Contemporary Notation For The Shakuhachi A Primer For Composers PDF

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FuIIisIed I Perspectives of New Music
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CONT1EMPORARY NOTATION
FORTHE SHAKUHACHI:
A PRIMERFORCOMPOSERS
JEFFREY
LEPENDORF
INTRODUCTION
A
S THE SHAKUHACHI
(traditional Japanese
bamboo
flute)
becomes
more familiar in the
West,
the
primary problem
the Western
composer
confronts in
attempting
to
explore
the instrument's
capabilities
is notation.
Traditional shakuhachi
notation,
which is
unique
to the
instrument,
uses a
combination
oftablature,
verbal instruction, and
idiosyncratic graphic sym-
bols that differ from school to school.
Despite
the
apparent precision
of
much of this
notation,
most traditional shakuhachi music must still be
learned
by
rote
(both honkyoku,
esoteric Buddhist
music,
and
sankyoku,
ensemble music of the Edo
period).
Contemporary
Notation for Shakuhachi
In the recent
past, composers
such as Toru
Takemitsu,
Minoru
Miki,
and earlier even
Henry
Cowell have
attempted
to notate new music for
shakuhachi
using
standard Western notation. While each
attempt
has its
merits, each one also differs
greatly
from the others and more often than
not
produces greatly differing
results in the hands of different
performers.
The
present
author is a
performer
and
composer.
The
following
nota-
tional
system
is offered in the
spirit
of
simplifying
and
standardizing
shakuhachi notation for use in
contemporary
scores. The
techniques
dis-
cussed
represent
the bulk of traditional
playing practices
as well as a number
of recent innovations.
THE SHAKUHACHI
The instrument itself consists
simply
of a hollow bamboo tube with an
angular
cut at the
mouthpiece.
Four holes are bored in the front and one in
back. The
player grips
the
instrument,
which is held
upright,
between the
thumbs and middle
fingers.
The thumb of the
upper
hand articulates the
one hole on the back. The instrument rests on the lower chin and the
per-
former
produces
sound
by
blowing
"backwards" into the bamboo tube.
While the shakuhachi can
certainly
be considered a member of the flute
family,
new music
composed
for it will be far more effective-or at the
very
least more idiomatic-if the
composer
divorces himself from
analogies
to
Western-style
flutes.
Actually, many
shakuhachi
techniques
have a lot more
in common with
string techniques-but
more on that later. If the
composer
understands a few fundamental differences between the shakuhachi and
other, Western, flutes, then idiomatic
writing
can indeed be
realized,
even
by
those who have never heard the instrument.
The shakuhachi
generally
does not make use of a
tongued
articulation for
a reiterated
pitch,
but rather makes use of a
system
of
grace-note
articula-
tions. The
performer
makes no use of a
diaphragmatic vibrato;
instead the
head shakes from side to side to create a
variety
of subtle vibrato effects. In
addition, although
the closed-hole
pitches
of the instrument match those
of
equal temperament,
the absence of a fixed
key
or valve
system
makes
microtonal inflection of
any pitch
a
simple
matter. It follows that
glissandi
can be
employed
rather
freely.
The
headings
below should facilitate
using
this
primer
while
composing.
A number of
techniques
can be considered to fall
equally
well under more
than one
category,
so if a
particular technique
can't be located under an
assumed
heading
it can
probably
be found under another:
233
Perspectives of
New Music
1.
Range
2. Articulation
3. Vibrato
4. Pitch Inflection
5. Trills/Tremolos
6.
Special
Timbral Effects
7. Scales and Runs
8. Other
Techniques
9.
Tuning/Ensemble Writing
10. Selected
Recordings
1. RANGE
Shakuhachi come in a
variety
of
lengths,
some more
commonly
available
than others. Because all shakuhachi
players play
the 1.8 shaku
length
(one
shaku = .994
ft.),
this is referred to as standard
length.
All of the tech-
niques
described below can be
performed
more-or-less
equally successfully
on
any
of the available
lengths.
The next most common
length
would be the "2.0"
(ni shaku)
which
sounds a fourth lower than the standard
length,
followed
by
the "1.6"
which sounds a whole
step higher.
Shakuhachi with six and seven holes
exist but
fingerings vary.
Table A shows the
range
of the instrument. Note that the
resulting
sound will be one octave lower than
notated,
though
the
presence
of a
strong
first overtone can be
deceptive.
The
open
note-heads indicate the
"basic"
pitches.
These
pitches
are realized
by simply covering
or
uncovering
the five holes of the shakuhachi in
sequence.
