COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

Nebojsa I. Jaksic Colorado State University Pueblo

Contents
1. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Fundamentals ................................................... 1 Overview and History of CIM .................................................................................... 3 Automation.................................................................................................................. 4 USA Automation Principle ......................................................................................... 6 Ten Strategies for Automation and Production Systems ............................................ 6 Elements of an Automated System ............................................................................. 8 Automation Processes ................................................................................................. 9 Industrial control systems ......................................................................................... 11 2. Digital (Combinatorial) Logic Control Systems ....................................................... 13 Rules and Theorems of Boolean Algebra ................................................................. 15 Examples - Boolean Algebra .................................................................................... 18 Sensors/Transducers.................................................................................................. 22 Some Laboratory Issues: Interfacing Sensors to TTL Devices ................................ 24 Examples ................................................................................................................... 27 Problems.................................................................................................................... 30 3. Relays and PLCs ...................................................................................................... 33 Types of Relays......................................................................................................... 33 Relay Characteristics: ............................................................................................... 33 Switches: ................................................................................................................... 34 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) ................................................................. 39 Timers ....................................................................................................................... 42 Counters .................................................................................................................... 43 RTO and RTF Timer Characteristics ........................................................................ 47 MicroLogix 1000 Programmable Controllers........................................................... 62 4. Actuation ................................................................................................................... 65 Pneumatics ................................................................................................................ 65 Hydraulics ................................................................................................................. 66 Schematics ................................................................................................................ 67 Examples ................................................................................................................... 70 Problems.................................................................................................................... 86 5. Robotics .................................................................................................................... 93 CSU-Pueblo CIM Laboratory Manipulators............................................................. 98 Robot Coordinate Systems........................................................................................ 99 Coordinate Systems Relative Frames .................................................................. 100 Rotation ................................................................................................................... 102 Homogeneous Coordinates ..................................................................................... 103 The General Form of the Transformation Matrix ................................................... 106 Problems.................................................................................................................. 114 6. Computer Numerical Control (CNC)...................................................................... 120 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 120 Control Systems: ..................................................................................................... 121 Some Machining Terms: ......................................................................................... 122 Flow of CNC Processing ........................................................................................ 123

Basic G-Codes or Words......................................................................................... 125 Basic Miscellaneous Functions (M-Codes or Words) ............................................ 127 Examples ................................................................................................................. 129 Problems.................................................................................................................. 133 7. Automated Assembly Systems ............................................................................... 139 Parts Delivery at Workstations ............................................................................... 139 Analysis of a Parts Delivery Subsystem ................................................................. 143 Types of Automated Assembly Systems ................................................................ 145 Problems.................................................................................................................. 148 References ................................................................................................................... 150

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1. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Fundamentals

Introduction: Computer- integrated manufacturing (CIM) is the total integration of all manufacturing elements through the use of computers. The CIM Wheel below represents a typical CIM implementation in a mid-size company. By integrating all the processes products can be delivered quickly to customers.

Figure 1. CIM Wheel. Reprinted courtesy of the Computer and Automated Systems Association (CASA) of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME)

Production system: is the collection of people, equipment and procedures organized to accomplish manufacturing operations of a company.

The Production system can be divided into two groups: 1. Manufacturing Support System: includes procedures, quality control, business functions, inventory control, and product design; and 2. Facilities: includes plant, layout and equipment

Products are divided into two groups: 1. Continuous : (e.g. oil). This is usually realm of chemical engineers. 2. Discrete : (e.g. screws, cars, airplanes). The whole production is treated as a function of product quantity, where for medium size/complexity products: Low Volume : 1-100 Products/Year Medium Volume: 100-10000 Products/Year High Volume : >10000 Products/ Year

The following are some often used abbreviations in CIM: CAD/CAM : Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing CAPP: Computer Aided Process Planning MAP: Manufacturing Automation Protocol

Overview and History of CIM

Typical Information Processing Cycle Product Design

Customer Order

Business Functions

Production System Facilities

Manufacturing Planning

Manufacturing Control

Raw Material

Facilities Processing Material Handling Inspection

Finished Product

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

Manual Production

Mechanization / Specialization

Automation

Integration

Figure 2. Simplified CIM Wheel and history of CIM

Automation
Automation is a technology concerned with the application of mechanical, electronic and computer based systems used to operate and control production. Examples:

Transfer lines Automated assembly systems Robot based systems Material handling and storage systems Automated inspection system

Automation can be divided into three types: 1. Fixed Automation. Processing sequence is fixed due to equipment configuration. It is used in high volume production. Computers are not used. 2. Programmable Automation. Processing sequence can change. CNC and PLC (Programmable Logic Controls) programs as well as Robots are often used. 3. Flexible Automation. It is like programmable automation except there is no time loss for changeover (No down time). It works only with similar parts.

Figure 3. Product variety as a function of product quantity

COST

Manual

Figure 4. Comparison of cost and production between manual and automated production

Nine Reasons to Automate

The following represents a summary of Reasons for Automating published by Groover [1]: 1. Increase productivity: production rates and labor productivity 2. Reduce labor cost per unit 3. Lessen the effects of labor shortages 4. Reduce/ eliminate routine manual & clerical tasks: improve working conditions 5. Improve safety: from active to supervisory role of workers OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Act. In 1970, physical well being of the workers became national objective. 6. Improve product quality: uniformity, conform to quality specifications 7. Reduce manufacturing lead-time: also reduction of WIP (Work-In-Process) Inventory 8. Accomplish processes unachievable manually: Examples: IC manufacturing, rapid prototyping from CAD models, some CNC surfaces 9. Avoid high cost of not automating: company image, sales, quality.

USA Automation Principle

USA stands for Understand-Simplify- Automate [2]. Unde rstand Defines I/Os Defines Process Function How does it add value? Modeling Charts Number of steps, moves, delays

Simplify Eliminate steps Use appropriate technology Combine steps Simultaneous steps Automate Use of the Automation strategies

Ten Strategies for Automation and Production Systems

If it has been determined that automation could likely improve a process, then the following ten strategies summarized from [1] will help in achieving these improvements. 1) Specialization of operations strategy : this strategy uses specialized equipment. 2) Combined operations strategy : In this strategy, a number of manufacturing operations are performed on one workstation resulting in reduced setup time, material handling time and non-operation time. 3) Simultaneous operations strategy : The already combined operations at one workstation are performed simultaneously resulting in a further reduction of total processing time. 4) Integration of operations strategy : To reduce the number of separate machines through which the product must be scheduled several workstations could be linked together via automated work handling devices.

5) Increased flexibility strategy : This strategy uses the flexible automation concepts to reduce setup and programming time for the production machine. 6) Improved material handling and storage strategy : This strategy uses automated material handling and storage systems to reduce work- in-process and manufacturing lead time. 7) On-line inspection strategy: This strategy permits corrections to the process while the product is being made thus reducing scrap and increasing the overall product quality. 8) Process control and optimization strategy: This strategy relies on control principles and techniques designed to operate the individual processes and associated equipment more efficiently. 9) Plant operation control strategy deals with control at the plant level. 10) Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) strategy further integrates factory operations with engineering design and the business functions.

Elements of an Automated System

1. Power: Electric, hydraulic, pneumatic, fossil fuels, wind, and solar power are used. Power is used to operate the system and accomplish the process. In an automated system, manufacturing operations, material handling, controller unit, and activation require power. 2. Program of instructions (work cycle program) is used to direct the process. It specifies processing steps for the work cycle (part program in CNC). 3. Control system serves to activate the instructions. 4. Process (plant) is the actual machine/process/operation that is automated.

Power

Program of Instructions

Control System

Process (Plant)

Inputs Process Parameters Process

Outputs Process Variables

Figure 5. Elements of an automated system

Automation Processes
Safety monitoring: Protects humans/ equipment Uses a number of sensors as inputs: limit switches, photo electric, temperature, pressure, vision, etc. Performs system stops, alarms, slowing down the process, and recovery from unsafe conditions. Maintenance and Repair Diagnostics: Status monitoring Failure diagnostics Repair procedures (uses AI) Error detection and recovery: There are three types of errors: 1) Random: They occur when process is in statistical control. Example: deviations in part dimensions 2) Systematic: They are due to an assignable cause Example: change in material properties drift in machine settings 3) Abe rrations: These errors are attributed to equipment failures or human errors

LEVELS OF AUTOMATION
AUTOMATION LEVEL CONTINUOUS DISCRETE CONTROL LEVEL Corporate Info. Systems Data Flow

Corporate Level

Enterprise Level

Plant Level

Plant Level

Production System

Coordination Control

Supervisory Several Control Units Level

Cell or System Level

MFG. System Group of Machines

Regulatory Control Level

Units of Operation

Machine Level

Individual Machines

Data Flow

Procedural Control

2*

Device Level

Device Level

Sensors Actuators Hardware

Signal Flow

Basic Control

1*

Figure 6. Levels of automation

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1* feedback, interrupts, exception handling polling 2* error detection & recovery, multivariable, changing set points, controller gain, work cycle programming safety Level o DEVICE: ex: one robot joint, one axis of CNC machine. o MACHINE: ex: single robot, single CNC machine, AGV o CELL or SYSTEM: a group of machines supported by a material handling system, computer ex: production line o PLANT: ex: Order processing, Purchasing, Process Planning, Inventory Control, Shop floor control, QC, Material Requirements Planning o ENTERPRISE/CORPORATE: ex: Marketing, Sales, Accounting, Design, Research, Master production scheduling, Aggregate Planning.

Industrial control systems

Industrial control systems are divided into two types 1. Continuous: 2. Discrete: Depending on the number of control variables control systems in general can be divided into: 1. Single variable control systems Open loop Closed loop (feedback), and 2. Multivariable control systems. Single variable continuous (analog) control systems Open loop: -simple, easy to implement. Knowledge of process must be high. There is little or no outside disturbance present.
Control Action

Set Point Reference

Controller

Control Variable

Actuator

Process (Plant)

(Process) Output Variable

Figure 7. Open loop control system

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+
Set Point

Error

Controller

Actuator

Process

Controlled Variable

Feedback

Sensor

Measured Variable

Figure 8. Closed loop control system

Worktable + Xvalue Error Actual X

Controller

Motor DC Servo

Leadscrew

-Generator Digital Encorder(Digital)

Figure 9. Closed loop example

Controller Digital

Computer
Digital

Analog

Analog

DAC

Actuator

Process

Digital

ADC

Sensor

Figure 10. Digital/ Discrete closed loop control system

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2. Digital (Combinatorial) Logic Control Systems

Digital logic control system is a switching system whose output at any moment is determined exclusively by the values of the inputs. The system has no memory (outputs do not depend on previous values of inputs) and outputs are not functions of time. Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics dealing with logic gates (George Bool, 1847) Boolean variables in positive logic: True / False ON / OFF 1/0 High / Low Truth table: Table of outputs for all possible combinations of inputs. Usually, inputs are given as A, B, C, etc. and the outputs as X, Y, Z, etc. Logic Gates: Basic (AND, OR, NOT), NAND, NOR, X-OR, X-NOR

AND

Y
Y
Y

X1 X 2
X1 X 2
n i 1

IC: 74LS11 (3 input AND gate)

X3
X 1X 2 Y 00 0 01 0 10 0 11 1

Xi
X 1 X 2 Y

Figure 11. AND gate figure and truth table

OR
Y X1
n

X2

IC: 74LS32 Quad 2- input OR gate

Y
i 1

Xi

13

X 1 X 2

X X 1 2 Y 00 0 01 1 10 1 11 1

Figure 12. OR gate figure and truth table

NOT (Inverter)

X
X Y Y X 01 10

IC: 7404 hex inverter

Figure 13. NOT gate figure and truth table LED: Light Emitting Diode: Long lead is positive

NAND Y X1

X2
X 1 X 2 Y

X 1X 2 Y 00 1 01 1 10 1 11 0

Figure 14. NAND gate figure and truth table

NOR
Y X1 X2
X 1 X 2 Y

X 1X 2 Y 00 1 01 0 10 0 11 0

Figure 15. NOR gate figure and truth table

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Rules and Theorems of Boolean Algebra

- (Used in simplification of circuits) Single Variable Rules:
X X 0 0 X X X X 1 0 X X X

1 1

X 0 X 1 X X X X X X X

Multivariable Rules
X Y Z X (Y Z ) X Y Z X (Y Z ) X X Y X X Y Z (X Y) (X Z) X XY X Y

Demorgans Laws :
X Y X Y X Y

X Y

Design Process: 1. Word Description 2. Truth Table 3. Boolean Expression 4. Simplified Boolean Expression 5. Logic Circuit and Pinouts 6. Build & Test

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Example: From Truth Table to Logic Circuit Design a logic circuit for a truth table given below.
A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 X 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Procedure: 1. Write Boolean expression beside each 1 in the output. The expressions are formed by AND- ing input variables in each row in such manner that the input variable is written as it is if there is a 1 in the variable location, or inverted if there is a 0 in the variable location. For example, the first row has a 1 for the output variable X. Then, the Boolean expression, which has three zeros for variables A, B, and C is written as .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

X 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

2. When done with all rows, all the Boolean expressions are OR-ed into a starting Boolean expression for the output.

.
3. The equation is simplified using Rules and Theorems of Boolean algebra. 4. A logic circuit is drawn and further simplified to minimize the number of ICs. 5. IC pin connections are assigned to the circuit for wiring. Power and ground connections are added.

