A Theoretical Derivation

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DOI: 10.1243/09544062JMES2285
354
2011 225: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science
Ph Epple, F Durst and A Delgado
A theoretical derivation of the Cordier diagram for turbomachines
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354
A theoretical derivation of the Cordier
diagramfor turbomachines
Ph Epple
1
, F Durst
2
, and A Delgado
1
1
Institute of Fluid Mechanics, LSTM Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
2
Centre of Advanced Fluid Mechanics, FMP Technology GMBH, Erlangen, Germany
The manuscript was received on 10 February 2010 and was accepted after revision for publication on 28 May 2010.
DOI: 10.1243/09544062JMES2285
Abstract: The design of high-efciency fans is often based on the experience of the designer.
In order to determine its main dimensions, fan designers use the Cordier diagram. For a given
operating point (i.e. owrate and pressure, and a rotating speed), the optimumdiameter of high-
efciency fans can be found in the Cordier diagram. The Cordier diagramis an empirical diagram
based on measurements. It delivers a relation between owrate, pressure, rotating speed, and
diameter. However, the Cordier diagram does not provide any information on the blade shape
(i.e. the angles and the blade width). In order to ll this gap, there are design rules based on the
experience of the designer and some analytical performance parameters in the literature. One
very common performance parameter is the reaction, which is the ratio between the static and
the total pressure rising from the impeller inlet to its outlet. These design rules and performance
parameters are, however, of limiteduse. Therefore, thetotal-to-staticideal efciencyis introduced
to yield, together with the speed and diameter numbers and , the essential parameters that
distinguishthe different turbomachines inthe Cordier diagram. Basedonthe integral parameters
of the ow and the geometry of turbomachines, a performance analysis of turbomachines is
performed and the Cordier diagram is theoretically derived.
Keywords: Cordier diagram, turbomachinery, fans, blowers, performance analysis, computa-
tional uid dynamics, inverse design method, integrated performance optimization, mean line
analysis, radial impeller, axial impeller
1 INTRODUCTIONANDAIMOFWORK
Fluid mechanics has developed methods that are gen-
erally applicable to uid ows occurring in different
elds of engineering. In many of these elds, spe-
cic considerations of uid ow aspects have been
performed, yielding relationships that somehowdiffer
from those derived from the basic principles of uid
mechanics. Fluidmechanics is sucha eldwhere early
results have been derived to show that there are sim-
ilar parameters for turbomachines that permit axial,
diagonal and radial fans, and blowers to be grouped.
In 1953, Otto Cordier [1] linked the optimum oper-
ating conditions (i.e. the volumetric owrate Q
opt
and
Corresponding author: Institute of Fluid Mechanics, LSTM

Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen-Nuremberg, Cauer-
strasse 4, Erlangen 91058, Germany.
email: [email protected]
the specic head Y = p
opt
/), with the optimum
diameter Dandspeedn, for one-stage machines oper-
ating at optimum efciency, with the aid of speed and
diameter numbers dened as
= 2
Q
(2Y )
3/2
(speed number) (1)
=
2
D
4
_
2Y
Q
2
(diameter number) (2)
where Y = p
opt
/ the specic head. Cordier plot-
ted the optimum values
opt
and
opt
on a logarithmic
graph, as shown, in the original representation of
Cordier, in Fig. 1. In this way, for all classical impeller
types one obtains a fairly well-dened curve known
as the Cordier curve. Through experiments carried
out for different types of fans, blowers, and pumps,
Cordier could show that axial turbomachines posses
high speed numbers and low diameter numbers
, whereas radial turbomachines are characterized by
Proc. IMechE Vol. 225 Part C: J. Mechanical Engineering Science
A theoretical derivation of the Cordier diagramfor turbomachines 355
Fig. 1 The original performance diagram of turboma-
chines as introduced by Cordier in 1953 [1]
low speed numbers and high diameter numbers .
Diagonal machines are in the range of medium val-
ues of speed numbers and diameter numbers , see
Fig. 1. Although this diagram does not show details of
the blade shape for the design of turbomachines, it is
denitely of help to make basic decisions on the kind
of machine to be chosen for the particular operating
point (i.e. for the head and owrate to be achieved).
Typically, if one has a given motor drive and hence
a rotating speed and the prescribed operating point,
using the Cordier diagram one can obtain the type of
the machine (axial, diagonal or radial) and the diam-
eter of the impeller which would meet this operating
point at the best efciency. On the other hand, if a
certain operating point (i.e. owrate and head), has
to be achieved with an impeller of a given diameter,
the Cordier diagram will provide the rotating speed
to meet this operating point at the best efciency. It
is for this reason that the Cordier diagram is exten-
sively used these days where layout considerations in
turbomachines are performed. However, the Cordier
diagramdoes not provide any information on the type
of blade, whether single- or double-twisted, on the
blade shape, on the blade angle, on the blade height,
onthe shape of the hubandshroud, andso on. Amod-
ern representation of the Cordier diagram is shown in
Fig. 2.
There is somehow a lack of theoretical basis for
the Cordier diagram. In connection with the Ph.D.
research of P.E., the question came up on what kind
of a diagram comes up for axial and radial turboma-
chines if basic uid mechanics considerations would
be applied to treat the overall performance of fans
and blowers. What would be the resultant similarity
Fig. 2 The Cordier diagram
parameters and what interrelationship exists between
them? Would the outcome be a diagram similar or
equivalent to the Cordier diagram?
2 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
In the turbomachinery literature (e.g. Eck [2] or
Bohl and Elmendorf [3]), it is traditional to treat the
impellers from the blade inlet (1) to the blade outlet
(2) as shown in Fig. 3. Actually, for radial impellers,
the ow starts entering the impeller axially at position
(0) and then, between position (0) and position (1),
the ow turns around 90
to reach the blade inlet (1)

radially. Therefore, if there is no prewhirl, accordingly
(e.g. to Eck [2]), one has the so-called radial entry con-
dition, which refers the so-called owcondition at the
blade inlet at position(1). Inthe case of axial impellers,
as can be seen (e.g. in Fig. 11), if there is no prewhirl,
the owenters the impeller and also reaches the blade
inlet axially. The index (1) always refers to the blade
inlet and not to the impeller inlet (0) and the index (2)
refers to the blade outlet. The absolute ow velocity
is c, the relative ow velocity is w and the peripheral
velocity of the impeller is u. These velocities are related
by the fundamental kinematic condition
c = w +u (3)
The condition of radial entry in radial impellers and
axial entry inaxial impellers is equivalent to the condi-
tionof noprewhirl (i.e. thecircumferential component
of the absolute velocity at the impeller inlet c
u1
= 0). As
it is well known, the Euler turbomachinery equation
356 Ph Epple, F Durst, and A Delgado
Fig. 3 Radial impeller
can be written as
Y =
p
t
=
1
2
[(c
2
2
c
2
1
) +(u
2
2
u
2
1
) +(w
2
1
w
2
2
)] (4)
This formof the Euler pump and turbine equationis
appropriate to distinguish between the different con-
tributions to the pressure increase. It can be seen that
the pressure increase is divided into three terms [2].
The rst term
p
d
=

