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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION: FUNCTIONS
Brief definition: reduplication is a morphological process in which an affix is realized
by phonological material borrowed from the base
- reduplication is widespread in the languages of the world, but rather rare in the modern
European languages
English: pooh-pooh, goody-goody, sing-song, wishy-washy
(may indicate plurality, distribution, repetition, customary activity, added intensity, continuance)
Examples from other languages:
Papago: bana coyote ba:bana coyotes
Luganda: babiri two babiribabiri every two
Mandarin: ren man renren everybody
Malay: anak child anakanak various children
in nouns reduplication most often signals plurality
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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION: FUNCTIONS
Reduplication in verbs often indicates continuation, frequency or repetition of an event/action:
Tzeltal: pik touch it pipik touch it lightly/repeatedly
Sundanese: gujon to jest gugujon to jest repeatedly
Twi: bu bend/break bubu bend/break (many things)
Reduplication can also have augmentative
Turkish: dolu full dopdolu quite full
Thai: di: to be good d:di: to be extremely good
or diminutive/attenuative meaning:
Nez Perc xjamac child xojamacxjamac small child
Thai k: old (people) k:k: elderly
Thai kw old (things) kwkw oldish
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Reduplication and Metathesis
TOTAL AND PARTIAL REDUPLICATION
Plural Formation in Warlpiri:
kurdu child kurdukurdu children
kamina girl kaminakamina girls
mardukuja woman mardukujamardukuja women
total reduplication: copy of the complete word
Example analysis:
Data from Maori (Krupa 1966):
reo voice reoreo conversation augmentative
kimo wink, blink kimokimo wink frequently augmentative/frequentative
kikimo keep the eyes firmly closed augmentative (opposite)
ako learn akoako consult together augmentative
wera hot werawera rather hot attentuative
pago black papago somewhat black/dark attenuative
total and partial reduplication
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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION AS UNDERSPECIFICATION
Borselow and McCarthy (1984):
Reduplication is a special case of ordinary affixational morphology, where the affixes
are phonologically underspecified, receiving their full phonetic expression by copying
adjacent segments
reduplication is the affixation of a morpheme template (in the shape of a CV skeleton), which is underspecified
(i.e. phonologically defective) a phonemic melody must be mapped onto the CV-slots of the template
mapping is achieved by copying a portion of or the entire segmental base to which the
underspecified morpheme is attached
Underspecification allows developing the most economical grammar possible otherwise reduplication would force
us to make up an infinitely long list of morphemes (e.g. plural in Warlpiri)
Mapping principles in reduplication (Broselow and McCarthy 1983):
(i) introduce an underspecified affix (prefix, suffix, infix)
(ii) create an unassociated copy of the phonemic melody of the root, stem or base
(iii) associate the copied phonemic melody on to the CV-skeleton one-to-one
In the case of a prefix affixation goes from left to right, for a suffix from right to left
(iv) erase all superfluous phonemic material or any CV slots that remain unassociated
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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION AS PREFIXATION I
Example analysis Agta (Marantz 1982):
takki leg taktakki legs plural is formed by prefixing CVC (with CVCCV
uffu thigh ufuffu thighs root) or VC (with VCCV root)
C V C C V C V C C V C C V C V C C V C C V
t a k i t a k k i t a k i t a k t a k i
Process:
- reduplication rule copies the entire segmental melody
- segments associate in 1-to-1 fashion starting from the beginning of the word
- only the first three (two) segments
- unassociated segments are deleted (pruning)

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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION AS PREFIXATION II
Example analysis Tagalog (Carrier-Duncan 1984):
kandila candle mag-ka-kandila candle vendor
maga:ral study pag-a-a:ral studying
- disyllabic roots: initial CV of the stem is copied
reduplicated prefix is short regardless of original vowels length
tahi:mik quiet tahi:tahi:mik rather quiet
baluktot crooked balu:baluktot variously bent
- trisyllabic roots: CVCVV-prefix added
short vowels may be lengthened
C V C V V C V C V C C V C C V C V V C V C V C C V C
b a l u k t o t b a l u (k t o t) b a l u k t o t
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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION AS SUFFIXATION
Data from Saho (Welmers 1973):
lafa bone lafof bones gaba hand gabob hands
illa spring illol springs rado animal hide radod animal hides
af mouth afof mouths nef face nefof faces
Example derivation:
a. C V C b. C V C V C
n e f n e f o
c. C V C V C d. C V C V C
n e f o nef n e f o n e f
e. C V C V C f.
n e f o n e f
Output: nefof
underlying
representation
of the root
suffix template with
preassociated /o/
and unlinked C-slot
phonemic
melody of
root after /o/
of VC suffix
right-to-left
association in
suffixes
unattached
segments are
deleted
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Reduplication and Metathesis
INTERNAL REDUPLICATION
Infixing reduplication: part of the base is inserted in the base as an affix
Data from Samoan (Broselow and McCarthy 1983): Plural formation in three-syllable verbs
alofa alolofa love maliu maliliu die savali savavali walk
Example derivation:
a. C V C V C V b. C V C V C V C V
s a v a l i s a v a l i
c. C V C V C V C V d. C V C V C V C V
s a (sa) v a (li) v a l i s a (sa) v a (li) v a l i
underlying
representation
CV infix
phonemic
melody
copying
left-to-right
association
Output: savavali
Highly marked derivation: left-to-right
association starts with the second syllable. The
first one is invisible (Inkelas 1989)
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Reduplication and Metathesis
ALTERNATIVE PROSODIC MORPHOLOGY: BYPASSING CV-SLOTS
McCarthy and Prince (1990) propose a somewhat different theory of Prosodic Morphology:
- morphological melody maps directly on prosodic phonological templates consisting of genuine
prosodic units such as syllables, feet or phonological words
- the argument for this is that in many cases/processes templates can be characterized directly
in terms of such prosodic units
Three principles:
(i) The Prosodic Morphology Hypothesis
Templates are stated in terms of units of prosody
(ii) The Template Satisfaction Condition
All elements in a template must be satisfied: no part of the morphological template may
remain unassociated with some prosodic unit
(iii) The Prosodic Circumscription of Domains
The domain in which morphological processes take place may be circumscribed not only by
morphosyntactic factors, but also by prosodic criteria.