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A X B C

A X B C 7404 A B C 7400 X

7404
+5

A B C

14 7

2 1 2

+5
14 3 7

7400
13 12 11

4 4

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Examples - Boolean Algebra

Reduce each expression to its simplest form. The symbol 0 is a ZERO, and 1 is a ONE 1) 0 A 3) X 2) M 4) R R 6) MP PM 8) F 1 10) W
W M

5) 1 C 7) RS 9) AB 11) A 13) P 15) F 17) AS 19) O P P 21) 0 B B 23) a ( L M ) ( L A) M 25) X X Y Y 27) S T V S T V 29) 0 FW 31) 1 1 0 33) P P 1
FW

0
AB

A
NP
F

12) 0 P 14) FLX 16) W W V 18) P

R 1

CLMFXR

SA 0

20) PQ P R 22) G EW 24) 1 P Q 26) A 1 28) H H 30) LMN 32) 1 1 A 34) 1 B 0

EW G

MNL

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Reduce each expression to its simplest form. 1) B ( B + C) 2) AC ( CA + M)

3) M + MN

4) P N P

5) L( L

N)

6) B ( B C )

7) J

JB

8) B BJ

9) C (C

D)

10) B

BD

11) R ( R S )

12) S S TV

13) CD(CD DC )

14) FLX

CLMFXR

15) AB( AC

BA )

16) DE

DEF

DEG

17) C ( B C ) D

18) XYZ

X YZ

XZD

19) JK

AJKL

20)

AB B CDEF

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Apply Demorgans Theorem to simplify the following expressions. In your final answer, overbars should not extend over more than one variable and there should be no more than one overbar over a variable. 1) A B 2) AB

3) A B C

4) ABC

5) A ( B C )

6) AB CD

7) AB CD

8) ( A B) (C

D)

9) AB(C

D)

10) AB (CD

EF )

11) ( A B C

D)

ABC D

12) ( A B C

D) ( ABCD)

13) AB(CD EF ) ( AB CD)

14) ( A B) (C

D) ( E

F ) (G

H)

15) ( J

K ) (L M )

16) A ( B CD)

17) ABC

ABC

18) A B C

D)

ABC D

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1)

Apply DeMorgans Laws to simplify the following expression. In your final answer, over bars should not extend over more than one variable and there should be no more than one over bar over a variable:
ABC DE

a) ABC ( D E ) b) ABCD E c) A( BCD E ) d) ABC ( D

E)

e) None of the above 2) The above digital logic circuit represents _____ logic expression
A B C D

a) b) c) d) e) 3)

AB+C+D AB+AC AB+D AB+CD None of the above

The above digital logic circuit represents _____ logic expression

A B C D

a) AB CDE b) c)
( A B) (C D) AB (CD)

d) AB CD e) None of the above 4) The above digital logic circuit represents ______ logic expression.
A B

a) A B C b) AB C c) A B C d) A B C e) None of the above

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Sensors/Transducers
Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another (broad definition). Transducer is a device that converts any form of energy into electrical energy (narrow definition). Sensor is a device comprising a transducer and signal conditioning circuitry. Types of Transducers: 1. Analog (e.g. potentiometer) Discrete (e.g. switch, optical encoder) A number represents value of measured variable Resistive Capacitive Inductive Photo- voltaic Piezoelectric Seaback Effect Hall Effect. 3. Depending on the proximity to the measured quantity transducers can be

2. Depending on the type of the output variable transducers can be classified as:

classified as: Contact, or Non-contact.

4. Depending on the type of the measured quantity transducers can be classified as: Light transducers: photo resistor photo cell (photo- voltaic cell) photo diode (PIN, Avalanche) photo transistor sensor array CCD (charged couple device) 22

Heat transduce rs: thermistor (NTC: negative temperature coefficient) thermocouple (uses Seaback effect) RTD (Resistance temperature detector): wire

Rt

Ro

t and R

l S

bimetallic switch

Motion transducers: potentiometer limit switch optical encoder tachometer Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) ultrasonic range sensor Force trans ducers: strain gage piezoelectric transducer (also measures acceleration, pressure) Magnetic field transducers : Hall effect sensor Che mical sensors Biosensors

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Practical Considerations when Using Sensors and Logic Gates Interfacing Sensors to TTL Devices
Example: Design and implement a digital logic controller to perform the following: 1. When the START switch is made a green LED will turn on - indicating normal operation of a machine. 2. When the STOP switch is made a red LED will turn on and the green LED will turn off - indicating that the machine is stopped. 3. When a hand is placed above the circuit, the red LED will turn on and the green LED will turn off - again, indicating that the machine is stopped. 4. When the thermistor is heated the red LED will turn on and the green LED will turn off - again, indicating that the machine is stopped.

1. Photo-resistor:
RL

Figure 16. Photo-resistor

R f (light intensity)

As light intensity increases

Resistance decreases

Goal : When there is no light the output should be high.

+5V 5V Vin R1

Pull-up Resistor (Potentiometer) Out to TTL RL Vout

Figure 17. Vin and VOUT of photo-resistor

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Vout RL Vout
RL high implies no light

Vin R1 RL Vin RL R1 RL

Vout is high when a hand is waved over the sensor.

2. Thermistor

R TH

Figure 18. Thermistor RT H = f (temperature) When Temperature increases RT H decreases ( t NTC: Negative Temperature Coefficient
+5V RTH Vin R1 Vout

RTH

Figure 19. Vin and VOUT of thermistor

R1 Vin R1 RTH Vout increases RT H decreases Vout

As temperature increases

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Using Gates
+5V ( if input is not used) A. B A B

Figure 20. Using a 3-input AND gate with two inputs

A + B

A B

Figure 21. Using a 3-input OR gate with two inputs

A B C AB ABC

Figure 22. Using 2-input AND gates with a 3-input expression

A+B A+B+C C

A B

Figure 23. Using 2-input OR gates with a 3-input expression

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Examples
Material Covered 1. Obtaining a truth table from word specifications 2. Truth table to Boolean expression 3. Proofs of identities by truth tables and Boolean algebra 4. Simplification of Boolean expressions 5. Digital logic circuits to Boolean expressions 6. Boolean expressions to digital logic circuits 7. Combinations of the above Example 1. Design a digital control circuit for an automated soft drink dispenser. When the dispenser is turned ON, and a drink selected (COKE or PEPSI) one of the two drinks (COKE-OUT or PEPSI-OUT) will be poured in a glass until the glass is FULL.
ON COKE PEPSI FULL COKE-OUT

PEPSI-OUT

Figure 24. Digital control circuit solution for Example 1

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Example 2. Simplify X XABCD X B X BCD X Solution: In the above expression , so the whole expression is equal to 1.

Example 3. Derive a Boolean expression corresponding to the digital logic circuit below. (Do not simplify.)

A B C D E F
Figure 25. Digital logic circuit for Example 3 Solution: Example 4. Prove using a truth table A( B C) BC A BC

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Example 5. Build A B CD ( E
F)A Y

A B C D E F

A B
CD

AB Y
EF

(E F)A

(E F)A

Figure 26. Solution for Example 5

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Problems
Simplification of expressions 1. Simplify X XABCD X BC

X BCD

X XEFG .

2. Simplify ABCDEFGHAY XY( A B) XY ( A B) X Y . 3. Simplify LMN MNL B( B C) C L LC . 4. Simplify LMN MNL B(BD C) C L LCD . 5. Simplify X
XABCD X BC X BCDE XX EFG .
XY .

6. Simplify ABCDE F GHB Y

XY ( A B )

XY ( A B )

Getting Boolean expressions from circuits 1. Derive a Boolean expression corresponding to the digital logic circuit below. (Do not simplify.)

A B C D E F
Figure 27. Digital logic circuit for Problem 1

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2. Derive a Boolean expression corresponding to the digital logic circuit below.(Do not simplify.)

A B C D E F
Figure 28. Digital logic circuit for Problem 2 Designing a digital control circuit 1. Design a digital control circuit for a two-door car warning system. When a key is in the ignition (input KI), and one of the doors is open (left door = LD, right door = RD) a door ajar (DA) LED will light and a sound warning (S) will activate. Also, if the left door is open and the car lights are left on (LO) only the sound warning will activate regardless of the position of the ignition key. 2. Design a digital control circuit with five inputs (A, B, C, D and E) and two outputs (X and Y). Draw a truth table, simplify expressions and draw the final digital logic circuit. When A is true and any one of the other inputs is true both outputs are true. Also, if B and C are true or D and C are true output Y will be true regardless of the input A. 3. Design a digital control circuit to operate an AGV. Draw a truth table, simplify expressions and draw the final digital logic circuit. The AGV controls consist of FINISH switch F, START switch S, an ultrasonic proximity sensor P, a touch sensor T, a green light G, a red warning light R and a motor M. Operation of the AGV is as follows. While S is OFF all the outputs are OFF. During normal operation, when S is switched ON the green light turns ON and the motor turns ON moving the AGV along its prescribed path. When FINISH switch is turned ON the green light turns OFF, motor stops (OFF) and the red light turns ON regardless of the sensors. FINISH switch has no effect on the outputs when START switch is OFF.

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While traveling (S is ON and F is OFF) if an obstacle triggers the proximity sensor P (ON) the green light turns OFF and the red light turns ON. The vehicle keeps moving. Furthermore, if an obstacle triggers the touch se nsor (T is ON) or triggers both sensors (the proximity and the touch sensor) the green light turns OFF, the red light turns ON and the motor stops (turns OFF).

Proof using truth table 1. Prove using a truth table C( AB AB) BC C 2. Prove using a truth table C( AB AB) BCD C

Building digital logic circuits 1. Build A B CD ( E F ) A Y . Do not simplify. 2. Build A

B CD ( E F)A G Y . Do not simplify.

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3. Relays and PLC s

Relays consist of two systems: 1. Actuator (input) often labeled CR (coil of relay) and 2. Contacts (output): NO = normally open and NC = normally closed. When the coil of a relay is energized the contacts are made. Schematics show relays in their de-energized state when there is no power applied to the coil.

Types of Relays
DC (direct current) Relay: input (DC current); output (AC/DC current) AC (Alternating current) Relay: input (AC/DC); output (AC/DC) In an AC relay, shaded pole is a conducting ring that creates a magnetic field that lags the applied flux which prohibits collapse of flux across the gap. Reed Relay (Reed Switch): input (external magnetic field); contacts comprise two ferromagnetic non-touching overlapping strips enclosed in a hermetically sealed glass bubble. Time Delay Relay (Timing Relay) includes an adjustable timer with a function to delay the relays action. There are two types: 1. On delay : When the coil is energized there is a delay before the armature is pulled and contacts made, and 2. Off delay : Contacts are made for the duration of the delay, and then they are returned to their normal state. Contactor is a relay used in power circuits for controlling currents over 40 Amperes.

Relay Characteristics:
Pull-in voltage/current is the required amount of voltage/current applied to the relays actuator to create magnetic field strong enough to pull armature down to close the gap. Drop-out voltage/curre nt is the amount remaining in the actuator after the spring has overpowered the magnetic field and pulled the armature back. Maximum voltage/curre nt is the maximum voltage/current that can be controlled.

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Switches:
Switches are often used as discrete inputs to the automatic control systems. Switch Types 1. Momentary s witch stays activated (made) only while the pressure is applied on the switch activating mechanism (lever, push button, etc.). We will assume momentary switches for all the examples unless specifically stated otherwise. 2. Push-ON Push-Off switches activate when the pressure is applied momentarily and stay activated until the pressure is applied again. 3. NO and NC switches have different starting configurations. 4. SPST (single pole single throw) switches connect/disconnect a single line. 5. SPDT (single pole double throw) switches connect/disconnect one line (connected to the switch pole) to two (2) other lines connected to the two throws. 6. DPDT (double pole double throw) switches act as two SPST switches except that only a single switch activating mechanism is used. Various relays, switches and outputs are used in high power fixed automation assemblies. Relays and switches are used to control high power outputs. Ladde r logic presents a parallel circuit consisting of inputs and outputs. The power lines are rails and the parallel branches are rungs.

LADER LOGIC

RUNG RAILS + HOT GROUND VERTICAL LADDER LOGIC

Figure 29. Ladder logic example

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PB-A AND CR1-1

PB-B CR1 RL

Figure 30. AND gate equivalent circuit

PB-A OR PB-B CR1 RL

CR1-1

Figure 31. OR gate equivalent circuit Ladder Logic Examples ON-controlling:

ON CR1 OFF CR1-1

CR1-2 L

Figure 32. ON-Controlling ladder logic OFF-controlling:

ON OFF CR1 CR1-1 CR1-2 L

Figure 33. OFF- Controlling ladder logic

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An Alarm Example
Design a physical ladder logic circuit for an alarm system described below: Let PS-1 represent a pressure switch, CR1 a silencing relay, H a horn and R a red warning light. When the pressure switch is triggered, the horn sounds an alarm and the red warning light turns on. When RESET switch is made, the silencing coil CR1 locks in turning off the horn. The red warning light turns off when pressure switch is deactivated

PS-1

CR1-1

HORN

R RESET CR1

CR1-2
Figure 34. Alarm example physical ladder logic

PS-1

CR1-1

HORN

R RESET CR1 CR1-2

Figure 35. Improved alarm example physical ladder logic

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Relay Contacts Symbology

The symbols in a Ladder Logic Diagram show switches and contacts in their INACTIVE ( or NOT ACTIVE ) state. As shown below, NORMALLY OPEN contacts are usually drawn with a gap of some sort in the symbol. NORMALLY CLOSED contacts are drawn with this gap closed by a diagonal line for Relay Contacts, or a wiper in the case of a switch. Table 1. Relay Symbols CONTACT SYMBOLOGY NORMALLY OPEN NORMALLY CLOSED

DEVICE TYPE
PUSH BUTTON (PB) LIMIT SWITCH (LS) TEMPERATURE SWITCH (TAS) FLOW SWITCH (FLS) LEVEL SWITCH (FS) CONTROL SWITCH (CR) LATCHING RELAY (CRL) COUNTER (CTR) TIME DELAY RELAY (TR) DELAY BEGINS WHEN COIL IS ENERGIZED DELAY BEGINS WHEN COIL IS DE-ENERGIZED

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Table 2. Switch symbols used in ladder logic diagrams

N C N O
P u s h b u tto ns w itc h

N C N O
T oggle switch

L im it sw itc h ;N O

L im it s w itc h ;N C

Pilot light

N O T C
T im ed e la yo nc lo s in g N O T C

N C T O
T i m ed e l a y o n o p e n i n g N C T O

A
Flow sw itch; close on increase in flow
Flow sw itch; open on increase in flow

Push-to-test pilot light

Pressure switch; close on increase in pressure

Pressure switch; open on increase in pressure

Three-pole disconnect with ganged handle

R

F u s e
L iq u idle v e ls w itc h ; c lo s eo nris in gle v e l;

R e s i s t o r

L iq u idle v e ls w itc h ; o p e no nris in gle v e l;

C i r c u i t b r e a k e r
T h e r m a lo v e r lo a d p r o te c to r

T h e r m a ls w i t c h ; c l o s eo n r i s i n g t e m p ;
M

T h e r m a ls w i t c h ; o p e n o n r i s i n g t e m p
M

Heater element

M otor; 1-phase

M o to r; 3 -ph ase

R e l a yo r c o n t a c t o rc o i l

M a g n e t i c o v e r l o a d N O r e l a yN C r e l a y p r o t e c t o r ( S o l e n i o d )

38

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

PLCs are microprocessor-based programmable controllers used to replace and enhance relay-based controllers. They use PLC ladder logic or higher- level languages. Major producers: Allen-Bradley (We have SLC 100, SLC 150, and MicroLogix 1000.) Gould-Modicon Mitsubishi General Electric and Fanuc (We have Series One GE PLC running our conveyor belt.) PLC ladder logic deals with logical continuity not electrical. Contacts are called: Examine ON: check address and if 0 = false, 1 = true like NO in physical ladder logic Examine OFF: 0 = true, 1 = false like NC in physical ladder logic Specifications for SLC 100 and SLC 150 PLCs are adopted from Allen Bradley Users Manual [3], and specifications for MicroLogix 1000 are adopted from Allan Bradleys Installation Instructions: MicroLogix 1000 Programmable Controllers .