All other
pitches
("altered"
pitches)
result from combinations of
partially
covered holes
and/or
raising
or
lowering
the chin. The second octave results from over-
blowing
the first. All basic
pitches
are available at all times.
They
can be
freely approached
from
any
interval and
possess
a
greater dynamic range
than altered
pitches.
Although
somewhat more
problematic
than basic
pitches (generally
because of the time needed to
adjust
the
position
of the chin or because of
difficulty
in
tuning
a
particular pitch),
most altered
pitches
can also be used
freely.
More
specific guidelines
for this will be
given
under the
heading
"Scales and Runs." With these considerations in
mind,
all chromatic
234
Contemporary
pitches
from the lowest C to the
uppermost
E can be considered available at
all times
(note
that while FI/G/G# are
possible
above the
highest
E,
F can-
not be
produced).
2. ARTICULATION
TONGUING
As mentioned above, the shakuhachi
player
does not
generally
articulate
a tone
by tonguing
it.
Tongued
attacks are
certainly possible
and even
appear
as a
special
effect in a small number of traditional
pieces.
The
tongued
attack
gives
the shakuhachi a more flute-like
sound,
which
might
be desirable at some
point
in a
composition.
Tongued
attacks can also be
most effective in loud or
percussive figures.
A
small,
inverted and darkened
triangle
will be understood
by
all
players
to
represent
a
tongued
attack. To
avoid confusion with the staccattissimo accent, an
explanatory
footnote
should be
provided.
Unfortunately,
because of the
many
conventions attached to various
schools and
styles
of
playing,
a soft attack cannot be assumed if not other-
wise notated. To
produce
consistent
attacks,
include
something
like the fol-
lowing
in a set of
explanatory
notes: "Unless otherwise
notated,
all
pitches
are to be
plainly
articulated
(soft attack)" (Example 1).
v v
v
V
vv
A
EXAMPLE 1:
MIYAGI:
Ham no Umi
(TRANSCRIBED)
EXPLOSIVE BREATH
(MURA-IIU)
Another means of
articulation,
generally thought
of as a
special
effect but
nonetheless useable and
effective,
is the
explosive
breath attack (mura-iki
refers to
breathy playing).
Notate it it
by placing
a solid diamond above the
desired note. An
explanation
must be
provided
for this
symbol.
While a
sforzando or
strong
accent alone
might produce
the desired
effect,
the addi-
tion of this
symbol
will make the
composer's
intentions clear. Note
that,
depending
on the
dynamic level,
the attack
may
contain little or no reso-
nance of the notated
pitch.
235
Perspectives of
New Music
This
technique
sounds
particularly
effective in the lower octave when
it
precedes
a sustained
pitch
in the
upper register.
It can be used with
equal
effectiveness to articulate the end of a
sounding pitch,
in which
case it should be tied to the
principle
note and notated either as a short
duration or as a
grace
note,
depending
on the desired
rhythmic specificity
(Example 2).
senza
tempo ?
,
'
----------
.. ......
fp>p - mf
-===
f FINE
N.B. Slightly re-notated
EXAMPLE 2: TRU TOAKEMITSU: Novmber
Steps
STACCATO BREATH
(KOMI-BUKI)
Another
technique,
called komi-buki
(staccato breath),
consists of a series
of reiterated
pitches produced by
a kind of
panting
into the instrument.
This
technique
differs from a
simple
series of staccato reiterations in that
there is less of a break between reiterations. Komi-buki articulations work
equally
well at all
dynamic
levels and should be notated as a slurred series of
staccato noteheads
(stemmed
or
stemless,
depending
on whether
they
are
to be
played freely
or
evenly pulsed), or,
after an initial
pitched articulation,
as a series of stems which
may
follow a
glissando
or
pitch-bend
curve. Komi-
buki is combined with mura-iki
playing
and
pitch bending
to create the daz-
zling
effect heard in the
honkyoku,
Shika no Tone
(Example 3).
(komi-buki)
EXAMPLE 3: Shimabe
(HONKYOKU: TRANSCRIBED)
KITTE
Kitte
(from
a verb
meaning
"to
cut")
is a final articulation. For kitte, the
performer
cuts off the flow of air
abrubtly
without nuance. It
traditionally
appears
at the end of a sustained
tone,
or with a
grace
note or sudden
236
Contemporary
downward
pitch-bend following
a sustained tone. The word kitte is
placed
above the score at the
appropriate
location.
GRACE-NOTE ARTICULATIONS
(ATARI)
Tonguing,
mura-iki, and komi-buki
appear infrequently
in traditional
shakuhachi
compositions.