2
(c
2
2
c
2
1
) (5)
means an increase in kinetic energy. The term
p
scentrifugal
=

2
(u
2
2
u
2
1
) (6)
means that a change in static pressure occurs in the
impeller duetothecentrifugal forceactingontheuid.
The third term is a change in kinetic energy due to the
change of the relative velocity inthe impeller; this term
represents a conversion of kinetic energy into static
pressure within the impeller itself. This conversion
into static pressure is given by Bernoullis equation as
p
sdiffusion
=

2
(w
2
1
w
2
2
) (7)
As mentioned above, all these quantities are dened
between the impeller inlet and outlet. Hence, one can
in this rst analysis interpret the Euler pump and
turbine equation as follows
p
t
=

2
[(u
2
2
u
2
1
) +(w
2
1
w
2
2
)]
. ,, .
static pressure
+

2
(c
2
2
c
2
1
)
. ,, .
dynamic pressure
(8)
As it is well known (e.g. Sigloch [4]), this equation
can also be written as
p
t
= (u
2
c
u2
u
1
c
u1
) (9)
In general, there are no pre-swirl vanes and the ow
always enters an axial impeller axially and a radial
impeller radially. In order to understand the radial
entry condition for radial impellers, please see Fig. 3.
The uid enters a radial impeller usually axially, as
shown at position 0 (i.e. with a velocity c
0
).
Hence, for these most common cases
w
2
1
= u
2
1
+c
2
1
(10)
and equations (8) and (9) reduce to (for example, see
references [4] and [5])
p
t
=

2
(u
2
2
+c
2
2
w
2
2
) (11)
p
t
= u
2
c
u2
(12)
However, in order to develop the proper formulae to
evaluate the performance of a fan, one has to look at
thetest rig(i.e. howtheperformanceis evaluatedat the
test rig). In Fig. 4(a), a suction side test rig according to
the DIN 24 163 norm is shown. In Fig. 4(b), the corre-
sponding main components are schematically shown.
Basically, the test rig is composed of:
(a) theinlet nozzle, wheretheowratecanbeadjusted
with a throttle;
(b) the test rig chamber, where the ow velocity is
reducedinsucha way that the dynamic pressure is
negligible (i.e. in the chamber, the static and total
pressures are equal);
(c) after the chamber, at the suction side, the fan is
connected to the test rig chamber.
In Fig. 4(c), the corresponding static and total pres-
sures on the components are qualitatively shown.
Since the air is sucked in from rest under atmospheric
conditions, the static andtotal pressures infront of the
nozzle are equal to the atmospheric pressure. Due to
the acceleration of the ow entering the nozzle, the
static pressure drops. In the nozzle, there are then fric-
tion losses leading to a further decrease in the static
pressure and a corresponding decrease in the total
pressure. Because of the sudden expansion at the test
rig chamber entrance, there is a further decrease inthe
Fig. 4 Test rig and measured pressures
total pressure. The static pressure tends to increase
again due to the decrease in velocity at the cham-
ber inlet because of the area increase, but it will not
recuperate the pressure fully due to the losses of the
sudden expansion (i.e. the Carnot shock losses), White
[6], at the chamber entrance. In the chamber, since
the cross-sectional area is large, the dynamic pressure
is negligible, and therefore the static and total pres-
sures can be considered equal to each other. At the
end of the test rig chamber, close to the impeller inlet,
the ow accelerates due to the huge area reduction
fromthe test rig sectionto the impeller inlet area. Here
the static pressure decreases by c
2
1
/2, as shown in
the detailed Fig. 4(d), but the total pressure remains
constant since there is no energy transfer to the ow
before the impeller andthe losses are negligible. This is
the rst key issue that has to be considered when per-
forming the design. In the classical literature, the term
c
2
1
/2 is included in the static pressure increase from
the impeller inlet to the impeller outlet, although it is
not associated with any energy transfer. This part of
the static pressure arises only due to the acceleration
of theowat theinlet of theimpeller, thereis noenergy
gain here. Nowthe owenters the impeller at the inlet
1 and leaves the impeller at the outlet 2. Between the
inlet of the impeller 1 and the outlet of the impeller
2 power is introduced into the ow through the shaft:
the static pressure increases by p
s
= p
s,2
p
s,1
and
the total pressure increases by p
t
= p
t,2
p
t,1
. It is
important to note that at the exit of the impeller, the
static pressure is atmospheric (i.e. p
s,2
= p
atm
), and
the total pressure exceeds the static pressure by the
dynamic pressure at the exit (i.e. p
t,2
= p
atm
+c
2
2
/2).
This excess dynamic pressure at the impeller exit (i.e.
c
2
2
/2), in fans and blowers normally is the term that
is lost, unless it is partially reconverted into static
pressure by a diffuser or guide passages, and not the
term (/2)(c
2
2
c
2
1
) considered by Eck [2]. It is there-
foreveryimportant tonotethat thepressuredifference
measured at the test rig is the total-to-static pressure,
p
ts
= p
s,2
p
t,1
, and not the static pressure increase
p
s
= p
s,2
p
s,1
, although the later one is the one that
is treated in the classical literature. Hence, the total-
to-static pressure is the pressure difference to be used
for a proper performance parameter denition.
In the classical literature (e.g. Eck [2]), the design
performance parameter commonly used is the reac-
tion. It is recommended that the ratio
r
p
s
p
t
=
[(u
2
2
u
2
1
) +(w
2
1
w
2
2
)]
[(c
2
2
c
2
1
) +(u
2
2
u
2
1
) +(w
2
1
w
2
2
)]
(13)
should be kept as high as possible. This ratio r is called
degree of reaction, reaction effect, or simply reaction.
For radial entry, which is normally the case, using
equation (10), the reaction reduces to
r =
u
2
2
w
2
2
+c
2
1
u
2
2
w
2
2
+c
2
2
=
u
2
2
w
2
2
+c
2
1
2u
2
c
u2
(14)
From this equation it follows immediately that
c
2
c
1
r 1
c
2
c
1
r 1
_
(15)
This can be visualized in Fig. 4(d), from which one
can also directly read out that
r=
p
s
p
t
=
p
t
(/2)(c
2
2
c
2
1
)
p
t
=1

