Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio: Relativistic

Plasma and ICM/Radio Galaxy Interaction

Processes
L. Feretti
1
and G. Giovannini
1,2
1
Istituto di Radioastronomia INAF, Via P. Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
[email protected]
2
Dipartimento di Astronomia, Universit a di Bologna, Via Ranzani 1, 40127
Bologna, Italy
[email protected]
1 Introduction
Studies at radio wavelengths allow the investigation of important components
of clusters of galaxies. The most spectacular aspect of cluster radio emission is
represented by the large-scale diuse radio sources, which cannot be obviously
associated with any individual galaxy. These sources indicate the existence
of relativistic particles and magnetic elds in the cluster volume, thus the
presence of non-thermal processes in the hot intracluster medium (ICM). The
knowledge of the properties of these sources has increased signicantly in
recent years, due to higher sensitivity radio images and to the development of
theoretical models. The importance of these sources is that they are large scale
features, which are related to other cluster properties in the optical and X-ray
domain, and are thus directly connected to the cluster history and evolution.
The radio emission in clusters can also originate from individual galaxies,
which have been imaged over the last decades with sensitive radio telescopes.
The emission from radio galaxies often extends well beyond their optical
boundaries, out to hundreds of kiloparsec, and hence it is expected that the
ICM would aect their structure. This interaction is indeed observed in ex-
treme examples: the existence of radio galaxies showing distorted structures
(tailed radio sources), and radio sources lling X-ray cavities at the centre of
cooling core clusters. Finally, the cluster environment may play a role in the
statistical radio properties of galaxies, i.e. their probability of forming radio
sources.
The organization of this paper is as follows: The basic formulae used to
derive the age of synchrotron sources and the equipartition parameters are
presented in Sect. 2, while the observational properties of diuse radio sources
are presented in Sect. 3. Then in Sect. 4 we give a general outline of the models
L. Feretti and G. Giovannini: Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio: Relativistic Plasma and
ICM/Radio Galaxy Interaction Processes, Lect. Notes Phys. 740, 143176 (2008)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-6941-3 5 c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008
144 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
of the relativistic particle origin and re-acceleration; while the current results
on cluster magnetic elds are described in Sect. 5. Finally, Sect. 6 reports the
properties of cluster radio emitting galaxies.
The intrinsic parameters quoted in this paper are computed for a CDM
cosmology with H
0
= 70 km s
1
Mpc
1
,
m
=0.3 and

=0.7.
2 Basic Formulas from the Synchrotron Theory
2.1 Synchrotron Radiation
The synchrotron emission is produced by the spiralling motion of relativistic
electrons in a magnetic eld. An electron with energy E = m
e
c
2
(where is
the Lorentz factor) in a magnetic eld B, experiences a vB force that causes
it to follow a helical path along the eld lines, emitting radiation into a cone
of half-angle
1
about its instantaneous velocity. To the observer, the ra-
diation is essentially a continuum with a fairly peaked spectrum concentrated
near the frequency

syn
=
3e
4m
3
e
c
5
(Bsin )e
2
, (1)
where is the pitch angle between the electron velocity and the magnetic eld
direction. The synchrotron power emitted by a relativistic electron is

dE
dt
=
2e
4
3m
4
e
c
7
(B sin)
2
E
2
. (2)
In c.g.s units:

syn
6.27 10
18
(Bsin )E
2
(3)
4.2 10
6
(Bsin )
2
,

dE
dt
2.37 10
3
(Bsin )
2
E
2
(4)
1.6 10
15
(Bsin )
2

2
.
From (3), it is easily derived that electrons of 10
3
10
4
in magnetic elds
of B 1 G radiate in the radio domain.
The case of astrophysical interest is that of a homogeneous and isotropic
population of electrons with a power-law energy distribution, i.e., with the
particle density between E and E+dE given by:
N(E)dE = N
0
E

dE . (5)
To obtain the total monochromatic emissivity J(), one must integrate over
the contributions of all electrons. In regions which are optically thin to their
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 145
own radiation (i.e. without any internal absorption), the total intensity spec-
trum varies as [14]:
J() N
0
(Bsin )
1+