A
special
set of
grace
notes articulates most ini-
tial
phrase
articulations and
repetitions
of notes. These
grace
notes
(atari),
performed quite rapidly,
sound more like
blips
than well-defined
pitches.
Every pitch
has its own
repertoire
of
possible
atari
fingerings.
It must be
noted that due to the
fingerings
used for these
special grace
notes,
a
good
many
do not match
equal temperament. However,
as mentioned
above,
because of the
speed
at which
they occur,
the listener
generally perceives
these articulations
merely
as
occurring
above or below the
principal
note.
Fortunately,
all
pitches
have standard atari
fingerings.
These consist of
quickly opening
and
closing
an
already
closed hole or vice versa
(atari
liter-
ally
means
"strike").
The number of the hole to be articulated should be
placed
above
(or
above and
slightly
to the left
of)
the desired note. Because
only
the effect-and not the exact
pitch-of
these
special
grace
notes will
generally
be
perceived,
I recommend that the assumed
fingerings
be used
most of the time. Alternate
fingerings, however,
may
be used for the sake
of
variety, particularly
when
reiterating
the same
pitch
or to create a
figure
with a
unique
articulation. Table B shows all standard atari
fingerings
as well as a selection of alternate
fingerings.
Atari
may
be doubled and
even
tripled (by placing
each reiteration of an atari indication over a
separ-
ate
grace note)
to
produce
an effect similar to double or
triple tonguing
(Example 4).
(2) (- ) (5) 4(4) (5) (2)
4 4
'
(2)(2)(2) (2)(2)
EXAMPLE 4: TOSHIZAWA: Chidori
(TRANSCRIBED)
OTHER GRACE NOTES
(CONVENTIONAL)
Conventional
grace
notes
may
also be
used,
in which case the actual
notated
pitch
will be
separately fingered
and
clearly perceived.
It will be
assumed that a conventional
grace
note will be more
clearly
articulated than
the atari articulations discussed under the
previous heading.
237
Perspectives of
New Music
SPECIAL GRACE-NOTE FIGURES
The
grace-note figures
illustrated in Table C
appear
so
frequently
in tra-
ditional shakuhachi
compositions
that
they
are listed here as a
separate
tech-
nique.
Most of them make use of alternate
fingerings
and can be
performed
rapidly
and with ease.
They
differ
slightly
in timbre from the same
figures
performed
with standard
fingerings.
The
figures
which contain microtonal
indications are
frequently
used
by players
as
"fudged"
substitutions for
their
equal-tempered counterparts.
Use of these
figures provides
a trouble-
free
way
to add idiomatic
virtuosity
and timbral
spice
to a
passage.
3. VIBRATO
NORMAL VIBRATO
The unusual method of
performing
vibrato on the shakuhachi
provides
a
wide
range
of
strikingly
different vibrato
techniques
and thus a
great
expressive range
on even a
single
sustained
pitch.
Where other instruments
demonstrate it
through fingering dexterity,
the shakuhachi demonstrates
true
virtuosity
in the areas of vibrato and
pitch
inflection. As mentioned in
the
introduction,
the
performer
creates a vibrato not
diaphragmatically
as
on other
woodwinds,
but rather
by shaking
the head from side to side. The
overall
effect, in
fact,
sounds closer to a
string
vibrato than a woodwind
one. The
composer may request
that the
performer apply
normal amounts
of vibrato where deemed
appropriate,
or else
indicate,
for
example,
"all
pitches played
without vibrato unless otherwise notated."
Notate an
expressive
vibrato
by wavy
lines above the staff. To
truly
appreciate
the full
range
of vibrati
possible
on the
instrument,
I
suggest
lis-
tening
to a
recording
of traditional Buddhist shakuhachi music
(honkyoku)
for ideas. A sustained tone, for
example,
will
generally
be
performed
as a
sasa-buki,
or bamboo-leaf
shape,
which refers both to the
envelope shape
of
the
dynamics
and to the relative width of the vibrato. Note that various
widths as well as various
speeds
are
possible
and all can be
applied
to a
single
sustained tone. The
composer may
wish to indicate the
speed
of a vibrato
graphically
or
simply
affix the words
"fast," "slow,"
and so forth, to the
existing wavy
line
(Example 5).
Playing
without vibrato
appears frequently
in traditional
styles
and
should not be overlooked. In the lower
range,
such
playing produces
a dis-
tinctive and
beautifully
"artless"
sound,
while
playing pitches
in the
upper
range
without vibrato
produces
almost
pure
sine waves.