Some Programming Features for SLC 100 and SLC 150

External s witch inputs : For normally intended functions of the switches, both NO and NC physical switches are programmed as NO contacts in the PLC ladder logic. Outputs: The program will only allow one output per rung. Program Scan: The program scan is about 15 ms. PLC cycle: the I/O scan is performed first and the program scan is performed next. Table 3. I/O table for SLC 100 I/O Physical Inputs Physical Outputs Internal Relay-type Instructions Timer, Counter, Sequencer, Reset and Shift Register functions

PLC Address 1 ~ 10 11 ~ 16 701 ~ 866 901 ~ 932, 951 ~ 982

39

Laboratory Example: In a single polishing operation a polishing tool is moving via a lead screw between two limit switches. Design a SLC 100 PLC ladder logic diagram to accomplish this task given I/O addresses below. Table 4. I/O assignments for the polishing tool START (NO toggle) Left Limit Switch (NO) LLS Right Limit Switch (NO) RLS Motor Control Forward MF Motor Control Reverse MR Internal Relay
START

1 3 4 12 11 701

001

701

012

MF

RLS: RIGHT LIMIT SWITCH

START

001

RLS 004

LLS 003

LLS: LEFT LIMIT SWITCH 701 MF: MOTOR FORWARD (RIGHT) MR: MOTOR REVERSE (LEFT)

701

START

001

701

MR 11

Figure 36. SLC 100 PLC ladder logic for the polishing tool

40

MCR = master control reset (acts like parenthesis) -(MCR)START 1 MCR 701 MF 012

LLS 3

701

701

701

MR 11

MCR

Figure 37. PLC ladder logic polishing tool example: using an MCR ZCL = zone control last state -(ZCL)When ZCL is false the outputs remain in their last state

1
1 4 70 1 1 70 1

2 3

Z C L 7 01

1 1

Z C L
Figure 38. ZCL example Latches: -(L)- Once ON (true) it can be turned off (False, unlatched) only by a separate (U)- rung and a matching output unlatch instruction

41

Timers
Retentive Timer ON-Delay -(RTO)When the accumulator value (AC) reaches the preset value (PR) the associated timer contacts (status bit) are made. The status bit has the same address as the RTO. The timer continues with timing. To stop the timer, the Reset instruction (RST)- must be used with the same address as the timer. A Reset Accumulated value (RAC) is usually set to 0000. The timer function is retentive, thus the loss of power will not clear the current accumulator value. When the power is restored the timer will continue counting from the automatically stored accumulator value. Address: 901 ~ 932. Time base: 0.1 second. Range 0.001 to 999.9 seconds. When programming the delay, since there is no decimal point, the numbers represent tenths of seconds (e.g. PR 0400 = 40 seconds). See examples 1 and 2 in Figure 51 and Figure 52.

42

Counters
-(CTU)- Count up -(CTD)- Count down Address: 901 ~ 932. Range 1 to 9999. Counter instruction counts successive False to True transitions. Since it is a retentive instruction -(RST)- is required to reset it. Address + 50 is reserved for overflow/underflow bits Example :
1 901

CTU
PR 9000 2 901

CTD
PR 9000 901 951 15 ON when CTU reaches 9000 OFF when overflows above 9999 3 901

RST
951 16 ON when counter overflows

Figure 39. PLC using counters

43

Table 5. Various PLC internal instructions and their address space Addresses Inte rnal Instruction Relay Type Instructions SLC 150 Programmable Controller 701 thru 863 plus two addresses of each I/O address block (Page 3) 901 thru 932 and 951 thru 982 901 thru 904 and 951 thru 954 (SQO instructions) 869 thru 873 874,875 100 864 865 866 867 868 876 SLC 100 Programmable Controller 701 thru 866 plus two addresses of each I/O address block (Page 3) 901 thru 932 and 951 thru 982 Not applicable 869 thru 873 874,875 100 Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable 867 868 876

Timer, Counter, Sequencer, and Reset HSI Counter Fine Time Base Long Time Base Breakpoint Programmable EEPROM Auto-Load Battery Status Triac Zero-Cross Turn-On Enable TCAT Power-Up Program Initialization Auto/Man Switch MCR and ZCL Shift Register

Addresses are not required Combines Relay Type, ZCL, and Sequencer instructions Note that these instructions apply to the SLC 150 only, although the addresses apply to instructions used in the SLC 100 as well (relay type, timer, counter, sequencer). You must be cautious when interchanging programs between the SLC 150 and SLC 100 CAUTION: Interchanging programs between controllers could ca use improper operation and damage equipment. You must be especially cautious when interchanging programs between SLC 150 and SLC 100 controllers, because of difference associated with certain internal addresses and other variations.

44

I/O Addresses I/O addresses are used in a program to represent the input and output circuits connected to the processor unit and I/O expansion units. There are 112 I/O addresses. These are divided into 7 address blocks (10 input addresses and 6 output addresses per block). The SLC 150 processor unit, having 32 I/O s, uses blocks 1 and 2. The SLC 100 processor unit, having 16 I/O s , uses block 1. One can connect various combinations of SLC 150 and SLC 100 I/O expansion units to your processor unit. Assigning addresses is simple, once there is an understanding of how processor address blocks are allocated. Table 4 identifies the address blocks and summarizes the address block requirements for the various processor and expansion units. Seven address blocks are identified.

Table 6. I/O Address Blocks Input Output Addresses (10) Addresses(6) 1-10 11-16 101-110 111-116 201-210 211-216 301-310 311-316 401-410 411-416 501-510 511-516 601-610 611-616

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

45

Table 7. Address block requirements for the various processor and expansion units ADDRESS BLOCKS REQUIRED FOR PROCESSOR AND EXPANSION UNITS Type of Unit
SLC 150 Processor Unit SLC 150 Expansion Unit SLC 150 High Speed Input Module SLC 100 Basic Expansion Unit SLC 100 Relay Output Expansion Unit SLC 100 Relay Output Expansion Unit SLC 100 Analog In/out Expansion Unit

I/O
20/12 20/12 1/0 10/6 10/6 0/12

Address Blocks Required

2 2 None 1 1 2

Addresses Used
Block 1 and 2 addresses are used. Inputs: 1-10, 101-110. Outputs: 11-16, 11-116 All addresses of 2 consecutive blocks are used An internal SQO address is associated with the HSI module Block 1 addresses are used. Inputs: 1-10. Outputs: 11-16 All addresses of the block are used. Output addresses of 2 consecutive blocks are used. Input addresses of the 2 blocks are bypassed. Upper two input addresses(9, 10) are bypassed. All output addresses of the block are bypassed.

8/0

Connection Example . The following example indicate how you might interconnect expansion units with an SLC 150 processor unit and an SLC 100 processor unit. Note that example 1 includes an HSI module. All input and output addresses of all 7 address blocks are used. The configuration provides 112 I/O s (70 inputs, 42 outputs). It also provides one high speed input circuit.

SLC 150 Processor 20/12 I/O Block 1,2

SLC 150 HIS Module None

SLC 150 Expansion 20/12 I/O Block 3,4

SLC 150 Expansion 20/12 I/O Block 5,6

SLC 100 Basic 10/6 I/O Block 7

Figure 40. PLC connection example

46

RTO and RTF Timer Characteristics

Timer instructions include the Retentive Timer On-Delay -(RTO)- and the Retentive Timer Off-Delay (RTF)-. Both require the use of the Reset instruction (RST)-. Timer instructions are represented by the following symbols:

901 -(RTO)PR 400.0

901 -(RTF)PR 400.0

Address: 901-932. Time base: 0.1 second. Range: 000.1 to 999.9 seconds. Time rs with long or fine time base. Special instructions can be used for time delays beyond 999.9 seconds and for timers with greater resolution than 0.1 second.

AC, PR and RAC Values The timer instruction functions as an internal clock, counting 0.1 second intervals. The number of intervals counted is called the Accumulated value (AC). Counting takes place under these TRUE/FALSE rung conditions: Table 8. RTO and RTF timer conditions
RTO Timer Conditions
TRUE Timer is counting FALS E TRUE Counting Counting stops. AC resumes value retained. AC value represents the cumulative time during which rung is TRUE.

RTF Time r Conditions

TRUE FALS E Counting Counting stops. AC resumes value retained. AC value represents the cumulative time during which rung is FALSE. FALS E Timer is counting

The clock figure below represents the AC value. The time delay is set by programming a Preset value (PR). In this case, the PR value is set at 400.0 seconds. The figure also shows a Reset Accumulated value (RAC) at 0000. This is automatically set when the reset instruction is programmed. In most cases, RAC is left at 0000, but it can be changed to any value up to 9999. If an RAC value is programmed, the time delay will equal PR minus RAC.

47

The programmer display does not show a decimal point for RAC values. Thus, if PR is programmed to 30.8 and RAC to 105, the time delay will be 30.8 minus 10.5=20.3 seconds.
RA C

9 8 7 6

A CV alue: 2 0000 to 999.9

3 5 4 PR set to 400.0

Figure 41. Clock figure representing AC values Status and Overflow Bits. instruction:
9 0 1 9 0 1

The timer status bit has the same address as the timer

Figure 42. Status Bits The RTO status bit is set ON when the AC value reaches the PR value. Examine ON instructions at the status bit address go TRUE; Examine OFF instructions go FALSE. The RTF status bit is set ON instantaneously when the RTF instruction goes TRUE, and is set to OFF when the AC value reaches the PR value. Examine ON instructions at the status bit address go FALSE; Examine OFF instructions go TRUE. The overflow bit is given the timer address plus 50. (901+50=951):
9 5 1 9 5 1

Figure 43. Overflow Bits The overflow bit is set to ON when the AC value overflows from 999.9 to 0000. Examine ON instructions at the overflow bit address go TRUE; Examine OFF instructions go FALSE. RTO and RTF status bits are not affected when the AC value overflows.

48

Reset Instruction The reset (RST) instruction is given the same address as the timer instruction:
9 0 1

R S T
R A C 0 0 0 0

Figure 44. Reset (RST) When the RST instruction goes TRUE, status bits and overflow bits are set to OFF, and the AC value is reset to the RAC value. The RST instruction must go FALSE again before the timer can resume counting.

Typical Timer Operation

The table below indicates how the status and overflow bits of timers change state as the AC value increments from 1) the reset state (AC=RAC), 2) up to and past the PR value, 3) beyond a value of 999.9 (overflow), and 4) back to the reset state. Table 9. Timer operation
S ta tu s B it 901 O v e r f l o w B it
RAC
R A C R A C R A C R A C

1.Timer Reset AC=RAC

2.RTO Rung TRUE or RTF Rung FALSE.AC Value increments

3.AC Value Overflows Beyond 999.9

4.RST Rung True.Timer Reset

RAC

901

(Examine ON Instructions) RTO Status Bit RTF Status Bit Overflow Bits

PR

P R

P R

P R

P R

PR

AC < PR OFF OFF OFF

AC < PR AC PR OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF

AC < PR ON OFF ON

AC

PR

AC < PR OFF OFF OFF

ON OFF ON

Powe r Down: the timer status is retentive. When you apply power after a power-down, the AC value and ON/OFF states of status and overflow bits will be the same as before the power-down. The status is also retained when going from the Run mode to another mode.

49

Ope ration after CPU Faults. Timer instructions and associated status bits and data values are reset to their initial conditions after a CPU fault is detected (error codes 1 thru 9, 26, and 51). Monitoring and Changing Data: PR and AC values can be monitored and changed in the Run and Test modes. The PR value can be protected from changes in the Run and Tests modes by using the UNPRT/PRT key.

50

Retentive Timer ON-Delay (RTO)

As pointed out on the RTO table, the AC value of the RTO timer increments when the RTO rung is TRUE. This is illustrated in the figure below, which shows an RTO timer ladder diagram and timing diagram. For illustrative purposes, both Examine ON and Examine OFF instructions are used at the timer status bit address, 901. These instructions are used to energize output 015 and deenergize output 016 when the AC value reaches the programmed PR value. The timing diagram illustrates the retentive nature of the timer. In effect, the timer measures the cumulative periods during which the timer rung (1) is TRUE. The AC value will continue to increment during TRUE rung periods as long as the reset rung (4) remains FALSE. On the count after 999.9 an overflow bit (not used here) is set ON and the AC value continues to increment from 0000. After the timer is reset and rung 1 goes TRUE again, the timing period will begin at AC=RAC. In most applications, the RAC value would be 0000. We chose a non- zero value for illustrative purposes.
001 Rung 1 901

RTO
PR xxx.x

901 Rung 2

RTO Timer Instruction

015

901 Rung 3

Status Bit Address

016

002 Rung 4

Reset Instruction

901

RST
RAC yyyy

Figure 45. Ladder Diagram

51

Figure 46. Timing Diagram Letters A to F at the bottom of the timing diagram indicate the following events: A. Rung 1 goes TRUE. The AC value increments, beginning at AC=RAC. Examine OFF instruction 901 in rung 3 is TRUE. B. Rung 1 goes FALSE. The AC value stops incrementing, but the existing value is retained. C. Rung 1 goes TRUE. The AC value continues to increment from the point it left off. D. The AC value has reached the PR value. Examine ON instruction 901 goes TRUE, making rung 2 TRUE. Examine OFF instruction 901 goes FALSE, making rung 3 FALSE. The AC value continues to increment. E. Rung 1 goes FALSE. The AC value stops incrementing, but the existing value is retained. Rung 2 remains TRUE. Rung 3 remains FALSE. F. Rung 4 goes TRUE. The AC value is reset to the programmed RAC value. Examine ON instruction 901 goes FALSE, making rung 2 FALSE. Examine OFF instruction 901 goes TRUE, making rung 3 TRUE.

52

While the RST instruction is TRUE, the timer is disabled. Timing can resume when rung 4 goes FALSE again.

Retentive Timer Off-Delay (RTF)

The essential difference between the RTO and RTF timers is that with the RTF timer, the AC value increments when the timer rung goes FALSE rather than TRUE. Figure 6.2 shows an RTF timer ladder diagram and the corresponding timing diagram. For illustrative purposes, both Examine ON and Examine OFF instructions are used at the timer status bit address, 901. these instructions are used to de-energize output 015 and energize output 016 when the AC value reaches the programmed PR value. Here again, the timing diagram illustrates the retentive nature of the timer. After rung 1 makes a TRUE-FALSE transition, the timer measures the cumulative periods during which rung 1 is FALSE. The AC value will continue to increment during FALSE rung periods as long as the reset rung (4) remains FALSE. On the count after 999.9, an overflow bit (not used here) is set ON and the AC value continues to increment from 0000.