2p
t
(c
2
2
c
2
1
)
(16)
This means that depending on whether the abso-
lute velocity c
1
at the inlet is greater or smaller than
the absolute velocity c
2
at the outlet, the reaction is
smaller or greater than one. Hence, the reaction can
be larger than one, which makes its use, as suggested
Fig. 5 Typical reaction for exit angles
2
<90
(AR = A
2
/A
1
)
in the literature (e.g. Eck [2] and Enlinger [7]), actu-
ally impracticable as a performance parameter for
design. In Fig. 5, the three typical reaction curves are
shown, considering that AR = A
2
/A
1
is the ratio of the
impellers inlet and outlet areas:
(a) for AR = 1, the graph of the reaction against the
owcoefcient is a straight line reaching the value
of 1 at the maximum ow coefcient;
(b) for AR < 1, the graph of the reaction against the
ow coefcient is a curve that reaches innity
at the maximum ow coefcient; for AR > 1, the
graph of the reaction against the ow coefcient
is a curve that reaches zero at the maximum
ow coefcient and is never higher than one. For
details, please see Epple [5].
In Fig. 4, a test rig according to the DIN 24 163
normwas presentedandit was explainedthat themost
commonly measured pressure is neither the static nor
the total pressure differences, p
s
and p
t
, but the
total-to-static pressure (i.e. p
ts
)
p
ts
= p
s12

2
c
2
1
= p
t12

2
c
2
2
=

2
[(u
2
2
u
2
1
) +(w
2
1
w
2
2
)]

2
c
2
1
(17)
Due to the radial entry w
2
1
= c
2
1
+u
2
1
and hence
p
ts
=

2
(u
2
2
w
2
2
) (18)
Therefore, it is necessary to dene a corresponding
efciency in the design stage as being the total-to-
static hydraulic power divided by the shaft power
ts
= total-to-static efciency
=
P
ts
P
shaft
=
Qp
ts
Qp
t
=
p
ts
p
t
(19)
Referring toFig. 4, the total-to-static pressure canbe
written as
p
ts
= p
atm
p
t1
= p
s

2
c
2
1
= p
t

2
c
2
2
(20)
and therefore the total-to-static efciency is equal to
ts
=
p
s
(/2)c
2
1
p
t
=
p
t
(/2)c
2
2
p
t
(21)
ts
= r

2
c
2
1
p
t
= 1

2
c
2
2
p
t
(22)
With this equation, it is clear that the reaction r is
not a measure of efciency and it is always higher
than the total-to-static efciency. Besides, from the
second form, it is clear that the total-to-static ef-
ciency is always less than one. Considering the Euler
equation (12) for radial entry, this equation can be
further simplied as
ts,i
= r
1
2
c
2
1
u
2
c
u2
= 1
1
2
c
2
2
u
2
c
u2
(23)
This is an ideal total-to-static efciency. It is a cen-
tral equation to the design method for radial impellers
presented in this work. These results are summarized
in Table 1.
The ow coefcient and the head coefcient are
given as (e.g. Lewis [8])
=
c
m2
u
2
(24)
=
c
u2
u
2
(25)
This is a consistent way to dene the head coef-
cient, which proves to have many formal advantages.
Nevertheless, in the literature (e.g. Bohl and Elmen-
dorf [3], Cordier [1], andEck[2]), theheadcoefcient is
dened as
C
= 2c
u2
/u
2
= 2Y /u
2
2
(i.e.
C
= 2), which
is the way most authors write it. Therefore, this has to
be takeninto account whencomparing the theoretical
results developed here with experimental data in the
literature. Hence, the efciency can be written as
ts,i
= 1
1
2
c
2
2
u
2
c
u2
= 1
1
2
c
2
m2
+c
2
u2
u
2
c
u2
= 1
1
2
c
2
m2
u
2
c
u2
1
2
c
2
u2
u
2
c
u2
=1
1
2
c
m2
u
2
c
m2
c
u2
1
2
c
u2
u
2
= 1
1
2
1
2
(26)
and nally
ts,i
= 1
1
2
(
2
+
2
) (27)
Although the algebraic equation (27) might seem
trivial at rst glance, it depicts the maximum achiev-
able efciency (i.e. the ideal total-to-static efciency).
It represents the maximum useful hydraulic power
that can be generated by a radial impeller for a given
shaft power: it is a theoretical upper limit. It is similar
in its function to the equation of Betz for the maxi-
mum power which can be extracted from the air with
a windmachine (see also[9]) or the equationof Froude
for the ideal efciency of an airscrew(for example, see
reference [10]). Although the equations of Betz and
Froude are about 100 years old and one could expect
that a similar equation for radial impellers for fans to
already exist, whichseems not tobe the case evenafter
an extensive bibliographic research. This equation is
essential for understanding the Cordier diagram and
the design procedure of radial impellers.
Table 1 Impeller and test rig formulae
Impeller classical literature Test rig
(a) Total pressure (a) Total pressure
p
t
=

2
__
c
2
2
c
2
1
_
+
_
u
2
2
u
2
1
_
+
_
w
2
1
w
2
2
__
p
t
=

2
__
c
2
2
c
2
1
_
+
_
u
2
2
u
2
1
_
+
_
w
2
1
w
2
2
__
For radial (radial fan) or axial (axial fan) entry
p
t
=