238
Contemporary
Tempo I
^~----.--,/
(wide)
'
i t;fl I(J |-^
J ) (3) .... 0
ff
map
sub.
pp mp
EXAMPLE 5: LEPENDORF: Stream
YURI
An
erratically
wild and somewhat
improvisatory
vibrato called a
yuri
can
sometimes
produce
a vibrato so wide that it
might
better be called a trem-
olo. Note that while the
player's
head shakes from side to side to create a
vibrato, it moves
up
and down to inflect a
pitch-the
two are combined to
create a true
yuri.
Yuri tend either to
begin
fast and
erratic,
slowing
down
to a controlled vibrato, or vice-versa. Yuri are best notated as a sustained
pitch
with a
graphic representation
of the
figure appearing
above or within
the staff
along
with the word
yuri.
The lower
(and/or
upper) pitch
of the
yuri may
be indicated
by
a small note-head in
parenthesis (Example 6).
(yuri)
o
(P4
^
/^
b
(2)
((22)
(2)
EXAMPLE 6: KIKUOKA: Fune no Yume
(TRANSCRIBED)
4. PITCH INFLECTION
BENDING
The shakuhachi
possesses great flexibility
in its
ability
to
chromatically
inflect
pitches.
This
permits
not
only
the use of
expressive glissandi
from
pitch
to
pitch
and unusual uneven vibrato
effects,
but also allows for a tan-
talizing variety
of
pitches
even within an
equal-tempered
environment. As
mentioned
earlier,
pitches
are inflected in two
ways:
either
by raising/
lowering
the
head,
or
by partially shading
an
open
hole.
Frequently
a com-
bination of the two will be used
(at
the
player's discretion).
The barlines in Table A delineate all
playable equal-tempered
chromatic
239
Perspectives of
New Music
pitches possible
on the instrument and the basic
pitches they
associate
with. The
player's
head remains
upright
for each of these basic
pitches
(indicated by
whole
notes).
The head is lowered and/or the
fingering
slightly
altered to realize the
pitches
indicated
by
small note-heads. All
microtonal
pitches falling
between can be
just
as
easily
executed. Note also
that a number of
pitches
can be
played
as both basic
pitches
and as inflected
ones
(more
will be said about this under "alternate
fingerings").
Pitch
inflections are
easily
notated as
bending
lines
placed
within the staff.
Spe-
cific terminal
pitches,
both microtonal and
equal-tempered, may
be indi-
cated with small
note-heads;
or
alternately,
a
simple bending line, perhaps
with a flat or
sharp
above.
Finally,
I should
point
out that
although
the
head is held
upright
for basic
pitches
it can still be raised
slightly
to raise the
pitch, though generally
less than a semitone
(Example 7).
;i)> , L2)
X 1(2}
1i
EXAMPLE 7: Hon Shirabe
FURI
Furi consists of a
rapid down-and-up
head movement. It can be
thought
of
simply
as an
ornament,
or as a substitution for an atari articulation of a
reiterated
pitch.
The lower
part
of the
furi
can be
rhythmically strong
or
weak
(this aspect
of the
figure may
or
may
not be notated
explicitly).
The
placement
of
thefuri
is indicated
by
an arrow
placed
above the staff. It
may
either
precede
a tied note or be
placed directly
above it to show
rhythmic
placement
and
accentuation,
or the exact
placement may
be left
up
to the
performer. Any
number
offuri
can
appear
within a
single
sustained tone
(Example 8).
(4) (4) , ,
* * 4
.J $C__
w
#L-dJ __J
_d
EXAMPLE 8: Takiochi
240
Contemporary
GLISSANDI
Glissandi and
pitch
inflection differ in two
ways: first,
pitch
inflection
suggests
a movement of the head
(and
therefore a
slight change
in
timbre),
whereas
glissando suggests
a
change
of
fingering;
second,
pitch
inflections
tend to be the result of
bending
down a basic
pitch,
while
glissandi
tend to
ascend and also tend to cover a
greater
intervallic
span.
Smooth,
genuine
glissandi
are
possible
from the lowest CO to the
top
DO of the first
octave,
and from the first DO of the second octave to the
highest
DO. Glissandi
above the
highest
Dt can be faked rather
convincingly
while those across
the break between the first and second octave are more difficult to
perform
smoothly
and without a
significant change
in timbre. A
very rapid glis-
sando
(perhaps
I should
say "rip" here)
can be
convincingly
and
effectively
realized across the break. Note that
yuri
and other vibrato effects can be
executed
simultaneously
with
any glissando (Example 9).
poco
----- accel.--
(slow gliss.)
p
cresc. ----------------------
cresc. .....r......
