Work Systems and How They Work

Chapters: 2. Manual Work and Worker-Machine Systems 3. Work Flow and Batch Processing 4. Manual Assembly Lines 5. Logistics Operations 6. Service Operations and Office Work 7. Projects and Project Management

Part I

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Manual Work & Worker-Machine Systems

Sections: 1. Manual Work Systems 2. Worker-Machine Systems 3. Automated Work Systems 4. Determining Worker and Machine Requirements 5. Machine Clusters

Chapter 2

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Three Categories of Work Systems

1. Manual work system Worker performing one or more tasks without the aid of powered tools 2. Worker-machine system Human worker operates powered equipment 3. Automated work system Process performed without the direct participation of a human worker

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Manual Work System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Worker-Machine System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Automated System

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Some Definitions
Work unit the object that is processed by the work system Workpiece being machined (production work) Material being moved (logistics work) Customer in a store (service work) Product being designed (knowledge work) Unit operations tasks and processes that are treated as being independent of other work activities
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Manual Work Systems

Human body accomplishing some physical task without an external source of power With or without hand tools When hand tools are used, the power to operate them is derived from the strength and stamina of a human worker Other human faculties are required, such as hand-eye coordination and mental effort

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Pure Manual Work

Material handler moving cartons in a warehouse Workers loading furniture into a moving van without the use of dollies Dealer at a casino table dealing cards Office worker filing documents Assembly worker snap-fitting two parts together

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Manual Work with Hand Tools

Machinist filing a part Assembly worker using screwdriver Painter using paintbrush to paint door trim QC inspector using micrometer to measure a shaft diameter Material handling worker using a dolly to move furniture Office worker writing with a pen

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Repetitive vs. Nonrepetitive Tasks

Repetitive Task Relatively short duration (usually a few minutes or less) High degree of similarity from one cycle to the next Nonrepetitive Task Takes a long time Work cycles are not similar

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

One Best Method Principle

Of all the possible methods that can be used to perform a given task, there is one optimal method that minimizes the time and effort required to accomplish it Attributed to Frank Gilbreth A primary objective in work design is to determine the one best method for a task, and then to standardize its use

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Cycle Time Variations

Once the method has been standardized, the actual time to perform the task is a variable because of: Differences in worker performance Variations in hand and body motions Blunders and bungles by worker Variations in starting work units Extra elements not performed every cycle Differences among workers The learning curve phenomenon
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Worker Performance
Defined as the pace or relative speed of working As worker performance increases, cycle time decreases From the employers viewpoint, it is desirable for worker performance to be high What is a reasonable pace to expect from a worker?

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Normal Performance
A pace of working that can be maintained by a properly trained average worker throughout an entire work shift without deleterious short-term or long-term effects on the workers health or physical well-being The work shift is usually 8 hours, during which periodic rest breaks are allowed Normal performance = 100% performance Common benchmark of normal performance: Walking at 3 mi/hr
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Normal Time
The time to complete a task when working at normal performance Actual time to perform the cycle depends on worker performance Tc = Tn / Pw where Tc = cycle time, Tn = normal time, and Pw = worker performance or pace

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example: Normal Performance

Given: A man walks in the early morning for health and fitness. His usual route is 1.85 miles. A typical time is 30 min. The benchmark of normal performance = 3 mi/hr. Determine: (a) how long the route would take at normal performance and (b) the mans performance when he completes the route in 30 min.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example: Solution
(a) At 3 mi/hr, time = 1.85 mi / 3 mi/hr = 0.6167 hr = 37 min (b) Rearranging equation, Pw = Tn / Tc Pw = 37 min / 30 min = 1.233 = 123.3 % Alternative approach in (b): Using v = 1.85 mi / 0.5 hr = 3.7 mi/hr Pw = 3.7 mi/hr / 3.0 mi/hr = 1.233

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Standard Performance
Same as normal performance, but acknowledges that periodic rest breaks must be taken by the worker Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the work shift Federal law requires employer to pay the worker during these breaks Other interruptions and delays also occur during the shift

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

PFD Allowance
To account for the delays due to: Personal time (P) Bathroom breaks, personal phone calls Fatigue (F) Rest breaks are intended to deal with fatigue Delays (D) Interruptions, equipment breakdowns