2
_
c
2
2
+u
2
2
w
2
2
_
(b) Static pressure increase (b) Total-to-static pressure
p
s
=

2
__
u
2
2
u
2
1
_
+
_
w
2
1
w
2
2
__
p
ts
=

2
__
u
2
2
u
2
1
_
+
_
w
2
1
w
2
2
_
c
2
1
_
For radial (radial fan) or axial (axial fan) entry
p
ts
=

2
_
u
2
2
w
2
2
_
(c) Dynamic pressure increase (c) Dynamic pressure at the exit (in general this term is lost)
p
d
=

2
_
c
2
2
c
2
1
_
p
d2
=

2
c
2
2
(d) Reaction (for radial entry) (d) Total-to-static efciency (for radial entry)
r =
p
s
p
t
=
u
2
2
w
2
2
+c
2
1
u
2
2
w
2
2
+c
2
2
=
u
2
2
w
2
2
+c
2
1
2 u
2
c
u2
ts
=
p
ts
p
t
=
p
t
p
d2
p
t
=
p
s
c
2
1
/2
p
t
=
p
t
c
2
2
/2
p
t
To rst have a better understanding of equation
(27) one can start solving equation (27) for the head
coefcient to obtain
= (1 )
_
(1 )
2
2
(28)
This equation can be rearranged as
2
+[ (1 )]
2
= (1 )
2
(29)
which is the equation for circles of radius (1 ) cen-
tredat [0; 1 ] (Fig. 6). The optimumduty line is given
by = (for details on the optimum duty line, see
reference [5]). To operate an impeller on the optimum
duty line means to have the maximum efciency for
a given ow coefcient: this is possible only for one
unique head coefcient. Operating at any lower ow
coefcient at the same efciency means either a lower
head coefcient (for axial impellers) or a higher head
coefcient (for radial impellers).
Head and ow coefcients are not independent.
They are connected through the velocity triangle
(Fig. 7)
c
u2
= u
2
c
m2
tan
2
(30)
which is another way to express Eulers turbomachin-
eryequation. Hence, onecanderivearelationbetween
ow coefcient, outlet angle, and ow coefcient
= 1

tan
2
(31)
and
= (1 ) tan
2
(32)
Fig. 6 diagram with efciency contours
Fig. 7 Velocity triangle at outlet
Substituting equations (31) and (32) into equation
(27) the ideal total-to-static efciency can be
expressed as
ts,i
= 1
1
2
[(1 )
2
tan
2
2
+
2
] (33)
ts,i
= 1
1
2(1 (/ tan
2
))
_
2
+
_
1