EXAMPLE 9: TANN:
Llf(FORCELLO AND SHAKUHACHI: CELLO NOT
SHOWN)
NA YASHI
Nayashi appear frequently
in traditional
pieces
as initial articulations.
A
nayashi
is a short
glissando (usually
about a semitone or
slightly larger)
leading up
to a basic
pitch
and should
simply
be notated that
way (see
"glissandi").
It occurs
frequently
in traditional
playing, particularly
to reiterate a
pitch. Long
series of
nayashi,
often
shaped by
an overall
dy-
namic
envelope, appear frequently
in
honkyoku.
Notate this
figure
as a
slurred series of
nayashi.
The ornamental
pitch,
which
may change through-
out the
figure
and which need not be
equally tempered, may
be notated
as a small note-head in
parentheses.
If the
precise rhythm
of the
figure
is
left to the
performer
but the
composer
wishes to
specify
the
emphasis,
a
simple
verbal
instruction,
such as
"emphasize
lower
pitch,"
will suffice. In
a metrical
context,
the
rhythmic placement
of the
figure
can be indicated
by placing
the short
glissando
before or after the
stronger
metrical
position
(Example 10).
241
Perspectives of
New Music
A (5) (5)(5) (5) (5)
^
(5 (5) (2)
o r
cj^';' I"
-
; ;J
J
EXAMPLE 10: MATSUZAKI: Sakum Gawa
(TRANSCRIBED)
NAMI
A series
offiri
creates a sound
pattern looking graphically something
like
a child's
drawing
of an ocean wave-hence the
name, nami,
or "wave." The
furi typically
occur closer
together,
faster,
and
quieter
as the
figure pro-
ceeds, toward silence or to a
quietly
sustained
pitch.
Place the word nami
and a notation
conveniently
borrowed from traditional shakuhachi nota-
tion above the sustained
pitch.
Conventional
dynamic markings
will take
care of the overall
shape
of the
figure (Example 11).
A
(yuri) (nami
f
---m =====- f pp
EXAMPLE 11: LEPENDORF: Yuki
5. TRILLS/TREMOLOS
CONVENTIONAL TRILLS/TREMOLOS
Conventional
fingered
trills can be
played only
on a limited number of
pitches,
the reason for this
being
the
pentatonic arrangement
of the
open
holes. A traditional trill
may
be
performed
on
any
basic
pitch,
in which case
the ornamental
pitch
will be the next available basic
pitch.
Because of
this,
a
number of shakuhachi trill
figures
can
perhaps
better be described as trem-
olos. The head
may
be lowered one
half-step
"notch" on
any
of these
fig-
ures
(making
D-F into
C#-E;
F-G into
E-FO,
and so
on,
thus
increasing
the
availability
of conventional trill/tremolos. As far as actual tremolo
fig-
ures
go, only
one rule need be
kept
in mind: each of the
pitches
of the
fig-
ure must use the same head
position.
In other words: basic
pitch
to basic
pitch,
altered
pitch
to altered
pitch (e.g.
a tremolo
using
Eb and Gt would
be
quite awkward).
Tremolos across the break should be avoided unless
they
are to be
performed slowly.
Table E shows a number of common trills
242
Contemporary
and how
they
are
notated;
other trill
figures
should be indicated in the
usual manner with small noteheads
indicating
the ornamental
pitches.
Note that most of these amount
(simply)
to reiterated
grace-note finger-
ings.
These
figures may
be combined
effectively
with
pitch bending.
VIBRATO-TRILL
An
easily
available means of
creating
a trill on
any pitch
is to bend the
pitch up
and down
by
bobbing
the head. A vibrato-trill
may
be indicated as
a kind
ofyuri
or
spelled
out
partially
with small
glissandi
and a
wavy
con-
tinuation line
graphically depicting
the desired
figure (Example 12).
EXAMPLE 12: Futaiken
Sanya
(HONKYOKU:
TRANSCRIBED)
KARA-KARA
(BEATING)
A number of
interesting
timbral
(microtonal)
trills are
possible
on the
shakuhachi. In kara-kara
(beating)
the first hole of the instrument is struck
repeatedly, changing
the actual
pitch only fractionally.
Kara-kara is fre-
quently perceived
more as a beat. Kara-kara
may
be
performed
on all
pitches
not
using
the first hole on the
instrument,
i.e. Dt and its altera-
tions. Also, above the
highest
Eb
the effect becomes
practically
inaudible. It
may
be notated as "trl"
(followed by
the standard trill
indication),
indicat-
ing
that the first
finger
will be used
(see
Table
E).
If the
figure
will
appear
over a series of tied notes or noteheads to show the exact number and
place-
ment of each stroke of the first
finger,
indicate each one as a
separate
atari
fingering.