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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION IN KINANDE I
Mutaka and Hyman (1990) have used Prosodic Morphology according to the three aforementioned
principles to describe reduplication in Kinande.
Typical structure in Kinande nouns.
augment- prefix stem
o ku gulu leg
a ka ti stick
e ki tembekal tree
Reduplication is used to create new nouns with an intensified meaning (e.g. a real(ly good) x)
Nouns with bisyllabic stems Nouns with monosyllabic stems
okugulu leg okigulugulu real leg omutwe head omutwemutwe real head
akahuka insect akahukahuka real insect ebilaa bowels ebilaabilaa real bowels
okuboko arm okubokoboko real arm akat stick akatkat real stick
for monosyllabic stems stem syllable + prefix are reduplicated
for disyllabic stems only two syllables of the stem are reduplicated
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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION IN KINANDE II
Analysis principles proposed for reduplication in Kinande:
a. the reduplicative template is a prosodic unit consisting of two syllables
b. the template is suffixed
c. copy the melody of the minimal word
(either disyllabic stem or prefix + monosyllabic stem)
d. map the melody to the template right-to-left
Example derivation:
a.
ku gu lu
b.
ku gu lu
c.
ku gu lu ku gu lu
d.
ku gu lu ku gu lu
a.
a ka ti
b.
a ka ti
c.
a ka ti ka ti
d.
a ka ti ka ti
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Reduplication and Metathesis
REDUPLICATION IN KINANDE III
Further analysis Predict the intensified meaning of the three example words:
augment- prefix stem intensified meaning
e n da: belly endandanda: real belly
e m bwa dog embwambwambwa real dog
e n dwa wedding endwandwandwa real wedding
a.
e ndwa
b.
e ndwa
c.
e ndwa ndwa
d.
e ndwa ndwa ndwa
minimal word
(augment excluded)
suffixation of disyllabic
prosodic template
first copy of base noun
melody with right-to-left
mapping
second copy of base noun
melody with right-to-left
mapping
As the available base is only
monosyllabic double reduplication is
necessary to provide enough syllables
for the prosodic template
Nouns with stems of more than two
syllables are not reduplicated at all
Morpheme Integrity Condition on
reduplication: the reduplicative
process must use up all segments
representing the minimal word or
none at all
Derivation:
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Reduplication and Metathesis
METATHESIS I
Metathesis (segments switching position in a word) is difficult to describe with traditional theories,
but can be accounted for naturally by a prosodic template approach.
Example analysis from Hanunoo (Gleason 1955)
1. Prefix ka- to make cardinal number express multiple times
lima five kalima five times
pitu seven kapitu seven times
2. When Numeral CVCV-structure with /u/ as first V, then /u/ is deleted
duwa two kadwa twice tulu three katlu three times
3. If u is deleted and // preceded it, then metathesis occurs involving // and the following consonant
usa one ( kasa) kasa once
upat four ( kapat) kapat four times
unum six ( kanum) kanum six times
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Reduplication and Metathesis
METATHESIS II
Example derivation:
a. C V b.
k a C V C V C V C V C V
u s a k a u s a
c. C V C C V d. C V C C V
k a s a k a s a
ka- prefixation tier conflation
deletion of /u/
metathesis
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Reduplication and Metathesis
EXERCISES I
1. Write a rule to account for the reduplication shown by the Latin data below.
Present Perfect
pendo: I hang pependi: I have hanged
mordeo: I bite momordi: I have bitten
tondeo: I shear totondi: I have shorn
2. Study the following data from Ateso
adk to build atdk to cause to build
all to be glad atll to cause to be glad
anjam to eat atanjam to feed
awadk to write atawadk to cause to write
acak to throw atacak to cause to throw
a. Identify the infinitive morpheme
b. Write down the root of each verb
c. Give a formal statement of the derivation of the causative
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Reduplication and Metathesis
EXERCISES II
3. Study carefully the patterns of reduplication exemplified by the following Luganda words:
(i) muto: young muto:toto: rather young
mubi: bad mubi:bibi: rather bad
muti: cowardly muti:titi: rather cowardly
(ii) kibisi wet kibisibisi rather wet
mugezi clever mugezigezi rather clever
kilebevu slack kilebevulebevu rather slack
mugaja:vu lazy mugaja:vugaja:vurather lazy
(mu- and ki- are noun class prefixes)
a. What is the meaning contributed by reduplication?
b. Describe the pattern of reduplication
c. Show the derivations of /muto:toto:/, /mubisibisi/ and /mugaja:vugaja:vu/
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Reduplication and Metathesis
EXERCISES III
4. Write derivations of the diminutive forms in the following data from Agta:
wer creek walawer small creek
talobag beetle talatalobag lady bird
pirak money palapirak a little money
5. Study the Hanunoo transcription word-game data below
Base Form gloss Word game form
rignuk tame nugrik
bi:aw nick a:biw
balanun domesticated nulaban
a. Identify the segments moved in the transposition game
b. How is vowel length affected by the transposition process?
c. Using templates, show how the game form /abi:w/ is formed