, (6)
therefore it follows a power-law with spectral index related to the index of the
electron energy distribution = ( 1)/2.
2.2 Time Evolution of the Synchrotron Spectrum
By integrating the expression of the electron energy loss (2) it is found that
the particle energy decreases with time, as:
E =
E
0
1 +b(Bsin)
2
E
0
t
, (7)
where E
0
is the initial energy at t = 0, and b = 2e
4
/(3m
4
e
c
7
) = 2.37
10
3
c.g.s units (see 4). Therefore, the particle energy halves after a time t

= [b(Bsin )
2
E
0
]
1
. This is a characteristic time which can be identied as
the particle lifetime. Similarly, we can dene a characteristic energy E

=
[b(Bsin )
2
t]
1
, such that a particle with energy E
0
> E

will lose most of its

energy in a time t

.
In an ensemble of particles, the energy losses of each particle aect the over-
all particle energy distribution, and consequently the resulting synchrotron
spectrum undergoes a modication. Indeed, after a time t

the particles with

E > E

will lose most of their energy. This produces a critical frequency

in the radio spectrum, such that for <

the spectrum is unchanged,

whereas for >

the spectrum steepens. If particles were produced in a

single event with power law energy distribution, N(E, 0)dE = N
0
E

dE, the
radio spectrum would fall rapidly to zero for >

. In the case that new

particles were injected in the source, the spectrum beyond

steepens by 0.5.
These various cases are illustrated in Fig. 1. Any radio spectrum showing a
cuto is evidence of ageing of the radio emitting particles. In addition, any
spectrum showing no cuto but having a steep spectral index is also indicative
L
o
g

J
L
o
g

J
L
o
g

J
Log

Log Log

0.5
Fig. 1. Sketch of synchrotron spectra. The left panel shows a standard spectrum,
the central panel shows an aged spectrum produced in a source with a single event of
particle production, the right panel shows an aged spectrum with particle injection.
The critical frequency

is related to the particle lifetime

146 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
of ageing, since it naturally refers to a range of frequencies higher than the
critical frequency. For a rigorous treatment of the evolution of synchrotron
spectra we refer to [75] and [117].
From the critical frequency

, it is possible to derive the radiating elec-

tron lifetime, which represents the time since the particle production (or the
time since the last injection event, depending on the shape of spectral steep-
ening). Since the synchrotron emission depends on sin (1), one has to take
into account the distribution of electron pitch angles. Moreover, for a cor-
rect evaluation, also the electron energy losses, due to the inverse Compton
process, must be considered.
The electron lifetime (in Myr), assuming an anisotropic pitch angle distri-
bution is given by:
t

= 1060
B
0.5
B
2
+
2
3
B
2
CMB
[(1 +z)

]
0.5
, (8)
where the magnetic eld B is in G, the frequency is in GHz and
B
CMB
(= 3.25 (1 +z)
2
G) is the equivalent magnetic eld of the Cosmic Mi-
crowave Background. If the distribution of electron pitch angles is isotropic,
the above formula becomes:
t

= 1590
B
0.5
B
2
+B
2
CMB
[(1 +z)

]
0.5
. (9)
A derivation of the expressions in (8) and (9) can be found in [111].
2.3 Energy Content and Equipartition Magnetic Fields
The total energy of a synchrotron source is due to the energy in relativistic
particles (U
el
in electrons and U
pr
in protons) plus the energy in magnetic
elds (U
B
):
U
tot
= U
el
+U
pr
+U
B
. (10)
The magnetic eld energy contained in the source volume V is given by
U
B
=
B
2
8
V , (11)
where is the fraction of the source volume occupied by the magnetic eld
(lling factor). The electron total energy in the range E
1
E
2
,
U
el
= V

E
2
E
1
N(E)E dE = V N
0

E
2
E
1
E
+1
dE , (12)
can be expressed as a function of the synchrotron luminosity, L
syn
, observed
between two frequencies
1
and
2
, i.e.,
U
el
= L
syn
(Bsin )

3
2
f(,
1
,
2
) , (13)
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 147
where f(,
1
,
2
) is a function of the index of the electron energy distribution
and of the observing frequencies (see [96] for a rigorous derivation). The energy
contained in the heavy particles, U
pr
, can be related to U
el
assuming:
U
pr
= kU
el
. (14)
Finally, taking sin=1, the total energy is:
U
tot
= (1 +k)L
syn
B