tan
2
_
2
_
(34)
These two expressions represent a family of para-
metric curves for the efciency. In equation (33), the
parameter is the head coefcient and in equation
(34) the parameter is the ow coefcient . It can
easily be shown[11] that by differentiating these equa-
tions on both sides with respect to the parameters
and , respectively, and by solving these variables and
substituting the result in the original equations, thus
eliminating the parameters that for both families, the
involutes are given by
ts,max
=
1
1 +sin(
2
)
(35)
The involute is the limiting curve for efciency.
Hence, it gives the maximum efciency reachable at
each exit angle
2
. This is the upper limit for the ef-
ciency at each exit angle value. It can be proved, see
Epple [5], that for exit angles
2
> 90
the maximum
total-to-static efciency is always
ts,max
= 0.5. These
results are shown in Fig. 8.
2.1 The ideal total-to-static efciency and the
Cordier diagram
As already mentioned, Cordier [1] linked the optimum
operating conditions (i.e. the owrate Q
opt
and the
specic head Y = p
opt
/), with the optimumdiame-
ter D and speed n, for one-stage machines operating
at the optimum efciency, with the aid of speed and
diameter numbers, equations (1) and (2). In order to
correlate the speed and diameter numbers with the
headandpressurecoefcients, onehas tobear inmind
that Cordier denedtheheadandpressurecoefcients
Fig. 8 Maximum theoretical total-to-static efciency
directly in terms of the diameter D, owrate Q, speed
n, and specic work Y = p/
=
c
m
u
=
Q
Au
=
4Q
D
3
2
n
(ow coefcient) (36)
C
=
2Y
u
2
=
2Y
D
2
n
2
2
(head coefcient) (37)
instead of, as dened by equations (24) and (25), as a
functionof themeridianandcircumferential velocities
dividedbytheperipheral velocity. Thebasicdifference,
when comparing these equations with equations (24)
and (25), is the factor 2 in equation (37), and therefore
in equation (37) the head coefcient has an index C,
indicating that it is the denition used by Cordier [1].
It can be readily shown from equations (1), (2), (36),
and (37) that
=
1
3
(38)
=
1
2
2
2
(39)
with =
C
/2, where
C
is the head coefcient as
dened by Cordier and is the head coefcient
as dened in this work, equation (25). Substituting
equations (38) and (39) into equation (27) one obtains
ts,i
= 1
1
4
2
_
4
2
+
1
2
_
(40)
This equation can be rearranged to deliver a para-
metric equation for the speed number as a function of
the diameter number, having the ideal total-to-static
efciency as a parameter
=
1
2
4
(1
ts,i
) 1
(41)
Assigning values to the total-to-static efciency
ts,i
, it is now possible to plot this equation in the
Fig. 9 The Cordier diagram and the ideal total-to-static
efciency
Cordier diagram, Fig. 9. One can see that the result-
ing curves t very well into the Cordier diagram. The
Cordier line lies between the curves of total-to-static
ideal efciency of 60%and 80%for values of the speed
coefcients
opt
< 0.4 (i.e. for all radial machines).
This means that theslopeof thetheoreticallyderived
curves, with the ideal total-to-static efciency as a
parameter, ts the Cordier diagramvery well for speed
coefcients
opt
< 0.4. For speed coefcients,
opt
>
0.4, it seems that the theoretical curves turn around
faster than the Cordier line and nally cross it. Hence,
it seems that they do not really t in the axial range
of the Cordier line. However, in the original Cordier
publication, there is no Cordier line in the axial range;
instead, Cordier measured the efciency level curves
in the axial region. This original Cordier diagram can
be seen in Fig. 10. The straight lines of slope 1 of
constant head coefcient are a direct consequence of
equation (39). In the same way, constant values of the
ow coefcient result in straight lines of slope 3
log =
1
2
log(2) log (42)
log = log 3 log (43)
In Cordiers publication, one can see optimal
opt
/
opt
points for fans, blowers, and centrifugal
pumps. Further, for the range of speed coefcients,
opt
> 0.4, contour plots of iso-efciency lines for axial
and diagonal impellers are shown.
Here, it can now be seen that the ideal total-to-
static efciency
ts,i
also matches the original Cordier
diagram for values of speed number
opt
> 0.4.
For the sake of clarity, it should be mentioned that
in Cordiers publication actually there is no explicit
Fig. 10 Original Cordier diagram with
ts,i
contours
denition of the efciency considered in the measure-
ments. However, since it is mentioned that measure-
ments were made for axial fans (number not specied)
and blowers for the region
opt
> 0.4 and for 120 radial
fans andblowers andalsofor centrifugal pumps for the
region
opt
< 0.6, it is reasonable topresume that it was
the total-to-static efciency, since this is the efciency
that disregards the dynamic pressure at the exit and
evaluates the performance using the useful hydraulic
power divided by the shaft power. This is how the per-
formance of fans and blowers is usually evaluated in
industry. But even if the total efciency is meant, one
has to bear in mind that the total efciency is com-
puted adding the dynamic pressure at the exit of the
fan to the total-to-static pressure. The dynamic pres-
sure c
2
2
/2 is computed estimating the total velocity
at the exit c
2
as the ratio of the owrate and the exit
area of the fan (e.g. of the diameter of the exit pipe
of the spiral casing). Computing the total pressure in
this way wouldnot differ muchfromthe total-to-static
pressure. Finally, as shown above, it ts the Cordier
diagram fairly well.
For radial machines, it is clear from the original
Cordier diagram, Fig. 10, that the line of optimumef-
ciency (i.e. the Cordier line for
opt
< 0.4), is closer
to the line of constant head coefcient =
C
/2 =
0.5 (
C
= 1).
After the derivation of the total-to-static efciency
andthe locationinthe Cordier diagram, some remarks
on these results might be useful before proceeding
with the derivation for axial machines.
The present theoretical derivation is based on the
non-viscous and incompressible mean line theory, as
it is usual for fans, blowers, and pumps (e.g. Bohl
and Elmendorf [3], Eck [2], and Sigloch [4]). Hence,
in this rst analysis, the effects due to viscosity, such
as viscous losses, were neglected. This is admissible,
because the ows treatedhere are highReynolds ows.
The Reynolds number, which is the ratio between the
inertial and the viscous forces (e.g. Durst [12] or White
[6]), can be written for an impeller as
Re
impeller
=
wD
hyd
(44)
where w is the relative velocity in the impeller blade
channel, D
hyd
is a typical hydraulic diameter for the
blade passage and is the kinematic viscosity of
the uid. Therefore, in order to capture the basic
properties of the ow in the impeller a non-viscous
treatment is sufcient. This conforms to the usual
aerodynamic and hydrodynamic design procedure for
uid machines, since here one is interested to obtain
workable formulae in order to perform the design.
The theory that results is not exact, as it is usually
the case for design purposes, but it does capture the
essential physics of the process, failing only to lead
to the exact value. This is what is needed for design,
in order to set the main dimensions of an impeller.
This is also the purpose of the Cordier diagram (i.e.
deliver information for the main dimensioning of tur-
bomachines). In the design practice, in the nal step
of the design process, these designs are then validated
by measurements or computational uid dynamics
(CFD) simulations. Since the Cordier diagram itself is
based on measurements it directly delivers a valida-
tion to the present theory. A second way to validate
the theory is performing CFDcomputations. Howwell
the design predictions t to the CFD computations
has been already done by the authors and presented
in Epple [5] and Epple et al. [13, 14]. Here, it was
conrmed for several practical cases that the design
process and hence these simplied formulae, which
do not take into account the viscosity, indeed capture
the essential physics of the process, failing to lead to
the exact value.
A nal but fundamental remark has to be made on
efciency. A large number of efciency denitions are
present in the literature on turbomachines and most
workers in this eld would agree that there are too
many, as mentioned by Dixon [15]. Therefore, one has
to use those considered to be important and useful.
In the present case, one has to restrict it even more:
the efciency denition has to be useful for design.
Having taken into consideration, the ideal total-to-
static efciency, equation (23) or, in order to compare
it with the total-to-total efciency, equation (21), has
beendeveloped. The overall or total-to-total efciency
of the fan or pump is dened as the ratio of the
total hydraulic power divided by the shaft power. If
no viscous and three-dimensional losses are consid-
ered, the shaft power and the total hydraulic power
are equal and all the mechanical powers of the shaft is
transferred to the uid
tt
=
P
hyd,t
P
shaft
=
Qp
t
Qp
t
= 1 (45)
That means that from a non-viscous ideal point of
view, the total-to-total efciency is always one. It is
less than one only when considering viscous losses.
Although this is valid for the total-to-total efciency,
for the total-to-static efciency considered here it is
different, since here the major amount of losses is
not due to viscous losses but due to pure mechanical
losses. To understand this issue better, one can rewrite
equation (21) as follows
ts
=
Qp
t
Q(/2)c
2
2
Qp
t
=
tt

2
c
2
2
p
t
(46)
The term that makes the difference to the total-to-
total efciency, which is less than one only when also
considering the viscous losses, is the last term on the
right-hand side of equation (46): (/2)(c
2
2
/p
t
). This
is independent of the viscosity: it is a purely mechan-
ical loss that has to be considered when computing
the efciency of fans and pumps. Hence, the total-to-
static efciency is always less than one, even when
the viscous losses are neglected. This mechanical loss
term, combined with the fact that high Reynolds ows
are being treated and hence the viscous losses are rel-
atively low, is the reason why this theory works well
without considering the viscous dissipation effects.
2.2 Axial machines
Equation (27) was derived for radial impellers. The
same equation is also valid for a section of an axial
impeller. This will be shown in this section.
Considering the velocity triangles of axial fans,
Fig. 11, one can apply Eulers general equation (4)
p
t
=

2
[(c
2
2
c
2
1
) +(u
2
2
u
2
1
) +(w
2
1
w
2
2
)] (47)
Since axial fans u
1
= u
2
= u, this equation reduces to
p
t
=