53

001 Rung 1

901

RTF
PR xxx.x

901 Rung 2

RTF Timer Instruction

015

901 Rung 3

Status Bit Address

016

002 Rung 4

Reset Instruction

901

RST
RAC yyyy

Figure 47 . Ladder Diagram Letters A to G at the bottom of the timing diagram indicate the following events: A. The timer is reset, with AC=RAC. Rung 1 is FALSE. Examine ON instruction 901 in rung 2 is FALSE. Examine OFF instruction 901 in rung 3 is TRUE. B. Rung 1 goes TRUE. Instantaneously, Examine ON instruction 901 goes TRUEE and Examine OFF instruction 901 goes FALSE, making rung 2 TRUE and rung 3 FALSE. C. Rung 1 goes FALSE. The AC value begins to increment. D. Rung 1 goes TRUE. The AC value stops incrementing but the existing value is retained. E. Rung 1 goes FALSE. The AC value continues to increment from the point it left off. F. The AC value has reached the PR value. Examine On instruction 901 goes FALSE, making rung 2 False. Examine OFF instruction 901 goes TRUE, making rung 3 TRUE. The AC value continues to increment. G. Rung 4 goes TRUE. The AC value is reset to the RAC value. Not that this is the same situation as event A, with the Examine ON instruction 901 FALSE and the Examine OFF instruction 901 TRUE.

54

Figure 48. Timing diagram While RST instruction is TRUE, the timer is disabled. After the RST instruction goes FALSE and rung 1 makes a TRUE or FALSE transitio n, the timing period will begin at AC=RAC.

55

Timing Beyond 999.9 Seconds

Special instructions at addresses 874 and 875 have timer bases of 0.5 and 1.0 seconds, allowing you to program the equivalent of an RTO timer with time delays beyond 999.9 seconds. You can also use the instructions discussed in this chapter to obtain time delays beyond 999.9 seconds. An example is shown below, where the overflow bit of one RTO timer initiates a second RTO timer to produce an output at 1400 seconds. Timer 901 in rung 1 is used for the first part of the timing period and timer 902 in rung 2 is used for the last part. The Examine ON instruction 001 rung 1 is repeated in rung 2, so that if timing is interrupted during the last part of the timing period, the AC value will stop incrementing, preventing an output in rung 3.
001 Rung 1 901

RTO
PR 00000

Rung 2

Rung 3

002 Rung 4

901

RST
RAC 0000 002

RST
RAC 0000

Figure 49. Ladder Diagram

56

Letters A to E at the bottom of the timing diagram indicate the following events: A. Examine ON instruction 001 in rungs 1 and 2 go TRUE. Rung 1 goes TRUE. AC value of timer 901 increments from 0000. B. AC value of timer 901 overflows beyond 999.9, setting the overflow bit (address 951) ON. Examine ON instruction 951 in rung 2 goes TRUE, making rung 2 TRUE. AC value of timer 902 increments from 0000.1000 seconds has elapsed. C. AC value of timer 902 reaches programmed PR value of 400.0, setting the status bit (address 902) ON. Examine ON instruction 902 in rung 3 goes TRUE, making rung 3 TRUE. D. Instructions 001 in rungs 1 and 2 go FALSE, making rungs 1 and 2 FALSE. Rung 3 remains TRUE. E. Reset rungs 4 and 5 go TRUE. Examine ON instructions 902 and 951 go FALSE. AC values are reset to 0000. While the RST instructions are TRUE, the timer is disabled. Timing can resume when rungs 4 and 5 go FALSE again.

57

Figure 50. Timing Diagram

Programming an RTF Time r:

58

Table 8 can be easily converted to an RTF timer keystroke example. Just change the RTO instruction in the ladder diagram to an RTF instruction. Then, instead of pressing the (RTO)- key in rung 1, press the SHIFT key and the (RTF)- key.

Timer Keystroke Example. Program this basic RTO timer. After you have
programmed it, you may want to use the NEXT and LAST keys to review your work.

59

Table 10. Keystroke example Keystroke Example RTO Instruction 901 011 RTO
Rung 1 901 Rung 2 002 Rung 3 901
PR 300.0

011

RST
RAC 10

Press these keys

-] [1 -(RTO)9, 0, 1 ENTER 3,0,0,0 ENTER -] [9, 0, 1 -( )1, 1 ENTER -] [2 SHIFT

This LED will be lit (in addition to PROG)

-] [-] [-(RTO)-(RTO)-(RTO)-(RTO)-] [-] [-( )-( )-] [-] [-] [-

Display will show

Explanation Arbitrarily, we start with the display showing 885 words of memory( max for SLC 100)
Pro mpt for an address Address 001 is entered Pro mpt for an address Address 901 is entered Pro mpt for a preset (PR) value. PR value of 300.0 seconds is entered This completes rung 1 Pro mpt for an address Address 901 is entered Pro mpt for an address Address 011 is entered This completes rung 2 Pro mpt for an address Address 002 is entered The SHIFT key must be pressed before you press the (RST)- key. The dot to the right of the rung number indicates you have pressed the SHIFT key. Pro mpt for an address Address 901 is entered The display indicates that the RAC value is set to zero. You can override th is by entering an RAC value. The RA C value is specified as 10. for t imers, the actual RAC value is 0.1 of the value displayed( in this case it is 1.0, not 10). The time delay (PR-RA C) is set at 300.01.0=299.0 seconds End of program

Address data 885

---- 1 --90 1 ---300.0 883 --90 1 ---11 88 1 ---- 2 -- 2

Rung/Err Mode End

1 1 1 1 Pr Pr End 2 2 2 2 End 3 3 3

-(RST)9, 0, 1 ENTER

-(RST)-(RST)-(RST)-

--90 1 --- 0

3 3 AC

1, 0

-(RST)-

---1 0

AC

ENTER

878

End

60

Example 1: Design a PLC SLC/100 ladder logic to turn ON and OFF a light (output 11) at 0.5 second intervals. When run, the light will flash ON and OFF.
901 RTO PR 5 901 902 RTO PR 5 LIGHT 11

901

902

901 RST

902

902 RST

Figure 51. PLC ladder logic for example 1 Example 2: Design a traffic light: Red (output 11) 25 seconds, Green (output 13) 32 seconds and Yellow (output 12) 3 seconds.
901 RTO PR 250 902 RTO PR 320 903 RTO PR 30 RED 11 GREEN 13 YELLOW 12 901 RST 902 RST 903 RST

901

902

901

901

902

902 903 903 903

Make sure that self reseting function is the last in sequence

Figure 52. PLC ladder logic for example 2

61

MicroLogix 1000 Programmable Controllers

1761 L32BWA: Input: 24 VDC Output: Relay Power: 100/240 VAC

Figure 53 Physical dimensions for various types of MicroLogix 1000 programmable controllers

62

Figure 54 Sourcing and sinking for MicroLogix 1000 programmable controllers

63

Figure 55 General specifications for MicroLogix 1000 programmable controllers

RSLogix 500 Software package

64

4. Actuation
1. Pneumatic 2. Hydraulic 3. Electrical

Pneumatics
Pneumatics presents (linear) motion actuation by air power. Construction: 1. Cylinders: single acting vs. double acting

PISTON

PORTS
Figure 56. Double-acting cylinder symbol 2. Valves:

Figure 57. Two-position two-way valve symbol (not showing inner ways) number of compartments = number of positions Number of hoses = number of connections (ways) Examples: 2 position 2 connection

Figure 58. Two- position two- connection valve symbol

65

Figure 59. Two-position four-way valve symbol

Figure 60. Solenoid actuated three- position four-way valve symbol 3. FRL: filter regulator lubricator 4. air supply/source usually a compressor

Hydraulics
Hydraulics presents motion actuation by fluid power. Construction: 1. Hydraulic pump: one directional or bi-directional

Figure 61. One-directional hydraulic pump symbol 2. Tank

Figure 62. Hydraulic tank symbol

66

3. Accumulator (pressure storage device)

Figure 63. Accumulator symbol 4. Hydraulic motor

Figure 64. Bi-directional hydraulic motor symbol Table 11. Comparison of actuation types Hydraulics Electric Actuation
Advantages: Large lift capacity Moderate speed Accurate (joints can be held motionless) Precise control Advantages: Fast Accurate Sophisticated controls Available Inexpensive Easy to use Disadvantages: Need for gear trains Gear backlash limits precision Electric arcing Power limit

Pneumatics

Advantages: Low price High speed No workspace pollution Used in labs

Disadvantages: Accuracy limited by air co mpressibility Noisy Leakage of air Need for filtering system Maintenance and construction requirements

Disadvantages: Expensive Flu id pollution Noisy Not suitable for very high speed cycling

Schematics
Physical schematic includes pneumatics/hydraulics schematic and physical placement of switches and sensors. Electrical schematic includes electrical diagrams often ladder logic. A basic hydraulic system using standard symbols is presented in Figure 65.

67

Accumulator Pump

Flow-control valve

Filter

Pressurecontrol valve Cylinder

Tank

Figure 65. Basic hydraulic system A control valve / double-acting cylinder system is shown below. Figure 66 represents the system where the cylinder is not moving. In Figure 67 the piston of the cylinder is moving left, while Figure 68 shows the piston moving towards right.

Piston Return to tank (low pressure) Cylinder

Spool Valve body From pump (high pressure)

Figure 66. Spool centered

68

Return to tank

From pump
Figure 67. Spool to right

Return to tank

From pump
Figure 68. Spool to left

69

Examples
Example 1. Design a two- hand electrical safe circuit for the pneumatic punch press shown below.

LS A

B SOL B LS B

A SOL A

IN

3 WAY VALVE

SOL C

Figure 69. Hydraulic circuit for punch press

70

PB1 1 CR

1 CR A

PB2 2 CR

2 CR B 1 CR B

2 CR B

SOL C

LS A

SOL A SOL B LS B

Figure 70. Physical Ladder Logic for the punch press

71

Example 2.
Sw C OUT Roller Conveyor Sw B 2

IN Belt Conveyor

PACKAGE Sw A

SOL B

SOL B

SOL A

SOL A

Figure 71. Package station example OPERATION: 1. When package makes Sw A, cylinder 1 extends moving the package. 2. When Sw B is made cylinder 1 retracts and cylinder 2 extends (actuates) 3. When Sw C is made cylinder 2 retracts and the system is ready for next package. START Position: Cylinders 1 and 2 are retracted, and there are no packages in the system. Switch operation: Sw A o Fires SOL A o Package pushed (supply to blind end of cylinder 1) Sw B o Fires SOL B and SOL A o Supply to blind end of cylinder 2 Sw C o Fires SOL B

72

Example 3. Explain fully the operation of this circuit. Fix it, if needed.

Sw A

2 Sw B

SOL A

SOL A

SOL B

SOL B

M
SOL A SOL B Sw A SOL B SOL A Sw B

Figure 72. Crushing station example

73

Example 4. Explain the operation of the circuit below.

L1

PB 1

PB 2 OL1 OL2 OL3 M1 M1

TR1
5 secs

L2

T R1

M2
TR2
10 secs

TR2

M3

Figure 73. Motor system Note: OL1, OL2, OL3 are overloads for motors M1, M2, M3, respectively.

74

Example 5. Explain the operation of this circuit

PB 1

PB 2 CR1-1 CR1

CR1-2 CR 2 CR2-1 M1 M1-1 TR1 5 secs TR1-1 M2

Figure 74. Physical ladder logic example

75

Example 6. A company approached you to help them design an automatic bottle- filling station. You accepted the assignment. Here are the specs. Design a bottle- filling station that will perform as follows: a) When an empty bottle is placed on the conveyor belt, the conveyor motor (M1) will start. b) The bottle will move until it reaches the filling position. c) Then, the conveyor stops. d) The pre- fill tank is filled with liquid (pump B) until the high- level limit switch (HL) is made. e) Pump A is energized and the bottle is filled from the pre-fill tank. When the liquid level drops below the low- level limit switch (LL), pump A shuts off. f) After the bottle is filled and removed, another empty bottle is placed on the conveyor and the process repeats. Provide PLC SLC100 ladder logic diagram, I/O address mapping, and all necessary details and assumptions to fully clarify your design.

Tank HL LL Pump A Pump B Pre-fill tank

Ls1

Ls2

M1

Figure 75. Bottling station example

76

Assume the bottle does not pass LS2, but sits on it while filling. LS1: bottle placed at the beginning of the conveyor LS2: bottle in position M1: conveyor motor
START CR1-1 CR1-2 CR4-1 LS1

STOP CR1

CR2-1 M1

CR5-1 CR5 LS2 CR5-2 CR2 CR2-2 CR3-2 PUMP B

HL CR3 CR3-1 CR3-3 LL CR3-4 CR4 PUMP A

Figure 76. Ladder logic for bottling station

77

Example 7. Draw a physical ladder logic diagram for timing circuit, which turns on and off two outputs alternatively (like the left and the right lights of a police car). The period for each output is 1 second.

START CR1-1 CR1-2 TR1-1

STOP CR1

TR2-1

TR1 1 sec TR2 0.5 sec LL

TR2-2

RL

START CR1-1 CR1-2

STOP CR1

TR2-1 TR1-1 TR1-2

TR1 0.5 sec TR2 0.5 sec LL

TR1-3 RL

Figure 77. Physical ladder logic for example 6

78

Example 8. A conveyer belt shown below can run by a single motor in both directions. An object is placed initially at point A. when the START push button is pressed, the object is moved to the right forward and will continue to move until limit switch LS1 is activated. Then the direction will change to reverse and the object continues to move to the left until limit switch LS2 is activated. The object will change direction once more and the process is repeated. Limit switches LS1 and LS2 are normally closed. Design and draw the ladder logic diagram for this process. An emergency STOP switch should also be included in the system. Note: this scheme is used in applications with repetitive tasks such as pick and place operations by a robot arm.

Forward

LS2

LS1

Figure 78. Conveyor belt example

79

Example 9. The process to be controlled is shown in the figure below. A tank is used to mix two liquids. The control circuit operates as follows: A. When the start button is pressed, solenoids A and B energize. This permits the two liquids to begin filling the tank. B. When the tank is filled, the float switch trips. This de-energizes solenoids A and B and starts the motor used to mix the liquids together. C. The motor is permitted to run for one minute. After one minute has elapsed, the motor turns off and solenoid C energizes to drain the tank. D. When the tank is empty, the float switch deenergizes solenoid C. E. A stop button can be used to stop the process at any point. F. If the motor becomes overloaded, the action of the entire circuit will stop. G. Once the circuit has been energized it will continue to operate until it is manually stopped.

MOTOR A B

FS

Figure 79. Tank used to mix two liquids

80

STOP

START CR CR-1

OL

CR-2 TR-1 CR-3 TR-2

A B

M FS CR-4 TR-3 TR

60 sec C

Figure 80. Physical ladder logic for the tank example

81

Example 10. Prepare a physical and programmed ladder diagram for the control problem shown in Figure 81. The global objective is to heat a liquid to a specified temperature and keep it there for 30 minutes. The hardware has the following characteristics: 1. START push-button is NO, STOP is NC. 2. NO and NC are available for the limit switches. The event sequence is 1. Fill the tank 2. Heat and stir the liquid to the temperature point and hold for 30 minutes. 3. Empty the tank. 4. Repeat from step 1.