3
2
f(,
1
,
2
) +
B
2
8
V . (15)
The trend of the radio source energy content is shown in Fig. 2. The condition
of minimum energy, U
min
, computed by equating to zero the rst derivative of
the expression of U
tot
(15), is obtained when the contributions of the magnetic
eld and the relativistic particles are approximately equal:
U
B
=
3
4
(1 +k)U
el
. (16)
For this reason the minimum energy is known also as equipartition value.
The total minimum energy density u
min
= U
min
/V , assuming same vol-
ume in particles and magnetic eld (=1), and applying the K-correction,
can be expressed in terms of observable parameters, as:
u
min
= 1.23 10
12
(1 + k)
4
7
(
0
)
4
7
(1 +z)
(12+4)
7
I
4
7
0
d
4
7
, (17)
where I
0
is the source brightness which is directly observed at the frequency

0
, d is the source depth along the line of sight, z is the source redshift and
U
B
B
eq
U
part
U
tot
U
B
Fig. 2. Trend of the energy content in a radio source (in arbitrary units): the en-
ergy in magnetic elds is U
B
B
2
, the energy in relativistic particles is U
part
=
U
el
+U
pr
B
3/2
. The total energy content U
tot
is minimum when the contributions
of magnetic elds and relativistic particles are approximately equal (equipartition
condition). The corresponding magnetic eld is commonly referred to as equiparti-
tion value B
eq
148 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
is the spectral index of the radio emission. The energy density is in erg cm
3
,

0
in MHz, I
0
in mJy arcsec
2
and d in kpc. I
0
can be measured from the
contour levels of a radio image (for signicantly extended sources) or can be
obtained by dividing the source total ux by the source solid angle, while d
can be inferred from geometrical arguments. The constant has been computed
for = 0.7,
1
= 10 MHz and
2
= 100 GHz (tabulated in [69], for other
values of these parameters).
The magnetic eld for which the total energy content is minimum is re-
ferred to as the equipartition value and is derived as follows:
B
eq
=

24
7
u
min
1
2
. (18)
One must be aware of the uncertainties inherent to the determination of the
minimum energy density and equipartition magnetic eld strength. The value
of k, the ratio of the energy in relativistic protons to that in electrons (14),
depends on the mechanism of generation of relativistic electrons, which, so far,
is poorly known. Values usually assumed in literature for clusters are k = 1
(or k = 0). Uncertainties are also related to the volume lling factor .
In the standard approach presented above, the equipartition parameters
are obtained from the synchrotron radio luminosity observed between the
two xed frequencies
1
and
2
. Brunetti et al. [18] demonstrated that it is
more appropriate to calculate the radio source energy by integrating the syn-
chrotron luminosity over a range of electron energies. This avoids the problem
= 1.15
= 0.65
B
eq
(classic) Gauss
B

e
q
/
B
e
q
10
6
10
7
1
2
3
4
5
Fig. 3. Values of the ratio B

eq
/B
eq
(see text) as a function of the equipartition
magnetic eld obtained with the classical approach, assuming an electron minimum
Lorentz factor
min
= 50. Dierent lines refer to dierent values of the initial spectral
index (i.e. not aected by ageing), from = 1.15 (top line) to = 0.65 (bottom
line) in steps of = 0.1
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 149
that electron energies corresponding to frequencies
1
and
2
depend on the
magnetic eld value (see 1), thus the integration over a range of xed frequen-
cies is equivalent to considering radiating electrons over a variable range of
energies. Moreover, it has the advantage that electrons of very low energy are
also taken into account. The equipartition quantities obtained by following
this approach are presented by [18] and [6]. Representing the electron energy
by its Lorentz factor , and assuming that
min

max
, the new expression
for the equipartition magnetic eld B

eq
in Gauss (for > 0.5) is:
B

eq
1.1
12
3+
min
B
7
2(3+)
eq
, (19)
where B
eq
is the value of the equipartition magnetic eld obtained with the
standard formulae by integrating the radio spectrum between 10 MHz and
100 GHz. It should be noticed that B

eq
is larger than B
eq
for B
eq
<
2
min
(see
Fig. 3).
3 Radio Emission from the ICM: Diuse Radio Sources
In recent years, there has been growing evidence for the existence of cluster
large-scale diuse radio sources, which have no optical counterpart and no
obvious connection to cluster galaxies, and are therefore associated with the
ICM. These sources are typically grouped in 3 classes: halos, relics and mini-
halos. The number of clusters with halos and relics is presently around 50,
and whose properties have been recently reviewed by Giovannini & Feretti [60]
and Feretti [48]. The synchrotron nature of this radio emission indicates the
presence of cluster-wide magnetic elds of the order of 0.11 G, and of a
population of relativistic electrons with Lorentz factor 1000. The under-
standing of these non-thermal components is important for a comprehensive
physical description of the ICM.
3.1 Radio Halos
Radio halos are diuse radio sources of low surface brightness ( Jy arcsec
2
at 20 cm) permeating the central volume of a cluster. They are typically
extended with sizes
>