2
[(c
2
2
c
2
1
) +(w
2
1
w
2
2
)] (48)
which, by Pythagorass theorem, can also be written as
p
t
=

2
[(c
2
m2
+c
2
u2
c
2
m1
c
2
u1
)
+(w
2
m1
+w
2
u1
w
2
m2
w
2
u2
)] (49)
Since, by mass ow conservation, c
m1
= c
m2
=
w
m1
= w
m2
, this equation reduces to
p
t
=

2
[(c
2
u2
c
2
u1
) +(w
2
u1
w
2
u2
)] (50)
Fig. 11 Velocity triangle for axial fans
Because of axial entry (no pre-swirl), c
u1
= 0 and
w
u1
= u. Hence
p
t
=

2
[c
2
u2
+u
2
w
2
u2
] (51)
Since, fromthe velocity triangle of Fig. 11, w
u2
= u
c
u2
, this equation reduces to
p
t
= uc
u2
(52)
From equation (20), which is valid for any kind of
turbomachinery (i.e. radial, diagonal, and axial), the
total-to-static pressure can be expressed as
p
ts
= p
t

2
c
2
2
(53)
Hence, the ideal total-to-static efciency for axial
impellers can be written as
ts
=
p
ts
p
t
=
p
t
(/2)c
2
2
p
t
= 1
1
2
c
2
2
u
2
c
u2
= 1
1
2
c
2
2m
+c
2
2u
u
2
c
u2
= 1
1
2
c
2
2m
u
2
c
u2
1
2
c
2
2u
u
2
c
u2
= 1
1
2
c
2m
u
2
c
2m
c
u2
1
2
c
2u
u
2
= 1
1
2
1
2
(54)
and nally one obtains the same result as for radial
impellers, equation (27)
ts,i
= 1
1
2
(
2
+
2
) (55)
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, this
formula is valid at one radius of an axial machine. In
order to understand how a full axial machine behaves
and where it is located in the Cordier diagram, as
compared to radial fans, one has to integrate this
expression over the full fan taking the area average.
This will be done for a simple case in the next section.
2.3 Axial and radial machines in the Cordier
diagram
In order to understand the fundamental differences
between axial and radial fans, a simplied analysis
can be performed. A detailed analysis is being pre-
pared by the main author for a further publication.
For the purpose of this paper, however, a simplied
analysis is adequate to explain the fundamental dif-
ferences between axial and radial fans, as for example
their location in the Cordier diagram.
Fromthe velocity triangle, Fig. 7, the relative velocity
at the exit of the impeller, w
2
, can be written as
w
2
=
c
m2
sin
2
(56)
Combining equations (18) and (56) the expression
for the total-to-static pressure is obtained
p
ts
=

2
_
u
2
2
_
c
m2
sin
2
_
2
_
(57)
This equation is basically valid for radial as well as
for axial fans. One has to observe, however, that for
radial fans the equation is valid for the whole impeller,
whereas for axial fans it is valid for one section (i.e.
one radius), only. In order to obtain the expression for
a whole axial impeller, equation (57) has to be inte-
gratedfor all radii betweenhubandtip, taking the area
average (see Fig. 12)
p
ts,axial fan
=
1
(R
2
tip
R
2
hub
)
R
tip
R
hub
p
ts
2RdR
=
1
(R
2
tip
R
2
hub
)
R
tip
R
hub

2
_
u
2
2
_
c
m2
sin
2
_
2
_
2RdR (58)
For axial fans, the integration of equation (58) can
be very complicated, since
2
and c
m2
can be functions
of the radius R, and furthermore require the cou-
pled solution of the equation of radial equilibrium(for
example, see reference [16]), which takes into account
the mass transfer inthe radial directioninthe impeller
and corrects the value of c
m
(R) accordingly. This full
solution will be shown in a separate paper by the main
author. Therefore, here, a simplied computation will
be performed.
The simplied procedure works as follows. First,
one has to nd the maximum owrate and the max-
imum total-to-static-pressure of a axial impeller at
Fig. 12 Full axial fan integration of the total-to-static
pressure
a given section (i.e. radius). Then these values are
integrated over the whole impeller, taking the area
average, in order to obtain these values for the axial
fan. Afterwards, a correction is applied to obtain the
approximate values of owrate Q
0
at the best operat-
ing point and the corresponding pressure p
ts,0
. With
these values, the corresponding ow and head coef-
cients and afterwards the speed and diameters will be
computed. The later ones will be plottedinthe Cordier
diagram and it will be shown that the location of axial
fans in the Cordier diagram is at high speed num-
bers and low diameter numbers and that the location
of radial fans in the Cordier diagram is at low speed
numbers and high diameter numbers. This will now
be performed step-by-step.
2.3.1 Computation of the maximum total-to-static
pressure and the maximum owrate for one
section
In Fig. 13, the total pressure according to equation
(11) and the total-to-static pressures according to
equation (18) are shown qualitatively against the
owrate. The total pressure is represented by the
straight line and the total-to-static pressure by the
parabola.
As can be seen in Fig. 13, the total-to-static head-
ow-rate-characteristic can be well characterized by
the maximum pressure at zero owrate, setting the
owrate or the meridian velocity c
m
in equation (57)
equal to zero and solving for the maximum total-to-
static pressure at zero owrate
p
ts,max
=

2
u
2
2
(59)
Fig. 13 Total and total-to-static pressure
and the maximumowrate at zero pressure, consider-
ing that
c
m2
=
Q
A
2
(60)
where A
2
is the exit area of the impeller, whether radial
or axial, and considering also equation (57)
Q
ts,max
= u
2
A
2
sin
2
(61)
2.3.2 Integration of the maximum total-to-static
pressure and the maximum owrate for the
whole fan
The maximal pressure for radial fans is simply givenby
equation (59)
p
ts,max,radial
=

2
u
2
2
(62)
In the case of axial fans, one has to integrate
equation (59) from hub to tip taking the area average,
as illustrated in Fig. 12
p
ts,max,axial
=