Stir VIN Start Stop LUP Temp LE VOUT

H
Figure 81. Tank system example

82

START STOP
CR1-1 CR1-2 LUP VOUT-1 CR1 VIN

SOL-VIN VIN-1 VIN-2 VOUT-2 CR1-5 TR1 CR1-3 VIN-3 TR1-1 LE VIN-4 TEMP H 1800 CR1-4

TR1-2

VOUT SOL-VOUT

Figure 82. Physical ladder logic for tank system example In Figure 82, H represents the heater and M represents the stir motor. Solution: the solution is provided by first constructing the physical ladder diagram. Once this is done, addresses are assigned to all the elements and the ladder diagram program is prepared. The figure below shows the six-rung physical ladder diagram. Rung 2 opens the input valve, provided the output valve is not open, until the full level is reached. When the full level is reached, rung 3 turns on the stir provided the output valve is not open. Rung 4 starts a 30- minute timer. The heater is controlled by rung 5. The rung is energized and deenergized as the temperature goes below and above the limit. When the timer times out, the rung is de-energized and rung 6 is energized to open the output valve. The output valve remains open until the empty limit switch opens. The output valve cannot be opened as long as the input valve is open.

83

START STOP
CR1-1 CR1-2 LUP VOUT-1 VIN CR1

VIN-1 VIN-2

VOUT-2 CR1-5

CR1-4 S TR1

CR1-3 VIN-3

TR1-1

TEMP

1800 H

TR1-2

LE

VIN-4

VOUT

Figure 83. Improved physical ladder logic for tank system example

84

Example 11. A part is placed on a conveyor, which is not moving. After the part is placed on the conveyor, the conveyor starts and the part moves. In the middle of the conveyor, the part moves through a three-foot area where it is painted. The part does not stop during the time it is being painted. When the part reaches the end of the conveyor stops and the part is removed. The process then starts all over again. Draw the relay logic necessary to accomplish this tank. Use limit switches to detect the presence or absence of the part. Solution:
START Conveyor M1 1M1

Weight 1

1S3

LS1 START paint 1S1

1S2

2M1 S1

LS2 STOP paint 2S1

S2 Paint solenoid S3

Weight 2

STOP Conveyor

Figure 84. Relay logic for conveyor example

85

Problems
Material covered: 1. Design a simple physical ladder logic 2. Design an automated system including a physical ladder logic and a physical layout (pneumatic/hydraulic or other mechanical system) 3. Design an automated system using PLC ladder logic 4. Combinations of the above Designing Physical and PLC Ladder Logic Diagrams 1. Design a physical ladder logic and a PLC SLC 100 ladder logic circuit to start and stop 3 motors in the following sequence: 1. After the START pushbutton is pressed the motor M1 starts. 2. The motor M2 starts 1 minute after the motor M1. 3. The motor M3 starts 2 minutes after the motor M2. 4. 5 minutes after M3 starts all three motors stop. There is also an emergency STOP button to stop all the motors at once if needed. In addition, if any of the three motors is to stall (overloads) all running motors will stop. After the STOP pushbutton is pressed, or an overload shut down, START must be pressed to restart the sequence. Explain your design. 2. In a paper mill 3 rollers are used. Each roller requires 2 motors (one on each side of the roller). When starting this part of the paper mill, the motors are powered in succession. The first roller with the first two motors start as soon as the START palmbutton is pressed. 10 seconds after that the second set of motors is started, and the 10 seconds after the second set, the third set of motors is started. The STOP button stops the process by stopping all of the motors at once. Furthermore, there is a weight switch (W-SW) that stops the whole system when the weight of the last roller reaches a set limit. Also, if any motor is overloaded, the whole system will shut down. Implement the ON-controlling method. Draw a physical ladder logic diagram and a PLC SLC 100 ladder logic diagram for this process. 3. In a tank- filling process four solenoid-actuated valves are used: three solenoids (SOLA, SOL-B, and SOL-C) fill the tank with three different liquids and one solenoid (SOL-D) empties the tank. The operation is timed. There are three inputs: START and STOP push buttons and an overflow (O) float switch. 1) When the START push-button is pressed the first liquid pours in by energizing SOL-A. 2) 10 seconds after that the second liquid (SOL-B) starts flowing while the first liquid stops, and 5 seconds after that SOL-C energizes while SOL-B de-energizes. 3) SOL-C is energized for 2 seconds. 4) Then the liquid stays in the tank for 2 minutes. 5) The tank is emptied by energizing SOL-D for 30 seconds.

86

6) When finished, the operation is reset waits for the START push-button to be pressed. 7) The STOP button stops the process by de-energizing all of the solenoids at once. 8) Also, if an overflow is detected, the whole system will shut down. 9) Implement the OFF-controlling method. Draw a physical ladder logic diagram (20 points) and a PLC SLC 100 ladder logic diagram (15 points) for this process. 4. Design a PLC SLC 100 ladder logic program to control two sets of traffic lights used in a typical intersection where one street (main street) is busier than the other (side street). The system starts as soon as the program is activated, and operates continuously until the program is deactivated. The intersection is equipped with four inductive non-contact sensors (use as NO switches in the PLC program). 1. Initially, the GREEN light of the main street (SN) and the RED light of the side street (EW) are ON. 2. When a vehicle on the side street triggers a sensor, the light sequence changes, providing that there are no vehicles triggering a sensor(s) on the main street. Then: a) For the main street, the YELLOW light turns ON for 3 seconds, and then the RED light turns ON for 10 seconds. b) During this period, the cars driving on the side street (EW) can go through the intersection (GREEN light ON for 7 seconds and YELLOW light on for 3 seconds). c) When finished, the system returns to the state described in step 1. Provide an I/O table, SLC 100 ladder logic diagram, and state any assumptions you made.

87

Draw a Pneumatic system and design Physical Ladder logic 1. Connect the pneumatics; draw the physical ladder logic, and a PLC SLC 100 ladder logic diagram for the system below. The system is to operate as follows: 1. When START push button is pressed cylinder 1 extends until the limit switch Sw-A is made. 2. Then, the cylinder 2 extends until the limit switch Sw-B is made. 3. After that, both cylinders retract. At the beginning, both of the cylinders are at their retracted positions. (HINT: you may use NO, NC or double-throw switches as you find fit.)
Cyl 1
Sw-A

Cyl 2
Sw-B

Sol A

Sol B

Sol C

Sol D

Figure 85. Pneumatic cylinder problem

88

2. Design an automatic paint and stamp manufacturing line consisting of one conveyor belt actuated by an electric motor, one paint valve (spring return) actuated by one solenoid (SOL A), one pneumatic cylinder for stamping operation controlled by one spring return valve actuated by one solenoid (SOL B), and various limit switches and relays. The line is to operate as follows: - A part to be painted is placed on the conveyor, which is not moving. - After the part is placed on the conveyor, the conveyor starts and the part moves. - Then, at the stamping station, the part stops and it is stamped before it is painted. - After stamping the part moves on. - In the middle of the conveyor, the part moves through a three- foot area where it is painted. The part does not stop during the time it is being painted. - When the part reaches the end of the conveyor, the conveyor stops and the part is removed. - The process then starts all over again. - If the finished part is not removed, the new part, when placed on the conveyor, will not move. Provide: a) The physical layout of the automated paint and stamp line showing the pneumatic circuit and indicating the placement of the switches and sensors used (label all the elements); b) The physical ladder logic diagram, c) The PLC SLC 100 ladder logic diagram, and d) An explanation of the operation sequence.

89

3. Connect the pneumatics and draw the physical ladder logic for the system below. The system is to operate as follows: 1. When START push button is pressed cylinder 1 (Cyl 1) extends until limit switch Sw-A is made. 2. Then, the cylinder 3 (Cyl 3) extends until switch Sw-C is made. 3. When Sw-C is made cylinder 2 (Cyl 2) extends until switch Sw-B is made. 4. After that, all cylinders retract. 5. If Sw-B is not made within 10 seconds from the time Sw-C is made, the three cylinders will retract and an alarm will sound. Use a RESET push button to reset the alarm. When finished, the operation can be started again by pressing START push button. At the beginning all of the cylinders are at their retracted positions. (HINT: you may use NO, NC or double-throw switches, relays, time delay relays etc. as you find fit.)
Cyl 1
Sw-A

Cyl 2
Sw-B

Cyl 3
Sw-C

Sol A

Sol B

Sol C

Sol D

Sol E

Sol F

Figure 86. Pneumatic cylinder problem

90

4. As shown below, a cubic part is to be moved between 4 stations in succession (A, B, C, and D). At each station there is a sensor activated by the part. Design a pneumatic circuit (show cylinders, valves, and pneumatic connections), and draw the physical ladder logic for the above system. The system is to operate as follows: 1. When a part is placed at the first station it activates Sw-A. 2. After a 5 second delay the part is pushed to the next station where it remains for five seconds. The process repeats and the part traces a square path until an emergency STOP pushbutton is pressed retracting all the cylinders. At the beginning all of the cylinders are at their retracted positions, and a part is not present at the first location. (HINT: you may use various cylinders, valves, NO, NC or double-throw switches, relays, time delay relays etc. as you find fit.)

Sw-A

Sw-B

Sw-D

Sw-C

Figure 87. Cubic part problem

91

5. Design an automatic aluminum can crusher consisting of one pneumatic cylinder, one 2 position 4 way valve actuated by two solenoids, A and B, an enclosed box with a door in which to place the can, and various limit switches and relays. The can crusher is to operate as follows: - The box door is opened and a can placed inside. - After the door is closed, the system waits for 0.5 seconds, - then, the rod of the cylinder comes down and crushes the can. - After the can is crushed, the rod of the cylinder retracts, and the crushed can can be removed. If the door of the box is opened at any time, the can crusher will stop. If an operator inserts a steel can, the cylinder will not be able to crush the can and it will sound an alarm after 1 second. The alarm is reset by opening the door. If a can is not present, the cylinder will not advance. Further improvements to this design are left to you. Explain and implement them for extra credit. Provide: a) The physical layout of the can crusher, showing the pneumatic circuit and indicating where the switches are; b) the physical ladder logic diagram; and c) an explanation of the operation of the can crusher.

92

5. Robotics
1954: Cyril Kenward (UK) introduced a first robot. 1957: First robotic patent was issued. 1961: George Devol introduced robots in the U.S. 1962: Unimation the first robotics company was created. Today: Robot manufacture and sales in the U.S. is approximately $1,000,000,000.00. Industrial robot is a general purpose, programmable manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or specialized devices through various programmable motions in the performance of a variety of tasks. Applications: In hazardous areas For uncomfortable tasks For repetitive tasks Reasons to use robots: Robots can substitute human labor Robots are more consistent Robots can be easily reprogrammed Robots can achieve CIM

Robot Configurations
Joint (axis) provides relative motion between two parts of the robot body (links). Degree-of-freedom (DOF) represents motion around / along a single axis. Links are rigid components of a robot manipulator. There are five types of joints: Translational :
Joint motion Joint motion

Input link

Output link

Input link Output link

L: Linear joint

O: Orthogonal joint

93

Rotational:
Output link Joint motion Joint motion Input link Output link Input link

Joint motion

Output link Input link

R: Rotational joint Body and -Arm Configurations:

T: Twisting joint

V: revolving joint

Figure 88. Polar coordinate body-and-arm assembly (TRL)

Figure 89. Cylindrical body-and-arm assembly (TLO)

94

Figure 90. Cartesian coordinate body-and-arm assembly

Figure 91. Jointed-arm body-and-arm assembly

95

Figure 92. SCARA body-and-arm assembly WRIST CONFIGURATIONS: If two DOF then roll and pitch: TR If three DOF then roll, pitch and yaw: TRR (T= twist => roll, R = rotational => pitch, R = rotational => yaw)

Figure 93. Typical configuration of a three-degree-of-freedom wrist assembly Joint notation system: Body-and-arm: wrist Example: TRL: TR

96

Work envelope (work volume) is the space within which the robot can manipulate the end of its wrist. Speed represents absolute velocity of the end-of-arm. For large robots typical value is about 2 m/s. Stability represents the amount of the robots overshoot and oscillations. Capacity (load) represents the maximum object weight the robot can manipulate (range: 1 Kg to 900 Kg). End effector is the device attached to the robots wrist. - grippers and - tools (e.g. welding torch) Robotic Control System Classification Limited sequence control is implemented with limit switches and/or mechanical stops. It is the simplest type of control used with pneumatics pick-and-place robots. Playback with point-to-point control includes a controller with memory used to record the sequence of motions, locations, etc. Playback with continuous path control is capable of controlling the position and speed of all joints. Linear and /or circular interpolation between points is possible. Implementation is often performed through servo-control with feedback. Intelligent control gives the appearance of robot intelligence. The robot can Interact with its environment, Make decisions when errors occur, Make computations during the motion cycle, and Respond to advanced sensory inputs.

Typical Robot Applications:

Material handling: 1. Material transfer from one conveyor to another 2. Pick-and-place 3. Palletizing 4. Stacking 5. Machine loading/unloading Spot welding (auto industry) Continuous arc welding Spray coating (spray painting) Cutting (water jet, laser jet) Machining Assembly (mixed lines) Inspection

97

Programming
Program defines a path in space to be followed by the manipulator and combined with actions supporting the work cycle. Types: Leadthrough: 1. Powered leadthrough uses a teach pendant/joystick. It is usually used with point-to-point robots. 2. Manual leadthrough allows an operator to physically grasp the tool and move it through the desired sequence. It is usually used with continuous path robots. Textual Programming Language 1. Uses analog/digital I/Os 2. Can control external equipment 3. Can communicate with other systems 4. Uses logic beyond the leadthrough methods 5. Performs computations and processing similar to computer languages. Simulation and Off-line Programming 1. Programs can be prepared at a remote computer. 2. Uses graphical simulations (ex. 3D model of a robotic cell)

CSU-Pueblo CIM Laboratory Manipulators

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Rhino XR-3 Motoman K3S AdeptOne SCARA Movemaster M2 Serpent 2 CRS plus M1

98

Robot Coordinate Systems

The discussion on notation for representing positions and velocities in Cartesian space follows the discussion in Snyder [4].