1 Mpc and are unpolarized down to a few percent level.

The prototype of this class is the diuse source Coma C at the centre of the
Coma cluster ( [57] and Fig. 4), rst classied by Willson [122]. The halo in
A2163, shown in left panel of Fig. 5, is one of the most extended and powerful
halos. Other well studied giant radio halos are present in A665 [59], A2219 [2],
A2255 [42], A2319 [43], A2744 (Fig. 7, left panel), 1E0657-56 [84], and in the
distant cluster CL 0016+16 [59] at redshift z = 0.555. All these clusters show
recent merging processes, and no cooling core.
Radio halos of small size, i.e. 1 Mpc, have also been revealed in the cen-
tral regions of clusters. Some examples are in A401 [59], A1300 [99], A2218
150 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
13 01 30 00 00 30 00 12 59 30 00 58 30 00
28 25
20
15
10
05
00
27 55
50
45
40
35 500 kpc
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
frequency [MHz]
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
f
l
u
x

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
J
y
]
Fig. 4. Left panel: Diuse radio halo Coma C in the Coma cluster (z = 0.023)
at 0.3 GHz, superimposed onto the optical image from the DSS1. The resolution of
the radio image is 55

125

(FWHM, RA DEC); contour levels are: 3, 6, 12, 25,

50, 100 mJy/beam. Right panel: Total radio spectrum of the radio halo Coma C
(from [115])
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
16 36 15 00 35 45 30
66 16
15
14
13
12
11
0.1 Mpc
HALO
6 8 10 12 14
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
16 16 15 00 15 45 30 15
06 00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
18
1 Mpc
Fig. 5. Left panel: Radio emission in A2163 (z = 0.203) at 20 cm [45]. The radio
halo is one of the most powerful and extended halos known so far. Right panel:
Radio emission of the cluster A2218 (z = 0.171) at 20 cm [59]. In both clusters the
radio contours are overlayed onto the grey-scale optical image
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 151
(Fig. 5, right panel) and A3562 [55]. All these clusters, as well as those
hosting giant radio halos, are characterized by recent merger processes and no
cooling core.
Unlike the presence of thermal X-ray emission, the presence of diuse
radio emission is not common in clusters of galaxies: the detection rate of
radio halos, at the detection limit of the NRAO VLA Sky Survey (NVSS)
is 5% in a complete cluster sample [58]. However, the probability is much
larger, if clusters with high X-ray luminosity are considered. Indeed, 35% of
clusters with X-ray luminosity larger than 10
45
erg s
1
X-ray (in the ROSAT
band 0.12.4 keV, computed assuming H
0
= 50 km s
1
Mpc
1
and q
0
= 0.5)
show a giant radio halo [60].
The physical parameters in radio halos can be estimated assuming equipar-
tition conditions, and further assuming equal energy in relativistic protons and
electrons, a volume lling factor of 1, a low frequency cut-o of 10 MHz, and
a high frequency cut-o of 10 GHz. The derived minimum energy densities
in halos and relics are of the order of 10
14
10
13
erg cm
3
, i.e. much lower
than the energy density in the thermal gas. The corresponding equipartition
magnetic eld strengths range from 0.1 to 1 G.
The total radio spectra of halos are steep (
>