KORO-KORO/GORO-GORO
Another
type
of timbral
trill,
one
unique
to the
shakuhachi,
called koro-
koro
(orgoro-goro)
can best be described as a
pitched gurgle.
In koro-koro two
holes are alternated in such a
way
that a
multiphonic blip
occurs with each
alternation. Table D shows where koro-koro occur. Note that the
fingerings
must be indicated. A
zig-zag
line indicates a continuation of the
figure.
As
in kara-kara, a
single
blip
can
appear
as well and should be notated with
just
243
Perspectives of
New Music
the
fingering
indication;
the word koro will suffice for
subsequent
reitera-
tions
(Example 13).
(slowly)
>
.
"40" **^ ^ ^^^VAA *^
(koro)
_x *x-AAA
;1 ,_ .;,r*hf ~ ,?N ).--' h-' e , --#- -'
pp-- p
p -=
f f
=
EXAMPLE 13: LEPENDORF: NightPond
OIWAKE-KORONE
Oiwake-korone, a tremolo
technique
from folk
playing,
resembles koro-koro
in
fingering
but does not
produce
a
multiphonic
effect. It is available on A-
G
(or Ab-Gb)
and on F-D
(or Fb-Db)
in both octaves. Oiwake-korone
should be notated
explicitly along
with a
fingering
indication
(Example 14).
The
figure may
be continued ad lib.
by
use of the same
zig-zag
line used for
koro-koro. The
blip
will occur with each articulation of the lower
pitch
(Example 14).
4) ) (4)
(
(4)( (1) ( 1) ( ( 1 (5 ) (1)
EXAMPLE 14: TRADITIONAL FOLK STYLE
6. SPECIAL TIMBRAL EFFECTS
M URA-IIU/SORA-IIC
Mura-iki, as was mentioned
earlier,
refers to
playing
with the breath. It
may
be indicated in
general
with a dashed line
placed
over the
staff;
sora-iki,
which means "all breath" can be indicated
by writing
"all-breath" over the
dashed line. Both these
techniques
are
usually
associated with loud
dynamic
levels
(Example 15).
244
Contemporary
?(yuri)
_____
. ?
./
yff
^
p m-pp ff
if
zz=- P -fZ=- p iff
EXAMPLE 15: Shika no Tone
ALTERNATE FINGERINGS
Table F
provides
a number of alternate
fingerings (as
well as
subjective
descriptions)
used for timbral
variety.
The
particular
merits of each of these
fingerings
is indicated in the table
(Example 16).
Basic
pitches
F/G/C
may
be
played respectively
as G/A/D bent down a
whole
step.
These alternate
fingerings require
a small amount of
prepara-
tion time. Because of the extreme
change
in head
position
used to
produce
them
they
have a distinctive weak sound which is
particularly striking
when
used in combination with the standard
fingering.
Indicate these with a dou-
ble-flat and a verbal indication
(e.g. "finger G").
236Ha-Ro
p
EXAMPLE 16: TANN:
L/ef(cELL
PART NOT
SHOWN)
7. SCALES AND RUNS
The shakuhachi seems best suited for
playing
sustained
passages,
but
various scales and runs are
certainly possible. However,
because the
shakuhachi lacks
keys
or valves some care must be taken in
constructing
them. For
example,
a chromatic
scale,
though possible
on the
shakuhachi,
is difficult to
perform
without it
sounding
like a
glissando. Remembering
one
simple
rule will make the construction of idiomatic runs
fairly
elemen-
tary: referring
to Table
A,
idiomatic
passages
are best
constructing by
limit-
ing
runs to one
pitch per
measure of the chart
(i.e.
one basic
pitch
or one of
its
alterations).
I offer this rule as a
guide;
it
may
be broken and still
pro-
duce a
playable
and even idiomatic
run,
but
certainly
also a run much more
difficult to
play.
Remember that atari
grace
notes will
help
to articulate the
pitches
of a
highly
chromatic
passage. Dazzling examples
of
passage
work
can be heard in
many sankyoku compositions.
It should also be
pointed
245
Perspectives of
New Music
out that
ascending
runs are
always
easier to
play
than
descending
runs. One
final
tip:
use basic
pitches
whenever
possible (think
of them as
you
would
think of
open strings
when
composing quadruple stops
for a
violin).