2
1
A
2
R
tip
R
hub
u
2
(R)dA
=

2
1
(R
2
tip
R
2
hub
)
R
tip
R
hub
(2Rn)
2
2RdR
(63)
p
ts,max,axial
=

2
8
3
n
2
_
R
2
tip
R
2
hub
_
r
tip
r
hub
R
3
dR
=

2
8
3
n
2
_
R
2
tip
R
2
hub
_
1
4
_
R
4
tip
R
4
hub
_
(64)
Dening the ratio of the hub-to-tip radii as
m
R
hub
R
tip
(65)
equation (64) can be rearranged as
p
ts,max,axial
=

2
8
3
n
2
1
4
R
2
tip
(1 +m
2
)
=

2
1
2
u
2
tip
(1 +m
2
) (66)
p
ts,max,axial
=

2
u
2
tip
2
(1 +m
2
) (67)
For radial impellers, equation (59) is valid
p
ts,max,radial
=

2
u
2
2
(68)
Hence, the maximum pressure of an axial fan lies
between half of the maximum pressure of a radial fan
and reaches the maximum pressure of a radial fan in
thecaseof aradii ratiom = 1, whichis rather atheoret-
ical limit, since, as will be shown below, in this limiting
case the maximum owrate of the axial fan is zero. In
general, the maximum pressure of an axial fan is less
than the maximum pressure of a radial fan.
For radial fans, the maximum owrate is directly
given by equation (61)
Q
max,radial
= u
2
A
2
sin
2
(69)
For axial fans, one has to take the area average of
equation (61) integrating from hub to tip
Q
max,axial
=
1
A
2
r
tip
r
hub
u
2
A
2
sin
2
dA
=
r
tip
r
hub
(2nR) sin(R)2RdR (70)
Strictly speaking, the exit angle
2
(r) has to be kept
in the integral, since this value may vary from hub to
tip and from impeller to impeller. For this general and
simplied analysis, however, it is enough to assume
some mean value

2
, that is
Q
max,axial
= 4
2
nsin

r
tip
r
hub
R
2
dR
= 4
2
nsin

2
1
3
_
R
3
tip
R
3
hub
_
= 4
2
nsin

2
R
3
tip
3
(1 m
3
) (71)
which can also be rearranged as
Q
max,axial
=
2
3
R
2
tip
u
2
tip
sin

2
(1 m
3
)
=
(1 m
3
)
6
D
2
tip
u
2
tip
sin

2
(72)
Equations (69) and (72) have to be compared with
some care, since for the case of the radial impeller
A
2,radial
= b
2
D
2
, where b
2
is the exit height of the
radial impeller. Since in most radial impellers usually
b
2
D
2
the maximum owrate reached by a radial
impeller is much lower than the maximum owrate
reached by an axial impeller.
2.4 Mean owrate and pressure
Referring to Fig. 13 and to equations (57), (59), and
(61), one can describe the total-to-static head charac-
teristic by
p
ts
= p
ts,max
_
1
_
Q
Q
max
_
2
_
(73)
Since it is a parabolic equation, one can chose as a
good estimate of the owrate in the operating point
(see Fig. 13)
Q
0
=
1
2
Q
max
(74)
Substituting the estimate givenby equation(74) into
equation (73) one can nd an estimate of the total-to-
static pressure in the operating point
p
ts,0
=
3
4
p
ts,max
(75)
Substituting equations (74) and (75) into equa-
tions (67) to (69), and (72), one nally obtains
p
ts,0,axial
=

2
3
8
u
2
tip
(1 +m
2
) (76)
p
ts,0,radial
=

2
3
4
u
2
2
(77)
Q
0,axial
=
(1 m
3
)
12
D
2
tip
u
2
tip
sin

2
(78)
Q
0,radial
=
1
2
u
2
A
2
sin

2
(79)
Equations (76) to (79) are the equations to be used
in order to locate radial and axial fans in the Cordier
diagram. As mentioned before, the axial fan equations
are simplied equations.
2.5 Mean speed and diameter numbers and the
Cordier diagram
The denition of the head and ow coefcients as
given in the literature (e.g. Bohl and Elmendorf [3]),
already mentioned in equations (36) and (37), con-
sidering that the specic work Y = p
ts
/, since the
total-to-static and the total pressure, as measured in
the praxis of fan measurements, as mentioned above,
do not differ substantially, are given by
=
4Q
D
3
2
2
n
(80)
=
2p
ts
2
D
2
2
n
2
(81)
Furthermore, the speed and diameter numbers are
computed, solvingfromequations (38) and(39), as (for
example, see reference [3])
=

1/2
3/4
(82)
=

1/4
1/2
(83)
Substituting equations (76) to (79) into equa-
tions (80) to (83), one obtains the results summarized
in Table 2.
The equations in Table 2 allow a direct comparison
of the head and ow coefcients of axial and radial
fans in the operating point
0,axial
0,radial
=
1 m
3
6(b
2
/D
2
)
(84)
0,axial
0,radial
=
1
2
(1 +m
2
) (85)
Equations (84) and (85) are shown in Figs 14 and
15, respectively. The ratio b
2
/D
2
in equation (84) is
the ratio of the height to the diameter of a radial
fan. Usually, for a radial impeller, this ratio does not
exceed 0.1 (i.e. b
2
does not usually exceed 10% of the
outer diameter D
2
). Furthermore, in the case of axial
fans, the ratio of the hub-to-tip radii m does not usu-
ally exceed 0.5. Hence, from Fig. 14, it is clear that
axial fans, in general, have a higher ow coefcient
as radial fans.
Table 2 Summary of equations for axial and radial fans
and pumps
Radial Axial (m = R
1
/R
2
)
p
ts,0
2
3
4
u
2
2
2
3
8
(1 +m
2
)u
2
2
Q
0
1
2
u
2
D
2
b
2
sin
2
1
12
(1 m
3
)u
2
D
2
2
sin
2
0
2
b
2
D
2
sin
2
2
6
(1 m
3
) sin
2
0
3
4
3
8
(1 +m
2
)
0
=

1/2
0
3/4
0
2
_
4
3
_
3/4
_
_
b
2
D
2
_
sin
2
_
1/3(1 m
2
) sin
2
_
3/8(1 +m
2
)
_
3/4
0
=