1),
1
as typically found in
aged radio sources. Only a few halos have good multi-frequency observations
that allow an accurate determination of their integrated spectrum. Among
them, the spectrum of the Coma cluster halo is characterized by a steep-
ening at high frequencies, which has been recently conrmed by single dish
data (Fig. 4, right panel). The spectrum of the radio halo in A1914 is very
steep, with an overall slope of 1.8. A possible high frequency curvature
is discussed by Komissarov & Gubanov [79]. In A754, Bacchi et al. [2] esti-
mate
0.3 GHz
0.07 GHz
1.1, and
1.4 GHz
0.3 GHz
1.5, and infer the presence of a possible
spectral cuto. Indication of a high frequency spectral steepening is also ob-
tained in the halo of A2319, where Feretti et al. [43] report
0.6 GHz
0.4 GHz
0.9
and
1.4 GHz
0.6 GHz
2.2. In the few clusters where maps of the spectral index are
available (Coma C, [57]; A665 and A2163, [49], the radio spectrum steepens
radially with the distance from the cluster centre. In addition, it is found that
the spectrum in A665 and A2163 is atter in the regions inuenced by merger
processes (see Sect. 4.1).
In general, from the spectra of halos, it is derived that the radiative lifetime
of the relativistic electrons, considering synchrotron and inverse Compton en-
ergy losses, is of the order of 10
8
yr [107]. Since the expected diusion
velocity of the electron population is of the order of the Alfven speed ( 100
km s
1
), the radiative electron lifetime is too short to allow the particle diu-
sion throughout the cluster volume. Thus, the radiating electrons cannot have
been produced at some localized point of the cluster, but they must undergo
in situ energization, acting with an eciency comparable to the energy loss
1
S()

as in (6).
152 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
processes [97]. We will show in Sect. 4 that recent cluster mergers are likely
to supply energy to the halos and relics.
The radio and X-ray properties of halo clusters are related. The most pow-
erful radio halos are detected in the clusters with the highest X-ray luminosity.
This follows from the correlation shown in Fig. 6 between the monochromatic
radio power of a halo at 20 cm and the bolometric X-ray luminosity of the
parent cluster [60, 84]. The right panel of Fig. 6 shows the correlation be-
tween the average surface brightness of the radio halo and the cluster X-ray
luminosity. Since the brightness is an observable, this correlation can be used
to set upper limits to the radio emission to those clusters in which a radio
halo is not detected. It is worth reminding the reader that the radio power
versus X-ray luminosity correlation is valid for merging clusters with radio
halos, and therefore cannot be generalized to all clusters. Among the clusters
with high X-ray luminosity and no radio halo, there are A478, A576, A2204,
A1795, A2029, all well known relaxed clusters with a massive cooling ow.
An extrapolation of the above correlation to low radio and X-ray luminosities
indicates that clusters with L
X
<

10
45
erg s
1
would host halos of power of
a few 10
23
W Hz
1
. With a typical size of 1 Mpc, they would have a radio
surface brightness (easily derived from the right panel of Fig. 6) lower than
current limits obtained in the literature and in the NVSS. On the other hand,
it is possible that giant halos are only present in the most X-ray luminous
clusters, i.e. above a threshold of X-ray luminosity (see [2]). Future radio data
with next generation instruments (LOFAR, LWA, SKA) will allow the detec-
tion of low brightness/low power large halos, in order to clarify if halos are
present in all merging clusters or only in the most massive ones.
10
1
0.1
10
44
10
45
10
48
I
1
.
4

G
H
Z

(
m
J
y
/
a
r
c
m
i
n
2
)
P
1
.
4

G
H
Z

(
e
r
g

s

1

H
z

1
)
L
X, bol
(erg s
1
)
10
44
10
30
10
31
10
32
10
33
10
45
10
48
L
X, bol
(erg s
1
)
Fig. 6. Left panel: Monochromatic radio power at 20 cm versus cluster bolometric
X-ray luminosity. Right panel: Average surface brightness of the radio halos versus
cluster X-ray luminosity. In both panels, lled and open circles refer to halos of size
> and < 1 Mpc, respectively
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 153
Since cluster X-ray luminosity and mass are correlated [100], the corre-
lation between radio power (P
1.4 GHz
) and X-ray luminosity could reect a
dependence of the radio power on the cluster mass. A correlation of the type
P
1.4 GHz
M
2.3
has been derived [48, 66], where M is the total gravitational
mass within a radius of 3h
1
50
Mpc. Using the cluster mass within the virial
radius, the correlation is steeper (Cassano et al. in preparation). A correlation
of radio power vs cluster mass could indicate that the cluster mass may be a
crucial parameter in the formation of radio halos, as also suggested by [23].
Since it is likely that massive clusters are the result of several major mergers,
it is concluded that both past mergers and current mergers are the neces-
sary ingredients for the formation and evolution of radio halos. This scenario
may provide a further explanation of the fact that not all clusters showing
recent mergers host radio halos, which is expected from the recent modeling
of Cassano & Brunetti [24].
3.2 Radio Relics
Relic sources are diuse extended sources, similar to the radio halos in their
low surface brightness, large size (
>