8. OTHER
TECHNIQUES
SURU
Suru is a convention of
playing
in which the
fingering
for a
subsequent
pitch
is
changed
to before it is articulated
by
a
grace
note. A
finger
is
always
lifted off
just
before the notated articulation for a suru. For
ascending fig-
ures,
the second
pitch
must be a basic
pitch
and the
figure may
be written
out with no other indication. For
descending figures,
the first
pitch
must
be a basic
pitch (the
second
pitch may
be
any
lower
pitch)-the
suru itself
will still
go up.
Note that the ornamental note will
always
be the
next-high-
est basic
pitch.
HA-A-RA-RO
Ha-a-ra-ro, the
onomatopoeic
name for a
special way
of
ornamenting
the
pitch Dt,
should be notated as shown in Table C. The "ha" and "a" of the
figure
make use of the same
hollow-sounding
substitute
fingering
and
may
be
freely
inflected
through
vibrato or alternated with each other. The "ra"
produces
a short
multiphonic blip
when
articulated,
as in koro-koro. The
"ro" is a
conventionally fingered
DO
(closed fingering).
The overall effect is
a
prolonged upbeat
to Dt. Note that it can
only
be realized at the notated
pitch
level.
HOLE SLAPS
Slapping
the
open
holes of the shakuhachi
produces
a
beautifully
muffled
marimba-like sound. Hole
slaps
can be
produced
on
only
the first four
open
holes of the
instrument,
producing
the
DO, FO, At,
and C4 of the first
octave.
Holding
the instrument
away
from the mouth
produces pitches
approximately
a whole
step higher,
while
completely covering
the
mouthpiece
with the chin
produces pitches approximately
a minor seventh
below. These are
particularly lovely
when
amplified.
Notate them as
key
slaps, replacing
the noteheads with "X"s and
providing
verbal indications.
246
Contemporary
SIMULTANEOUS SINGING AND PLAYING
It is
possible
for the
performer
to
sing
while
playing any
of the lower-
octave
pitches.
This
technique
is notated as for a flute
(
and
provides
the
same
difficulties).
THROAT-FLUTTER
(TAMANE)
Due to the width of the
angular
cut which acts as a
reed,
a
flutter-tongue
cannot be
effectively
realized on the shakuhachi. The shakuhachi
does,
however,
have a similar effect called
tamane,
which is
actually
a throat-flut-
ter. The instruction tamane will be sufficient.
Unfortunately,
tamane can-
not be executed
by
all
players;
it should
only
be used
optionally
or if
writing
for a
particular player.
9. TUNING/ENSEMBLE WRITING
The shakuhachi has
changed
little in construction from its folk
origins.
Shakuhachi tend to differ from each another in
subtle,
quirky ways
more
than,
say,
violins. Bamboo is a
very temperamental material,
highly
sensi-
tive to
changes
in
temperature
and
humidity.
A
good player
can
compen-
sate for most of these
difficulties,
but the
composer
should be aware of the
difficulties in
tuning
the
instrument,
bearing
in mind that the shakuhachi
lacks a fixed
pitch system.
The
composer
need not
worry
about
tuning,
though,
if a bit of common sense
(and
a bit of
compassion
for the
musician)
are exercised.
Overall, one should not
expect
a shakuhachi
player
to tune
intervals
(equal-tempered
or
otherwise)
that a
singer
would not be
expected
to tune.
The
greatest tuning challenges
for the
performer
result when
combining
the shakuhachi
(a traditionally non-equal-tempered instrument)
with West-
ern instruments fixed in
equal temperament.
If the shakuhachi
part
is lim-
ited to
equal temperament, particular
care must be taken in
constructing
idiomatic
passages
and in
providing places
to tune to other
parts
(as one
would
provide
for a
singer).
One solution is to contrast the shakuhachi's
ability
to
play
outside of
any
one
fixed-pitch system
with instruments that
have
fixed-pitch systems.
Another obvious solution is to combine the
shakuhachi with instruments such as
strings
or electronics where a
greater
pitch spectrum
is
possible.
Aside from the obvious
problems
of
tuning
the shakuhachi with Western
instruments,
care must also be taken when
considering dynamic
balance.
247
Perspectives of
New Music
As a bamboo instrument, the shakuhachi is
easily overpowered by many
Western instruments. Careful choice of instrumentation
(marimba
and
harp
come to mind as
good choices), judiciously
lean
counterpoint,
and
amplification
are three
possible
solutions to this
problem.
10. SELECTED RECORDINGS
HONKTOKU:
ZEN:
Katsuya Yokoyama
Plays
Classical Shakuhachi Masterworks.
Wergo
SM 1033/34.
A Bell
Ringing
in the
Empty Sky:
Goro
Yamaguchi,
shakuhachi. Nonesuch
H-72025.