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Standard Time
Defined as the normal time but with an allowance added in to account for losses due to personal time, fatigue, and delays Tstd = Tn (1 + Apfd) where Tstd = standard time, Tn = normal time, and Apfd = PFD allowance factor Also called the allowed time

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Irregular Work Elements

Elements that are performed with a frequency of less than once per cycle Examples: Changing a tool Exchanging tote pans of parts Irregular elements are prorated into the regular cycle according to their frequency

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Example: Determining Standard Time

Given: The normal time to perform the regular work cycle is 3.23 min. In addition, an irregular work element with a normal time = 1.25 min is performed every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance factor is 15%. Determine (a) the standard time and (b) the number of work units produced during an 8-hr shift if the worker's pace is consistent with standard performance.

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Example: Solution
(a) Normal time Tn = 3.23 + 1.25/5 = 3.48 min Standard time Tstd = 3.48 (1 + 0.15) = 4.00 min (b) Number of work units produced during an 8-hr shift Qstd = 8.0(60)/4.00 = 120 work units

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Standard Hours and Worker Efficiency

Two common measures of worker productivity used in industry Standard hours represents the amount of work actually accomplished Hstd = Q Tstd Worker efficiency work accomplished as a proportion of shift hours Ew = Hstd / Hsh

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Worker-Machine Systems
Worker operating a piece of powered equipment Examples: Machinist operating a milling machine Construction worker operating a backhoe Truck driver driving an 18-wheeler Worker crew operating a rolling mill Clerical worker entering data into a PC

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Relative Strengths
Humans Sense unexpected stimuli Solve problems Cope with abstract problems Adapt to change Generalize from observations Make decisions on incomplete data Machines Perform repetitive operations consistently Store large amounts of information Retrieve data from memory reliably Apply high forces and power Make routine decisions quickly

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Types of Powered Equipment

1. Portable power tools Portable power drills, chain saws, electric hedge trimmers 2. Mobile powered equipment Transportation equipment, back hoes, forklift trucks, electric power generator at construction site 3. Stationary powered machines Machine tools, office equipment, cash registers, heat treatment furnaces
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Classification of Powered Machinery

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Numbers of Workers and Machines

One worker and One machine Taxicab driver and taxi Multiple workers and One machine Ship's crew One worker and Multiple machines Machine cluster Multiple workers and Multiple machines Emergency repair crew responding to machine breakdowns

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Level of Operator Attention

Full-time attention Welders performing arc welding Part-time attention during each work cycle Worker loading and unloading a production machine on semi-automatic cycle Periodic attention with regular servicing Crane operator in steel mill Periodic attention with random servicing Firefighters responding to alarms
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Two welders performing arc welding on pipe - requires full-time attention of workers (photo courtesy of Lincoln Electric Co.)
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Cycle Time Analysis

Two categories of worker-machine systems in terms of cycle time analysis Systems in which the machine time depends on operator control Carpenter using power saw to cut lumber Cycle time analysis is same as for manual work cycle Systems in which machine time is constant and independent of operator control Operator loading semi-automatic production machine
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

No Overlap: Worker and Machine

Worker elements and machine elements are sequential While worker is busy, machine is idle While machine is busy, worker is idle Normal time for cycle Tn = Tnw + Tm Standard time for cycle Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Internal Work Elements

Some worker elements are performed while machine is working Internal work elements performed simultaneously with machine cycle External work elements performed sequentially with machine cycle Desirable to design the work cycle with internal rather than external work elements

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Normal Time and Standard Time

Normal time Tn = Tnw + Max{Tnwi , Tm} Standard time Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Max{Tnwi(1 + Apfd) , Tm(1 + Am)} Actual cycle time Tc = Tnw / Pw + Max{Tnwi/Pw , Tm}

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Automated Work Systems

Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is accomplished without human assistance Implemented using a program of instructions combined with a control system that executes the instructions Power is required to drive the process and operate the control system

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Levels of Automated Systems

Semiautomated machine Performs a portion of the work cycle under some form of program control Human worker tends the machine for the rest of the cycle Operator must be present every cycle Fully automated machine Operates for extended periods of time with no human attention

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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Automated robotic spot welding cell (photo courtesy of Ford Motor Company)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

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