1/4
0
1/2
0
2
2
_
3
4
_
1/4
1
_
(b
2
/D
2
) sin
2
_
3/8(1 +m
2
)
_
1/4
_
1/3(1 m
2
) sin
2
Fig. 14 Ratio of ow coefcients of axial and radial fans
Fig. 15 Ratio of head coefcients of axial and radial fans
Looking now to equation (85), which is plotted in
Fig. 15, one can see that the head coefcient of axial
fans is always lower than the one of radial fans, except
in the limiting case when m = 1, but this is a singular
point sinceheretheaxial fanhas noowrateandhence
has no practical relevance. Since usually the ratio of
the hub-to-tip radii m does not usually exceed 0.5, the
head coefcient of an axial fan is about half or a lit-
tle bit above half of the head coefcient of a radial
fan.
In Figs 16 and 17, the speed against diameter curves
for axial and radial fans according toTable 2 were plot-
ted. In this example, the exit angle
2
of the axial fan
was chosen to be 40
and of the radial fan 15
, since
these are typical values and usually the exit angle of
radial fans is higher than the one of axial fans. One
has to mention, however, that also choosing the same
exit angle for the axial and radial fan, these plots does
not change qualitatively. On can see in Figs 16 and 17
that the curve of the axial fans lies in the region of high
speed numbers and low diameter numbers and that
the curve of the radial fans lies in the region of low
Fig. 16 Axial and radial fans in the Cordier diagram
Fig. 17 Axial and radial fans in the original Cordier
diagram
speed numbers and high diameter numbers, as it is
predicted in the Cordier diagram. One can see that the
lower the radii ratio m, the more axial are the axial
machines and, on the other side, the smaller the ratio
b
2
/D
2
, the more radial are the radial machines.
3 CONCLUSIONS
It was shown that by total-to-static efciency and geo-
metrical considerations it is possible to analytically
derive the Cordier curve andtoobtaingoodagreement
with the original Cordier curves. Furthermore, it was
shown analytically that, on the one hand side, axial
fans have high speed and low diameter numbers and,
on the other hand, side radial fans have lowspeed and
high diameter numbers. It was also shown that axial
fans, already from an analytical point of view, usually
have lower head coefcients and higher ow coef-
cients than radial impellers. Hence, one can conclude
that the experimental information contained in the
Cordier diagram can also be derived analytically by
energy and geometrical considerations.
Authors 2011
REFERENCES
1 Cordier, O. hnlichkeitsbedingungen fr Strmungs-
maschinen, BWK Bd. 6, Nr. 10 Oktober 1953.
2 Eck, B. Fans, 1973 (Pergamon Press, Oxford).
3 Bohl, W. and Elmendorf, W. Stroemungsmaschinen 1,
2004 (Vogel Buchverlag, Wuerzburg).
4 Sigloch, H. Strmungsmaschinen, Grundlagen und
Anwendungen, 2. Auage, 1993 (Carl Hanser Verlag,
Mnchen).
5 Epple, Ph. Moderndesignandapplications to radial fans.
PhDThesis, Universitt Erlangen-Nrnberg, 2009.
6 White, F. M. Fluid mechanics, 4th edition, 1998 (McGraw
Hill Higher Education, Singapore).
7 Enlinger, J. Wirkungsgradsteigerung von Ventilatoren
radialer Bauart durch strmungstechnisch richtige For-
mgebung er Flgelrder, M.A.N. Forschungsheft, 1952,
pp. 5967.
8 Lewis, R. I. Turbomachinery performance analysis, 1996
(Arnold, London).
9 Gasch, R. and Twele, J. Windkraftanlagen, Grundlagen,
Entwurf, Planung und Betrieb, 5. berarbeitete Auage,
2007 (Teubner Verlag, Wiesbaden).
10 Glauert, H. The elements of aerofoil and airscrew theory,
CambridgeScienceClassics, 1983(CambridgeUniversity
Press, Cambridge).
11 Piskounov, N. Calcul differentiel et integralTome 2, 1987
(Editions Mir, Moscou).
12 Durst, F. Grundlagender Strmungsmechanik Eine Ein-
fhrung in die Theorie der Strmungen in Fluiden, 2006
(Springer Verlag, Berlin).
13 Epple, Ph., Karic, B., Ilc, C., Becker, S., Durst, F. and Del-
gado, A. Designof radial impellers: a combinedextended
analytical and numerical method. Proc. IMechE, Part C:
J. Mechanical Engineering Science, 2009, 223, 901917.
DOI: 10.1243/09544062JMES1196.
14 Epple, Ph., Miclea, M., Luschmann, C., Ilic, C., and Del-
gado, A. An extended analytical and numerical design
method with applications of radial fans. In Proceed-
ings of the IMECE, ASME International Mechanical
Engineering Congress and Exposition, Orlando, 2009.
15 Dixon, S. L. Fluid mechanics and thermodynamics of
turbomachinery, 4th edition, 1998 (Butterworth and
Heinemann, Oxford).
16 Eckert, B. and Schnell, E. Axialkompressoren und Radi-
alkompressoren, Anwendung Theorie Berechnung,
1953 (Springer-Verlag, Berlin).
APPENDIX
Notation
A area (m
2
)
AR ratio of the impellers inlet and outlet
areas ()
b blade height (m)
c absolute velocity (m/s)
D diameter (m)
m radius ratio R
hub
/R
tip
()
n speed (min
1
)
p pressure (Pa)
P power (W)
Q owrate (m
3
/s)
r reaction ()
R radius (m)
Re Reynolds number ()
s blade thickness (m)
u peripheral velocity (m/s)
w relative velocity (m/s)
Y specic work (J/kg)
Absolute velocity angle (rad)
impeller blade angle (rad)
ow angle (rad)
diameter number ()
variation of a quantity ()
efciency ()
kinematic viscosity of air (m
2
/s)
density (kg/m)
speed number ()
ow coefcient ()
head coefcient ()
angular velocity (rad/min)
Subscripts and superscripts
1 at the impeller inlet
2 at the impeller outlet
axial referring to axial fans
C As an index referring to Cordier
d dynamic
dif diffuser
hyd hydraulic
imp impeller
m meridional
max referring to the maximum value of a
quantity
o at operating point
radial referring to radial fans
rig referring to test rig
s static
t total
ts total-to-static
u circumferential

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What is the Cordier diagram?

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to reach the blade inlet (1)

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