Manufacturability
CuproBraze is already proven to be a cost-effective manufacturing technology. It has been successfully transferred to the factory floor for small volume, midsize and high-vol-

Headers and misc. brass parts

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separate operations for attaching components such as inlet and outlet fittings. CuproBraze heat exchangers are repairable with lead-free solder in the plant or in the field. Less scrap, fewer returns and more uptime in the field add up to savings for the manufacturer and the end user.

Conclusion
The availability of a continuously renewable moving stream of ambient-temperature air explains why mobile heat exchangers commonly reject heat into the air. Fins are extremely effective for rejecting heat into the air. As a result, aluminum and copper are extremely competitive in a variety of markets for heat exchangers. Aluminum and copper are extremely competitive in terms of their efficiency at heat rejection, and indeed copper holds the advantage in terms of heat rejection per unit volume. As a result, other design criteria are being scrutinized in the selection of materials for hear exchanger designs. A close analysis of a variety of important design criteria suggests that the new brazed copper-brass technology will play an increasingly important role in vehicular heat exchanger designs in the years ahead, particularly as design criteria are tightened and designers seek greater performance while lowering overall costs. (1)Nigel Cotton, International Copper Association, Ltd., 260 Madison Avenue, 16th Floor, New York, NY 10016-2401, Tel.: +1 212.251. 7240, Fax: +1 212.251.7245

Complete radiators
advantages over other technologies. No fluxing stage is needed for brazing, and the process is free of lead and other toxic chemicals. Also, CuproBraze heat exchangers are repairable, which means less waste. Furthermore, copper and brass are virtually 100% recyclable. Aluminum production uses more than twice as much electrical energy compared to copper production (i.e., 75 MWh per ton of aluminum versus 30 MWh per ton of copper). Carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere each year could be reduced by about one million tons by making heat exchangers from copper and brass instead of aluminum. If all other criteria are equal then CuproBraze should be chosen for the sake of the environment! More about copper and the environment can be found at www.copperinfo.com. CuproBraze is simple. Compact and able to withstand elevated temperatures and vibrations, a CuproBraze core may allow for lighter mounting hardware and space-saving design layouts. CuproBraze is forgiving. Brazing temperatures can be ramped up faster. Because it takes less energy to heat copper than it does to heat aluminum, it takes less energy to braze each unit. CuproBraze allows for efficient economies of scale. Since the furnace and production line dont need to be dedicated to just one product, manufacturers can cater to the needs of the profitable niche and special orders markets. CuproBraze is flexible. The continuous belt furnace allows for quick product changeovers even at high throughput rates. CuproBraze brazing is a fluxless process, eliminating the need for a separate rinse step to remove the flux from the brazed product. No rinsing operation means no expensive treatment of discharge water. Moreover, CuproBraze does not use lead and other toxic chemicals in the manufacturing process. CuproBraze allows for one-shot brazing. The CuproBraze process can make a complete heat exchanger in the brazing furnace, thus eliminating

Cost
CuproBraze is attractive in terms of total cost. CuproBraze technology has many advantages that impact the bottom line. CuproBraze can be automated. The use of semi-automated or automated assembly equipment can greatly reduce manufacturing costs compared to other labor-intensive manufacturing methods.

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