Position and Orientation

To perform the full range of manipulation tasks, a robot must not only be able to reach any point in its working space, it must be able to reach that point at any arbitrary orientation. For example, to thread a bolt, the robot must not only grasp the bolt, it must also hold the bolt in a controlled orientation (Figure 94). The three variables <x, y, z> (or < , , r> Or other) that define the position of the hand are not adequate to also describe the orientation of the hand. Three more variables will be required. These are usually rotary variables and are most often referred to as roll, pitch, and yaw. To understand the meaning of these terms, hold your arm out, with wrist unbent and fingers straight. Now rotate your hand from palm down to palm up, while keeping the fingers pointed in the same direction. This motion is roll. Next, keep the forearm straight, and without rolling the wrist, move the direction of the hand from straight out to down and back to up (wave). That motion is pitch. Finally, with the fingers once again pointed straight out, and with no roll or pitch, point the fingers as far right as possible (about 45 degrees for the right hand for the average human wrist) and then as far left as possible. The final motion is yaw.
Z

ROLL

PITCH YAW

Figure 94. Controlled orientation

99

These independent motions are referred to as degrees of freedom , and six are required to reach an arbitrary point at an arbitrary orientation. The human arm has exactly six, two in the shoulder, one in the elbow, and three in the wrist. Consequently, even without moving the torso, people can point their hands in any direction, at any point. One comment needs to be made with regard to the statement that six degrees of freedom provide complete flexibility. Its true only if complete freedom of motion is available for each joint. In general, this is not the case. For example, the yaw capability of the human wrist is only about 60 degrees. Hence there are some orientation/position combinations that are impossible for humans. The same will be true for robots. Six degrees of freedom required six actuators, and these are generally independent motors. However, because a robot has six motors does not mean that it has six degrees of freedom. For example, finger open/close is not considered a degree of freedom since it does not help position the robot. In this chapter, we will examine a method for representing position and orientation of a point in space and relate that representation to robot motions.

Coordinate Systems Relative Frames

Consider the problem of robot holding a part for insertion into several numerically controlled machines for various operations such as drilling and grinding. The robot first grasps the part in a specified way and inserts it into the first machine. After the machining operation, the robot grasps the part in a different way and inserts it into the second machine. The problem is how to specify exactly those two gripping positions. We might say, Grasp the part at a point 10 inches from the end for the first operation and 15 inches from the end for the second . That is, we are specifying the grasp position relative to a coordinate system defined on the part. In the following discussions, we will frequently use the word configuration. In using configuration, we mean both the three-dimensional position and the orientation. Hence, six numbers are required to specify a configuration.

100

The grasp points are specified relative to a coordinate system defined on the part. But the location of the part itself (and, hence, its coordinate system) is a variable, known at any instant in time relative to some other coordinate system. Thus, we must learn how to solve the following problem: Problem: Given a location, A, which is known in a coordinate system, B, and given that the location of the coordinate system B is known in another coordinate system C, find the location of the point A as measured in coordinate system C (Figure 95)

ZB A B XB YB

YC

Figure 95. Coordinate system B is displaced and rotated from system C. A is known in B. Where is A in C? Solution: To see this most clearly, let us temporarily ignore the complication due to rotation and consider only displacements. In this case, the coordinate axes of B are parallel to C, and A becomes a single point. Thus, A may be described by a vector
A
B

xA ,

yA,

zA

(1)

The superscript on the left is used to denote that this variable is measured with respect to the coordinate system named B. furthermore, the origin of coordinate system B is known relative to C:
B
C

xB ,

yB ,

zB

(2)

101

(The transpose notation is used since these vectors should be written as column vectors, but for typographical convenience, we use row vector notation.) Then A, relative to C, is
C

A
C

B
B

(3)
xA ,
C

xB

yB

yA,

zB

zA

(4)

Thus, vector addition provides the solution to such problems, provided there is no rotation. As we add this notation the possibility of rotation, we need to define the concept of a frame. A frame is a representation for a coordinate system so that the representation includes the possibility that the coordinate system may be displaced (translated) and/or rotated with respect to another coordinate system. It must be emphasized that the concept of a frame is not meaningful in itself, but only as it may be related to another coordinate system (frame). It is quite literally a frame of reference. That other coordinate system may be explicitly defined, as was B in the preceding example, or it may be implicit, perhaps some universe frame that acts as a global origin for all elements under consideration. Before we can relate points relative to different coordinate systems in full generality, we need to learn what happened to a point when it is both rotated and translated relative to a fixed coordinate system.

Rotation
Given a point Ax ,
Ay , Az
T

known relative to a coordinate system named A, we can

find a new point x' , y' , z' that results from rotating the point about the z axis of A through an angle , by multiplying by a rotation matrix.

x' y' z'

cos sin 0

sin cos 0

0 0 1

Ax Ay Az
(5)

102

Example: Rotation Find the result of rotating the point [7, 2, 5]T through 90 in the positive direction about the z-axis. Solution: substitute into equation 5

2 7 5

cos sin 0

sin cos 0

0 0 1

7 2 5

We can likewise define 3 3 matrices representing rotation about the x and y-axes. However, before doing so, we introduce the following coordinate notation.

Homogeneous Coordinates
We need to describe a generalized transformation by a single matrix that combines the effects of translation and rotation. To accomplish this, we first augment the definition of a vector by adding a 1.
x V y z 1

(6)

We then redefine the rotation matrices, making them 4 4, by adding a row and a column:

1 Rot ( x, )

0 sin cos 0 0 sin 1 0 0 0 0 cos

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 cos 0 sin 0 cos 0

(7)

Rot ( y, )

0 sin 0

(8)

103

cos Rot ( z , ) sin 0

sin cos 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

(9)

0 0 0 1 Finally, we can combine the effects of translation and rotation by placing the displacement vector in the fourth column: 1 0 0 a Trans (a, b, c) 0 1 0 b 0 0 1 c 0 0 0 1

(10)

We see that matrix multiplication using Trans (a, b, c) is equivalent to addition of a 3vector:

a b c
and
a d b e c 1 f

d e f

a d b e c f
(11)

1 0 0 a 0 1 0 b 0 0 1 c 0 0 0 1

d e f 1

(12)

The combination of rotations and translations can likewise be accomplished by a matrix multiplication. Example: Combined Motions Find the result of acting on a point A=[a, b, c]T by 1. A rotation of 90 about the z-axis, followed by 2. A rotation of 90 about the x-axis, followed by 3. A translation of [d, e, f] T . Solution

104

a Trans (d , e, f ) Rot ( x,90) Rot ( z ,90) b c 1

1 0 0 d 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 e f 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 d f 1

0 1 0 0 b a c 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

a b c 1

1 0

0 0 0 1 0 0

1 e

b d c e a f 1 In the previous example, we made use of the fact that matrix multiplication is associative by

combining the first two matrices into a single matrix by multiplying them together. This can be done in general, allowing us to define a single matrix, which is a homogeneous transform. Again, using the previous example, the transform matrix is:

Trans (d , e, f )

Rot ( x,90)

Rot ( z,90)

1 0 0 d 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 e f 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 d f 1

0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0

1 e

105

We must emphasize the right-to- left nature of the operations in this example. The rotation about z occurs before the rotation about x, which occurs before the translation. We also remind the reader that matrix multiplication is not commutative and that neither are rotations. Specifically, Rot (x, ) Rot (y, ) Rot (y, ) Rot (x, ) in general.

The General Form of the Transformation Matrix

We have already defined roll, pitch and yaw intuitively as motions of the wrist. We will now be somewhat more rigorous and specify them as rotations about coordinate axes. Specifically,

Roll( z) = rotate Pitch( y ) = rotate Yaw( x ) = rotate Thus, we may define a combination of these as RPY (
z, y, x)

about z y about y x about x

z

= Rot(z,

z)

Rot(y,

y)

Rot(x,

x)

In expanding this, we abbreviate cos by c and sin by s, in order to write the result completely:

RPY ( z,

, x) c zc y c zs ys x s zc s zc y s xs ys x c zc s y c ys x
y

z x

c s

s yc zs ys c yc
z

x x x

s zc c zs

z x

0 0 0 1
(13)

Finally, we may, if we wish, replace the zeros in the fourth column with a, b, c to include the effects of translation and, therefore, have a complete transformation matrix, including three rotations and three translations.

Coordinate Frames
We will often use transformation matrices to describe the location of one coordinate system relative to another. When used in this way, we will refer to such a system as a coordinate frame. Use of a transformation to describe a coordinate system is meaningful only when it is

106

stated as relative t another frame. With such an interpretation, the origin of the second frame may be found as the transformation of the point [0 0 0 1]T . A unit vector in the x direction in the new system is the transformation of the point [1 0 0 1] T . Similarly, unit vectors in the y and z directions of the new system are transformations of [0 1 0 1] T and [0 0 1 1]T , respectively. Example: Coordinate Frames Find the origin and coordinate directions of a frame resulting from a rotation of 90 about the z axis, followed by a displacement of [1, 7, 3]T , as shown in Figure 96. Solution: the origin of the new system is found by transforming [0 0 0 1]T
1 7 3 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 1

the origin of the new coordinate system is thus at [1, 7, 3]T in the old system. A unit vector in the x direction in the new system is.
1 8 3 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 7 1 3 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 Similarly, we find that a unit vector in the y direction transforms to [ 0, 7, 3, 1] and that a unit

Vector in the z direction is transformed to [1, 7, 4, 1].

In this example the coordinate frame is defined by the transform consisting of a rotation of 90 about the z-axis. The locations of the transformed unit vectors are indicated by stars, and their directions with respect to the transformed origin define the transformed coordinate directions. Let us assume that the original frame in Figure 96 is named R. (We will often use this term to represent the coordinate system whose origin is not the base of the manipulator.) Now, given

107

the point P= [2, 2, 0, 1] T in frame H (denoted

P), we can find

P by

P=

P,

where R T H is the transformation matrix, just given, which relates frames H and R.

0
R

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 1 3 0 1

2 2 0 1

1 9 3 1

P=

1 0 0

Z* Y* P

X*

X
Figure 96. The coordinate frame defined by the transform consisting of a rotation of 90 about the z axis. The location of the transformed unit vectors are indicated by stars and their directions with respect to the transformed origin define the transformed coordinate directions. We can now see how the concept of coordinate frames relates to robotics. H P defines a point on the hand of the robot (perhaps the tip of a tool) which is known relative to the hand frame H. the location of the hand is known relative to the base frame R, by the transformation matrix R T H . Thus we are able to find the location of the tool tip in base coordinates. We extend this concept somewhat further now to show its full usefulness with another example. Consider the situation shown in Figure 97. The robot is holding a drill and drilling a hole in a part. This is the desired state; we must solve a problem to find the conditions, which will

108

make it true. The base of the robot is the origin of a frame named R whose location is known relative to a universe frame U. That knowledge is embedded in the transformation
U

R,

assumed to be constant. When in the proper location, the hand position will be related to R by a transform R T H . This is initially unknown and we must solve for it. The tip of the tool is related to H by a transform
H

T E, assumed constant (if the tool doesnt slip in the hand).

Thus the location of the drill bit may be related to the unive rse frame by
U

TE

TR R TH

TE

U
Figure 97. Important coordinate frames in a robot application: U, universe frame; R, robot base; H, hand; E, tool tip; P, work piece. Furthermore, the location of the hole to be drilled on the part may be related by U by
TE U TP P TE And we have two descriptions for the same point. Equating them, we have TR R TH H TE U TP P TE In virtually all robot applications, it is
U U

that must be found. It is that transform that

specifies the location of the hand with respect to the base. To solve for R TH in the preceding equation, we first post multiply by H T-1 E.
U

TR R TH

TP P TE
1 R

And premultiply by U T
R

and find that

T
1 E

TH

TP P TE

109

Inverting Homogeneous Transforms

Let us assign names to the elements of a homogeneous transform as

nx ox ax T ny oy ay nz oz
0 0

px py pz
1
(14)

az
0

n p a o

Figure 98. Definition of approach, a , orientation, o, and normal, n, vectors in the hand frame; p determines the location of the frame, and any two of n, o, and a are sufficient to specify its orientation. The columns of the hand frame, R T H, define three orthogonal vectors, which together specify the hand orientation (see Figure 98). These are referred to as the approach vector, which points in the direction of the wrist; the orientation vector which together with the approach vector, specifies the orientation of the hand; and the normal vector, which is orthogonal to the other two. Hence the use of a, o, and n in the definition of the hand frame. In future sections, we will use these same names for the columns of transform matrices, even though we may not be specifically referring to the hand frame. It can be shown that

nx ny nz
T -1 =

p n p o p a 1
(15)

ox oy oz ax ay az 0 0 0

110

Where pn represents the dot product of the vectors p and n. that is

p n px nx p x ox px ax pyny pyoy pyay p z nz pz oz pz az .

(16) (17) (18)

Similarly,
p o

and,
p a

Example: Inverting Homogeneous Transforms Find the inverse of the following transformation matrix. Prove it is the inverse.

0 H 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 1

1 0 0 3

Solution: Applying (15) we find

0 0 H
1

1 0 0 0

3 2 1 1

0 1 1 0 0 0

we prove this is the inverse by multiplying it by the original matrix.

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 2 1 1

1 0 0 3

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

111

This method of matrix inversion is much faster than is the general method; however, it is not applicable to arbitrary 4 4 matrices but results from the peculiar nature of homogeneous transformations. One other useful property of homogeneous transforms can be derived. That is,

n o a n

a o

(19)

here ,

o a n represents the cross product of two vectors. n o=a may be expanded to

ax ay

n y oz ox nz

o y nz nx oz .

(20)

a z nx o y n y ox The other two equations may be similarly expanded. This fact allows us to save computer time later, since it defines one column of the T matrix in terms of the others.
R

T H tells us how to position the robot hand so that it will be properly located to drill the hole

as desired. This 4 4 matrix relates only the position and orientation of the hand in Cartesian space to the position and orientation of the robot base, again in Cartesian space. It does not tell us how to move the various joints of the robot to achieve that hand location. To accomplish that, we must study the relationship between joint angles and hand location.