Shakuhachi:
Judo
Notomi and Goro
Yamaguchi,
shakuhachi. Auvidis AV
6508S.
Ki-sui-an
Honkyoku,
vols. I-IV: Ronnie
Nyogetsu
Seldin,
shakuhachi.
Hogaku Society
Records HS
201, 202, 203, 204,
cassette
tapes (Tradi-
tional
Japanese
Music
Society,
c/o
Henry Burnett,
The Aaron
Cop-
land School of
Music, Queens
College, Flushing,
NY
11367-0904).
The Distant
Cry of
Deer:
Masyuki Koga,
shakuhachi. Fortuna Records
(P.O.
Box 1116
Novata,
CA
94947).
SANKTOKU:
Japanese
Koto Music
(with
shamisen and
shakuhachi). Lyrichord
LLCT
7131.
18th
Century
Traditional Music
ofJapan:
Koto music
of
the Edo Period
(with
shamisen and
shakuhachi).
Everest 3306.
Kyomono Series,
Vol. I: Works
of
Matsuura
Kengyo. Hogaku Society
Records HS 101
(Traditional Japanese
Music
Society,
c/o
Henry
Burnett, The Aaron
Copland
School of
Music, Queens
College,
Flushing,
NY
11367-0904).
CONTEMPORARY:
T-ru Takemitsu: November
Steps.
Kinshi
Tsuruta, biwa; Katsuya
248
Contemporary
Notation for Shakuhachi 249
Yokoyama, shakuhachi;
Toronto
Symphony Orchestra; Seiji Ozawa,
cond. RCA LSC-7051
[1968].
.November
Steps.
Kinshi
Tsuruta, biwa; Katsuya Yokoyama,
shakuhachi;
Amsterdam
Concertgebouw Orchestra;
Bernard
Haitink,
cond.
Philips
6500 086.
TABLE A: RANGE
"First Octave"
"Third Octave"
"Second Octave"
N.B. Sounds one octave lower: tenor clef (
) may be used to avoid confusion
X "closed hole"
fingering
o
"open
hole"
fingering
() only pp
E difficult to control
Perspectives of
New Music
TABLE B: ATARI FINGERINGS
x
Qla Q15 5
234 4 3 2 2345 345 2 3 4 5 3 4 4 o 244x
5 X 5 5
4 2 5 4 4 2 3 4
4
54 3 2- 2 3 4 5 4-
3 2 4- 4 4
~
.. I.
I
.
Numbers are
placed directly
above or
slightly
above and to the left of the
principal
note.
First number
given
indicates most common
fingering.
First number
given
should be used for most initial articulations.
A dot below indicates that the grace-note
sounds below the
principal
note.
TABLE C: COMMON GRACE-NOTE FIGURES
> H aRo :
0
Ha'A- Ra-Ro
0o
H
0
N.B. Notate
fully
as above.
indicates less than one
half-step
flat.
TABLE D: KORO-KORO
*.
--o- J
o
o]? o] l :
ii
l
- W- "' 1-
-
-'#-' 1 b- ...,--- | -t1
N.B.
Fingering
charts do not indicate head
position
-
pitches
are tuned
by player.
Whole note indicates where
multiphonic
effect is most
prominent.
] indicates holes to be alternated for koro-koro.
250
Contemporary
TABLE E: TRILLS/TREMOLOS
trl tr2 t3 tr tr tr3r tr4 tr5
,
tr5 trl tr2 tr2 tr5 trl tr3
(kara)
trl tr3 tr4 tr5
(k atrl
tr4 tr5 -t ( trl tr
,-> tr
tr
( "'1
1
1 r- t
Irl) 5I
(kara) --3 *t r '(
(kara) trl tr3 (kara) trl tr4 (kara)
(kara) I _ _ _
(.)
(--
__<
tr3 trl tr5 tr2 tr3 tr5
N.B.~ indicates less than one
half-step flat, : less than one
half-step sharp
TABLE F: ALTERNATE FINGERINGS
* * * . 0' 0 0
* 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
g * o
1i o1o
o o o o
o
Ao * * o o
I (*) I * o
?o,
*?
x o o ?
* Ha
"thin" "covered' "covered' "thick" "thick" "strong" "thin" "hollow"
0
* o o
0 0
-_- o a- -- -o- o
.
o
** o
,
:
.
- -
0 - x _
0 6
b6 or_ 1_
0
-
"thin" "standard"
"open"
"standard" "thick" "standard" "thick"
N.B. If
fingering
charts for X and 0
fingerings
are
provided
in a set of notes, X and 0
will be sufficient in the score
'Ta" and "Ha"
may
be used without
any
other
description
251
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