112

Notation
Symbol s c Rot (x, ) Trans (d, e, f ) Meaning An arbitrary angle Shorthand for sin ( ) Shorthand for cos ( ) A 4 4-transform matrix representing a rotation of about the x-axis. A 4 4-transform matrix representing a translation of d units on the x-axis, e units on y, and f units on z. Rotation about the z axis of the hand frame (roll) Rotation about the y-axis of the hand frame (pitch). Rotation about the x axis of the hand frame (yaw) A 4 4-transform matrix representing the effect of radians of roll, radians of pitch, and radians of yaw. The hand frame The universe frame (often chosen equal to R) The robot base frame. The normal vector (1st column of R T H) The orientation vector (2nd column of R T H) The approach vector (3rd column of R T H) The position vector (4th column of R T H)

RPY (

z,

y,

x)

H U R n o a p

113

Problems
Material covered: 1. Homogeneous transforms and their applications 2. Programming of robotic tasks

Homogeneous Transforms
1.Write the homogeneous transform matrix that represents a) A rotation of 90 about z axis, followed by b) A rotation of -90 about the x axis, followed by c) A translation of [3, 7, 9]. 2. Write the homogeneous transform matrix that represents a) A translation of [3,7,9], followed by b) A rotation of 90 about the z axis, followed by c) A rotation of -90 about the x axis

3.The matrix
? ? ? ? 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 1

is known to represent a homogeneous coordinate transform. Find the elements designated by the question marks. Use homogeneous transform property. 4. Use equation 15 to find the inverse of the 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 matrix 0 1 1 2 . 0 0 0 1

5. A part is located relative to the universe frame by the transform

0
U

1 0

0 1 0

1 2 0

TP

1 0

0 0 0 1 A robot base is located relative to the universe frame by

114

1 0 0 1
U

TR

0 1 0 5 0 0 1 9 0 0 0 1

we wish to put the hand on the part. That is, we wish to align the hand frame and the part frame. What is the transformation R T H that makes this happen? 6. Use the matrices given in problem 5, consider only the position of the hand. a) What is the position of the part relative to the universe frame? b) What is the position of the robot relative to the universe frame? c) Perform vector addition or subtraction (which is correct?) to find the part relative to the robot. d) Now look at columns 4 of your solution to problem 5. Did you work problem 5 correctly? 7. Find the result of acting on a point A=[1, 2, 4]T by a) A rotation of 90 about the x-axis, followed by b) A rotation of 180 about the z-axis, followed by c) A translation of [2, -1, 1] T . 8. Find the result of acting on a point A=[1, 0, 4]T by a) A translation of [0, 3, -2] T , followed by b) A rotation of 180 about the x axis, followed by c) A rotation of -90 about the z axis, followed by d) A translation of [-1, -4, 3] T .

115

Robot Programming
1. A Movemaster RV-M2 robot is used to drill a hole and cut out a hexagonal piece in 2cm thick stock. Two tools are used: a drill of length 200 mm in already stored position 301 and a plasma torch of length 250 mm in a position stored as 302. The hole to be drilled is in the center of the hexagon in a position stored as 303. The sides of the hexagon are 60 mm each. Use relative coordinates. Do not write any of the BASIC commands. The operation of the robot is as follows (Hint: some steps may require more than one command): 1) Move to nest. 2) Move to a position 100 mm above 301. 3) Make sure the gripper is open. 4) Pick up the drill. 5) Position the drill 20 mm above the hole location. 6) Wait 2 seconds. 7) Drill a through hole. 8) Return the drill to its original starting position. 9) Position the gripper 100 mm above 302. 10) Pick up the plasma torch. 11) Move the plasma torch to a position 5 mm above the first corner of the hexagon 12) Wait 2 seconds for the torch to start cutting. 13) Move the torch so it traces along the edges of the hexagon 14) When done, move the torch up 100 mm above the stock 15) Wait 2 seconds. 16) Return the torch. 17) Move the gripper 200 mm above position 302.

2. Using a Movemaster RV-M2 robot equipped with a pen, write a program to draw the words EN 473. Each letter fits in a 20 x 30- mm box, with 10 mm between letters and 20 mm between words. Use medium writing speed. Assume the starting position of the pen tip to be 20 mm above the lower left corner of the letter E. Assume the gripper is already closed. Use relative coordinates. Do not write any of the BASIC commands.

116

3. An AdeptOne SCARA robot is used in a packing operation. The parts to be packed are presented to the robot via a conveyor belt delivering parts to a known location b. The parts are to be packed in a 10 cm tall box with four compartments. The locations in the center bottom of each compartment are known ( c, d, e , f). The manipulator's task is to pick a part and place it in the box, in the correct compartment, until the box is filled. Due to limitations of other equipment's cycle time, the robot is to operate at 45 % of its full speed. Write a program using VAL-II robot programming language to accomplish the following: From its initial position the robot's gripper opens, the robot moves to the part's location and picks the part. (HINT: Final approach to the part should be vertical from a position straight above the part) 3. The robot performs a series of steps necessary to place the part in the compartment c. 4. Then, the parts are picked and placed consecutively into the remaining three compartments. 5. When the last part is placed in the box, the robot moves to its initial position. HINTS: Be careful, not to damage the box by an inappropriate approach/depart path.

Figure 99. SCARA robot example

117

4. Using a Movemaster RV-M2 robot equipped with a pen, write a program to draw the word HELLO. Each letter fits in a 20 x 30- mm box, with 10 mm between letters. Use medium writing speed. Assume the starting position of the pen tip to be 20 mm above the lower left corner of the letter H. Assume the gripper is already closed. Use relative coordinates. 5. In a manufacturing operation, it is required to use the continuous arc welding process to join a circular plate and a square plate (100 mm x 100 mm), as shown below. A Movemaster RV-M2 is used for this operation. Write a robotic program to weld these parts continuously. The robot is to perform the following set of operations: 1. From its nesting position, the robot moves the welding tool to a position 200 mm above the first corner. 2. Robot lowers the tool to touch the two parts at position 501. 3. Robot makes a weld in a counter-clock direction 4. When done, the robot moves the tool to a position 200 mm above the first corner. 5. The robot waits 5 seconds 6. Steps 2 through 5 are repeated continuously.

x 501 y

Figure 100. Circular plate

118

6. An AdeptOne SCARA robot is used to partially populate a printed circuit board (PCB). The parts used are two different types of relays. They are presented to the robot via two magazines at known locations (a and b). The relays are 5 cm tall and must be inserted vertically into their respective positions on the PCB (positions c and d). Due to limitations of other equipment's cycle time, the robot is to operate at 85 % of its full speed. Write a program using VAL-II robot programming language to accomplish the following: 1) From its initial position the robot's gripper opens, the robot moves to the first relay's location (a) and picks it up. (HINT: Final approach to the relay should be vertical from a position straight above the relay) 2) The robot performs a series of steps necessary to place the relay in the location c on the PCB. 3) Then, the robot performs a series of steps necessary to pick and place the second relay from its position b to the position d on the PCB. 4) When done, the robot moves to its initial position. HINTS: Be careful, not to damage the relay by an inappropriate approach/depart path.

a b

c P C B

Figure 101. AdeptOne SCARA robot cell for problem 1

119

6. Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Introduction

Basics: Computer Nume rical Control is a form of programmable automation in which the mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program. Part program: - Data: relative positions of a work head and work part - Instructions: needed commands to operate the machine Usage: in low to medium production runs Applications: 1. Drilling 2. Milling, grinding 3. Turning, boring 4. Assembly 5. Drafting: x-y plotter 6. Inspection: e.g. coordinate measuring machine (CMM) Advantages: Reduced nonproductive time: - fewer setups - reduced setup time - reduced piece handling time - automatic tool changes Greater accuracy and repeatability Lower operator skills needed More-complex part geometries possible Reduced parts inventory, less floor space Lower scrap rates Lower inspection requirements Disadvantages: Higher investment cost Higher maintenance (electronics) Requires part programming

120

Components :
Part Program Mahine Control Unit

Processing Equipment

Figure 102. CNC machine components TARGET point is the point to which the tool is manually moved. Origin represents zero point.

Control Systems:
Point-to-point: drilling (move the worktable to a programmed location disregarding the path Continuous path: These systems are capable of continuous simultaneous control of two or more axes: Contouring (all 3 axes) Straight-cut: parallel to only one of the axis of the worktable Inte rpolation Methods : Linear: programmer specifies beginning / end points of the straight line and feed rate (interpolator computes feed rates for each axis) Circular: Programmer specifies - start point - end point - radius (or center) - direction of cutter Interpolator generates a series of small straight line segments. Limitation: path is in a plane defined by two axes of the CNC system. Helical: Like circular but one more axis is added (e.g. threads) Parabolic (Cubic): Provides approximations of free form curves using higher order equations. CNC Software: Operating System (ROM or MCU): Interprets NC part programs, generates control signals driving the machine tool axis; -Consists of 3 parts: 1. Editor 2. Control program: decodes part program 3. Executive program: manages execution of CNC software and performs I/O operations

121

Machine Interface Software: Operates communication link between the CPU and the machine tool for CNC auxiliary functions. It is sometimes implemented via PLC interfaced to MCU (often ladder logic diagram) Application Software: NC Part Programs: - G & M Codes - APT (Automated Programming Tool) - CAD/CAM (e.g. MASTERCAM) (Uses preprocessors to generate G&M codes)

Some Machining Terms:

Machining is a manufacturing process where the work is produced by removing excess material. Cutting conditions: Cutting speed (v ) represents the velocity of the tool with respect to the work (m/min, ft/min). Spindle rotation speed N (RPM).
v where, D is the diameter of the milling cutter D Feed (f ). size of the chip formed by each tooth in the milling cutter (chip load per tooth) (mm/tooth) Feed rate (fr). The travel rate of the machine tool table: N

fr

Nfnt where nt is the number of teeth in the milling cutter.

Depth of cut represents the distance the tool penetrates below the original surface of the work (mm).

122

Flow of CNC Processing

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Develop the part drawing. Decide which machine will produce the part. Choose the tooling required. Decide on the machining sequence. Do math calculations for the program coordinates. Calculate the speeds and feeds required for the tooling and part material. Write the NC program. Prepare setup sheets and tool lists. Send program to machine. Verify the program. Run the program if no changes are required. Program Preparations 1. Develop an order of operation. 2. Do all the necessary calculations and complete a coordinate sheet. 3. Choose your tooling and calculate the speeds and feeds.

Manual (G & M Code) Program 1. Program setup phase contains all the instructions that prepare the machine for operation. % program start flag xxxx program number Nxxxx line (block) number ex: (N1 G90 G20 where G90 = absolute coordinates, and G20 = dimensions in inches) N2 M03 S1200 2. Material removal phase contains the actual cutting feed moves, rapid moves, canned cycles etc. 3. System shutdown phase contains all the G- and M-codes that turn off all the options that were turned on in the setup phase. Example: N20 M05 Turns the spindle off N21 M30 End of program Block order:

NGXYZFTSM

123

Block Format
Block format is often more important than program format. It is vital that each block of CNC code be entered into the CPU correctly. Each block comprises different components, which can produce tool moves on the machine. Following is an example block of CNC code. N135 G01 X1.0 N135 G01 Y1.0 Z0.125 F5

X1.0 Y1.0 Z0.125

F5

Table 12. Example CNC code explanation Block number Shows the current CNC block number G-Code Tells the machine what it is to do, in this case, a Linear Feed move Coordinate Gives the machine an end point for its move. X designates an X-axis coordinate, Y a Y-axis coordinate, and Z a Z-axis coordinate. Special function Contains any special function or related parameter. In this case, a feed rate of 5 in/min is programmed.

There are some simple restrictions on CNC blocks, as follows: Each may contain only one tool move. Each may contain any number of non-tool move G-codes, provided they do not conflict between each other (e.g., G42 and G43). Each may contain only one feedrate per block. The block numbers should be sequential. Both the program start flag and the program number must be independent of all other commands. The data within a block should follow the sequence shown in the above sample block.

124

Basic G-Codes or Words

G00 c Rapid traverse movement. Used to move the tool away from the part or to move the tool near the part in a short period. G01 c Linear interpolation. Used to make a feed rate move either straight or at an angle. G02 c Circular interpolation. Used to make a feed rate move in a clockwise direction. G03 c Circular interpolation. Used to make a feed rate move in a counter-clockwise direction. G04 n Dwell - time delay G10 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G28 G29 G32 G40 Input of cutter offset data, followed by a P-code and an R-code XY Plane XZ Plane YZ Plane Inch Units Metric Units Automatic return to reference point Automatic return from reference point Thread cutting in turning Cancel compensation offset for cutter radius

G41 R Compensation offset left. Cutter radius must be specified G42 G43 G44 G49 Compensation offset right. Cutter radius must be specified Tool length compensation (Plus) Tool length compensation (Minus) Tool length compensation cancel

G50 c Specify location of coordinate axis system origin with respect to starting location of cutting tool 125

G70 G71 G80 G81 G82 G83 G90 G91

Inch Units Metric Units Cancel canned cycles Drilling cycle Counter boring cycle Deep Hole Drilling cycle Absolute positioning Incremental positioning

G92 c Specify location of coordinate axis system origin with respect to starting location of cutting tool. Some machines use G50. G94 G95 G98 G99 Specify feed per minute in milling and drilling Specify feed per revolution in milling and drilling Set initial plane default / Specify feed per minute in turning Return to retract (rapid) plane / Specify feed per revolution in turning

Note: The lower case "c" to the right of the codes are the coordinates needed and are as follows: Table devices such as milling machines EDM machines: Xn Yn In Jn G90 X0.0 Y0.0 G01 X0.0 Y0.125 G03 X-0.375 Y0.5 I-0.375 J0.0 G01 X-0.75 Y0.5 M02 % Cylindrical devices such as lathes and cylindrical grinders: Xn Zn In Kn G90 X0.0 Z0.0 G01 X0.25 Z0.0 G03 X1.0 Z-0.375 I0.0 K-0.375 G01 X1.0 Z-0.75 M02 %

126

Basic Miscellaneous Functions (M-Codes or Words)

M00 M01 M02 M03 M04 M05 M06 Program stop Optional program stop - if machine is set to detected it End of program Start spindle - clockwise rotation for milling (forward for turning) Start spindle - counter-clockwise rotation for milling (reverse for turning) Stop spindle Execute tool change, either manually or automatically. If manually, operator must restart machine. This code does not include the selection of tool (use T-word for automatic tool change). Coolant on #1 (flood) Coolant on #2 (mist) Coolant off Automatic clamping of fixture, machine slides, etc. Automatic unclamping. Start spindle in clockwise direction for milling machines (forward for turning machine) and turn on cutting fluid. Start spindle in counterclockwise direction for milling machine (reverse for turning machine) and turn on cutting fluid. Spindle and cutting fluid off Spindle off at oriented position. End of program. Reset to start.

M07 M08 M09 M10 M11 M13

M14

M17 M19 M30

127

Other (Codes or Words)

N Sequence number; identifies block of instructions. From one to four digits can be used Feed rate. Used to set the speed the tool will move along the part. Could be in inches or in millimeters. Spindle speed. Used to set the revolutions per minute ( rpm ) of the spindle rotation. Tool selection. Used to change to a tool position on a machine with multiple tool holders. Tool offset. If the machine uses "D" then a page listing the offsets should be found. Radius of arc; used in circular interpolation Stores cutter radius data in offset register x

Fn

Sn

Tn

Dn

R Px

Note: The lower case "n" to the right of the codes is a number value. Some codes are not used or are handled differently because of the varied applications and uses of the machine.

128

Examples
1. CNC Example: Drilling This example presents the CNC part program in word address format for drilling the three holes in the sample part shown in Figure 103. We assume that the outside edges of the starting workpart have been rough cut (by jig sawing) and are slightly oversized for subsequent profile milling. The three holes to be drilled in this example will be used to locate and fixture the part for profile milling in the following example. For the present drilling sequence, the part is gripped in place so that its top surface is 40 mm above the surface of the machine tool table to provide ample clearance beneath the part for hole frilling. We will define x, y-, and z- axes as shown in Figure 104. A 7.0-mm diameter drill, corresponding to the specified hole size, has been chucked in the CNC drill press. The drill will be operated at a feed of 0.05 mm/rev and a spindle speed of 1000 rev/min (corresponding to a surface speed of about 0.37 m/sec, which is slow for the aluminum work material). At the beginning of the job, the drill point will be positioned at a target point located at x=0, y=-50, and z= +10 (axis units are millimeters). The program begins with the tool positioned at this target point.

125 30.0R 90 60 30 70 120 160

7.0 dia. ( 3 holes)

10

Figure 103. Sample part to illustrate CNC part programming. Dimensions are in millimeters general tolerance = 0.1 mm. Work material is a machinable grade of aluminum. 129

NC Part Program Code N001 G21 G90 G92 X0 Y-050.0 Z010.0; N002 G00 X070.0 Y030.0; N003 G01 G95 Z-15.0 F0.05 S1000 M03; N004 G01 Z010; N005 G00 Y060.0; N006 G01 G95 Z-015.0 F0.05; N007 G01 Z010.0; N008 G00 Z120.0 Y030.0; N009 G01 G95 Z-015.0 F0.05; N010 G01 Z010.0; N011 G00 X0 Y-050.0 M05; N012 M30;

Comments Define origin of axes Rapid move to first hole location. Drill first hole. Retract drill from hole. Rapid move to second hole location. Drill second hole. Retract drill from hole. Rapid move to third hole location. Drill third hole. Retract drill from hole. Rapid move to target point. End of program, stop machine.

2. CNC Example: Milling The three holes drilled in the previous example can be used for locating and holding the workpart to completely mill the outside edges without re- fixturing. The axis coordinates are shown in Figure 103 (same coordinates as in the previous drilling example). The part is fixtured so that its top surface is 40 mm above the surface of the machine tool table. Thus, the origin of the axis system will be 40 mm above the table s urface. A 20- mm diameter end mil with four teeth will be used. The cutter has a side tooth engagement length of 40 mm. Throughout the machining sequence, the bottom tip of the cutter will be positioned 25 mm below the part top surface, which corresponds to z = -25 mm. Since the part is 10 mm thick, this z-position will allow the side cutting edges of the milling cutter to cut the full thickness of the part during profile milling. The cutter will be operated at a spindle speed = 1000 rev/min (which corresponds to a surface speed of

130

about 1.0 m/sec) and a fed rate = 50 mm/min (which corresponds to 0.20 mm/tooth). The tool path to be followed by the cutter is shown in Figure 105, with numbering that corresponds to the sequence number in the program. Cutter diameter data has been manually entered into offset register 05. At the beginning of the job, the cutter will be positioned so that its center tip is at a target point located at x = 0, y = -50, and z = +10. the program begins with the tool positioned at this location.

Y 100 35,90 70,60 130,60 160,0 X 150

50

70,30 120,30 50 Z 20 -20 -Z (A) 100

X (B)

Figure 104. Sample part aligned relative to (A) x- and y-axes and (B) z-axis. Coordinates are given for significant part features in (A)

131

Y N007

N006

N005

N008

N009 X N003 N004

N010

N001,N002

Figure 105. Miller cutter path NC Part Program Code N001 G21 G90 G92 X0 Y-050.0 Z010.0; N002 G00 Z-025.0 S1000 M03; N003 G01 G94 G42 Y0 D05 F50; N004 G01 X160.0; N005 G01 Y060.0; N006 G17 G03 X130.0 Y090.0 R030.0; N007 G01 X035.0; N008 G01 X0 Y0; N009 G40 G00 X-040.0 M05; N010 G00 X0 Y-050.0; N011 M30; Comments Define origin of axes Rapid to cutter depth, turn spindle on Engage part, start cutter offset. Mill lower part edge. Mill right straight edge. Circular interpolation around arc. Mill upper part edge. Mill left part edge. Rapid exit from part, cancel offset. Rapid move to target point. End of program, stop machine.

132

Problems
1. The part in Figure 106 is to be drilled on a turret-type drill press. The part is 15.0 mm thick. There are three drill sizes to be used: 8 mm, 10 mm and 12 mm. These drills are to be specified in the part program by tool turret positions T01, T02, and T03. all tooling is high speed steel. Cutting speed = 75 m/min and feed = 0.08 mm/rev. Use the lower left corner of the part as the origin in the x- y axis system. Write the part program in the Word address format with TAB separation and variable word order (G- and M- codes). Use absolute positioning. The program style should be similar to the previous drilling example.
125 25 12 dia., 1 hole 10 dia., 2 holes

25 rad. 100 75 50 25 25 50 75 100 150 175 200 8 dia., 3 holes

Figure 106. Part drawing for problem 4. Dimensions are in millimeters.

133

2. Perform necessary calculations and write the complete part program (G- and Mcodes) to perform the drilling operations for the part drawing given below. All dimensions are in millimeters. The part is 10 mm thick. All three holes are 8 mm in diameter. Cutting speed = 0.5 m/sec, feed = 0.20 mm/rev, and table travel speed between holes = 500 mm/min. Use the lower left corner of the part as the origin in the x-y axis system. State the assumptions you make.
15

10

10

60

20

10 R

8 dia., 3 holes

40

20

40 60

10 R

Figure 107. Part drawing for problem 2

134

3. The outline of the part given in the previous problem is to be profile milled, using a 16-mm diameter end mill with four teeth. The part is 10 mm thick. Cutting speed = 100 m/min and feed = 0.10 mm/tooth. Use the lower left corner of the part as the origin in the x-y axis system. The three holes in the part have been drilled in previous problem and will be used for clamping the part during milling. Perform necessary calculations and write the part program in the word address format with TAB separation and variable work order (G- and M-codes). Use absolute positioning. State the assumptions you make.

135

4. Perform all necessary calculations and write a complete part program (G- and Mcodes) to perform only the drilling operations for the part drawing given below. All dimensions are in millimeters. The part is 3 mm thick. All four holes are 10 mm in diameter. Cutting speed = 0.5 m/sec, feed = 0.10 mm/rev, and the table travel speed between holes = 600 mm/min. Use the lower left corner of the part (as indicated in figure below) as the origin in the x-y axis system. State the assumptions you make.

10 dia., 4 holes

20 R

100

28 R 20 32 40 20 R (0,0) 20

160

Figure 108. Part drawing for the above problem

136

22

24

5. The outline of the part given in the previous problem is to be profile milled, using an 8-mm diameter end mill with two teeth. Also, the internal feature is to be milled. The part is 3 mm thick. Cutting speed = 110 m/min and feed = 0.10 mm/tooth. Use the lower left corner of the part (indicated in the drawing from previous problem) as the origin in the x-y axis system. The four holes in the part have been drilled in previous problem. Two of them will be used for clamping the part during milling. Perform all necessary calculations and write the part program in the word address format (G- and M-codes) with TAB separation and variable work order. Use absolute positioning. State the assumptions you make. 6. Perform all necessary calculations and write the part program in the word address format with TAB separation and variable work order (G- and M-codes) to perform the drilling operations for the part drawing given below. All dimensions are in millimeters. The part is 3 mm thick. The four outer holes are 10 mm in diameter, while the center hole is 12 mm in diameter. Cutting speed = 0.5 m/sec, feed = 0.10 mm/rev, and the table travel speed between holes = 800 mm/min. Use the lower left corner of the part (as indicated in figure below) as the origin in the x-y axis system. State the assumptions you make.

20

120

20

(0,0)

20 140

Figure 109. Part drawing for drilling problem

137

10

7. The outline of the part given in the previous problem is to be profile milled, using an 8-mm diameter end mill with two teeth. The part is 3 mm thick. Cutting speed = 110 m/min and feed = 0.10 mm/tooth. Use the lower left corner of the part (indicated in the drawing from previous problem) as the origin in the x-y axis system. The five holes in the part have been drilled in previous problem. Two of them will be used for clamping the part during the milling operation. Perform all necessary calculations and write the part program in the word address format with TAB separation and variable work order (G- and M-codes). Use absolute positioning. State the assumptions you make.

138

7. Automated Assembly Systems

Automated assembly systems perform a sequence of automated assembly operations to combine multiple components into a single entity. Automated assembly represents the use of mechanized and automated devices to perform the various assembly tasks in an assembly line or cell. Typically automated assembly is considered to be fixed automation (exception: programmable vibratory bowl feeders (VBF)). Applications : 1. High volume production 2. Stable product design 3. Limited number of components 4. Product designed for automated assembly Component s: 1. Workstations 2. Feeding device 3. Work-handling subsystems System configuration types (see Figure 98): 1. In- line assembly system 2. Dial-type assembly system 3. Carousel assembly system 4. Single station system

Parts Delivery at Workstations

Parts Delivery Characteristics: 1. Hopper is a container into which the components are loaded (one per component type). 2. Parts feeder is a mechanism that removes components from the hopper one at a time for delivery to the assembly work head. A vibratory bowl feeder (VBF) is a hopper- feeder combination. An example is shown in Figure 110.

139

Figure 110. Vibratory bowl feeder 3. Selector (passive tooling) is a device acting as a filter permits only parts in the correct orientation to pass through. and/or Orientor (active tooling) is a device allowing properly oriented parts to pass through, while the others are re-oriented into the proper orientation. Figure 95 depicts some typical examples of selectors used with VBFs. 4. Feed track is a device used to move the correctly oriented components from feeder to the location of the assembly workhead. Types: Gravity fed feeder elevated with respect to the workhead. Powered vibration, air pressure etc. forces the parts to travel along the feed track 5. Escapement device : removes components from the feed track according to the cycle time of the assembly workhead or Place ment device: places the component in the correct location at the workstation for the assembly operation (See Figure 96)

140

Pressure Break Hold-down

Wiper

Dish-out Retaining Rail Flat Rectangular Part

a

Retaining Rail Hold-down

Pressure Break

Wiper Warp Starts Slotted Part

Figure 111. Typical tooling applications for a vibratory bowl feeder

141

TION DIREC G N I FEED

WIPER

BOWL WALL BOWL TRACK

NARROW TRACK ROLL UP

AIR JET REPLACING ROLL UP BOWL WALL

BOWL TRACK

AIR JET REPLACING WIPER AIR JET REPLACING NARROW TRACK

Figure 112. Mechanical selector/orientors and their air-jet equivalents

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Analysis of a Parts Delivery Subsystem

hopper

f(1f Lf2 feed track assembly workstation

selector

Lf1 escapement and placement unit work carrier Figure 113. Parts delivery subsystem

For the system shown in Figure 113 the following variables are defined: f = hopper rate [parts/min] = proportion of components correctly oriented that pass through the selector/orientor (probability of a part to be in a correct orientation) 1 = proportion of parts returned to hopper Rc = cycle rate of the assembly machine = rate at which the parts leave the feed track Tc = cycle time for the assembly machine
Rc 1 Tc

f f

Rc to make sure that the delivery system is not the bottleneck of the operation Rc

rate of part increase when the feeder is on

Lc = length of parts in the feed track Lf1 = location of low level sensor Lf2 = location of high level sensor

nf 2

Lf 2

where nf2 is the number of parts that can be held in the feed track (capacity of Lc the feed track) where nf1 is the minimum number of parts in the feed track.

nf1

Lf1 Lc

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Example : Given cycle time of 6 seconds, hopper rate 50 parts/min, proportion of correctly oriented parts passing through the selector 0.25, the minimum number of parts in the feed track 6 parts and the capacity of the feed track of 18 parts find: a) How long will it take for the supply of parts to go from 18 to 6 parts if the feeder is turned off? b) How long will it take in an average for the supply of parts to go from 6 to 18 after turning the feeder on? Solution: a) Tc
0.1 min Rc
1 / Tc 10 parts Tn f 2 min

nf 2
nf1

nf1 Rc

18 6 10

1.2min

b) Tn f 1

nf 2
nf 2

nf1 Rc

18 6 50 0.25 10

18 6 2.5

4.8 min

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Types of Automated Assembly Systems

Components added at stations

Starting base parts

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Completed Assemblies

Sta 1

Sta 2

Sta 3

Sta n-1

Sta n-2

Sta n

Figure 114. In-line assembly system

Starting base parts

A A sb y ut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Completed assemblies

Figure 115. Dial-type assembly system

145

A Au sby t

Components added at stations Starting base parts Asby Aut Asby Aut Asby Aut Asby Aut Asby Aut

A Au sby t

Asby Aut Completed assemblies

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

Asby Aut

y sb A ut A

Figure 116. Carousel type assembly system

Components added at one stations

Asby Aut
Starting base parts
Figure 117. Single station assembly system

Completed assemblies

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Parts

Rotary index table Parts

Vertical delivery

Feed track

Horizontal delivery

Feed track Pockets in rotary index table (a) (b)

Figure 118. (a)Horizontal Escapement Device and (b) Vertical Placement Device

Spring blade escapement Parts

Feed track

Work carriers

(c )
Figure 119. Escapement of Rivet-shaped Parts

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Problems
1. A feeder-selector device at one of the stations of an automated assembly machine has a feed rate f = 32 parts/min and provides a throughput of one part in four ( = 0.25). The ideal cycle time of the assembly machine is 10 sec. The low level sensor on the feed track is set at 10 parts, and the high level sensor is set at 20 parts. (a) How long will it take for the supply of parts to be depleted from the high level sensor to the low level sensor once the feeder-selector device is turned off? (b) How long will it take for the parts to be re-supplied from the low level sensor to the high level sensor, on average, after the feeder-selector device is turned on? (c) What proportion of the time that the assembly machine is operating will the feeder-selector device be turned on? (d) What proportion of the time that the assembly machine is operating will the feeder-selector device be turned off?

2.

A feeder-selector device at one of the stations of an automated assembly machine has a feed rate f = 60 parts/min and provides a throughput of one part in five. The ideal cycle time of the assembly machine is 10 sec. The low level sensor on the feed track is set at 15 parts, and the high level sensor is set at 35 parts. (e) How long will it take for the supply of parts to be depleted from the high level sensor to the low level sensor once the feeder-selector device is turned off? (f) How long will it take for the parts to be re-supplied from the low level sensor to the high level sensor, on average, after the feeder-selector device is turned on? (g) What proportion of the time that the assembly machine is operating will the feeder-selector device be turned on? (h) What proportion of the time that the assembly machine is operating will the feeder-selector device be turned off?

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CIM. See computer- integrated manufacturing Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing. See Computer

Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing Production system, 2

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References
1 Groover, M . P., Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2nd Edition , Prentice Hall, 2001. 2 Kapp , K., M., The USA Princip le, APICS The Performance Advantage, pp 62-66, June 1997. 3 Users Manual, Bulleting 1745 SLC Programmable Controllers , Allen-Bradley Co., Publication 1745800, November 1987. 4 Snyder, W. E., Industrial Robots: Computer Interfacing and Control , Prentice-Hall, 1985.

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