1 Mpc) and steep spectrum (

>

1), but
they are generally detected in the cluster peripheral regions. They typically
show an elongated radio structure with the major axis roughly perpendic-
ular to the direction of the cluster radius, and they are strongly polarized
( 2030%). The most extended and powerful sources of this class are de-
tected in clusters with central radio halos: in the Coma cluster (the proto-
type relic source 1253+275, [56], A2163 [45], A2255 [42], A2256 [103] and
A2744 (Fig. 7, left panel). A spectacular example of two giant almost sym-
metric relics in the same cluster is found in A3667 (Fig. 7, right panel). There
are presently only a few cases of double opposite relics in clusters.
Other morphologies have been found to be associated with relics (see [61]
for a review). In the cluster A1664 (Fig. 8, left panel), the structure is ap-
proximately circular and regular. In A115 (Fig. 8, right panel), the elongated
relic extends from the cluster center to the periphery. This could be due to
projection eects, however this is the only relic showing such behaviour.
There are diuse radio sources which are naturally classied as relics,
because of their non-central cluster location, but their characteristics are quite
dierent from those of giant relics. Examples of these sources are in A13,
A85 (Fig. 9), A133, A4038 [111]: they show a much smaller size than relics
(
<

300 kpc down to 50 kpc), are generally closer to the cluster center,
and show extremely steep radio spectra (
>

2). They are strongly polarized

(
>

30%), and often quite lamentary when observed with sucient resolution.
The relic in A133 was suggested to be related to past activity of a nearby
galaxy [50].
The detection rate of radio relics in a complete sample of clusters is 6% at
the detection limit of the NVSS [60]. Relics are found in clusters both with and
without a cooling core, suggesting that they may be related to minor or o-axis
154 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
00 14 45 30 15 00
30 16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
1 Mpc
RELIC
HALO
30
40
50
RELIC
0.5 Mpc
RELIC
57 00
10
13 11 09 20 15
RIGHT ACENSION (J2000)
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
Fig. 7. Left panel: Radio emission of A2744 (z = 0.308) showing a peripheral
elongated relic, and a central radio halo [66]. Right panel: A3667 (z = 0.055):
contours of the radio emission at 36 cm [104] overlayed onto the grey-scale ROSAT
X-ray image. Two radio relics are located on opposite sides of the cluster along the
axis of the merger, with the individual radio structures elongated perpendicular to
this axis
mergers, as well as to major mergers. Theoretical models propose that they are
tracers of shock waves in merger events (see Sect. 4.3). This is consistent with
their elongated structure, almost perpendicular to the merger axis. The radio
power of relics correlates with the cluster X-ray luminosity [46, 61], as also
found for halos (see Sect. 3.1 and Fig. 6), although with a larger dispersion.
24 08
RELIC
RELIC
0.5 Mpc
0.5 Mpc
13 04 15
10
12
14
16
18
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
20
22
24
26
00 30 15 00
40.0 20.0
Right Ascension (J2000)
0:58:00.0
18:00.0
28:20:00.0
22:00.0
D
e
c
l
i
n
a
t
i
o
n

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
24:00.0
26:00.0
28:00.0
30:00.0
55:40.0
03 45
RIGHT ACENSION (J2000)
Fig. 8. Radio emission at 20 cm (contours) of the clusters: Left panel: A1664
(z = 0.128), Right panel: A115 (z = 0.197), superimposed onto the grey-scale
cluster X-ray emission detected from ROSAT PSPC [66]
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 155
A85 IPOL 330.250 MHZ
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
00 42 0041 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20
-09 16
18
20
22
24
26
28
RELIC
0.1 Mpc
20 00
30
F
L
J
K
I
D
H G
B
A
F
21 00
30
22 00
30
23 00
30
092400
0
h
41
m
36
s
33
s
30
s
RA (J2000)
27
s
24
s
21
s
D
E
C

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
Fig. 9. Radio emission at 90 cm (contours) in A85 (z = 0.056), superimposed
onto the optical image [59]. The zoom to the right shows the lamentary structure
detected at high resolution by Slee et al. [111] at 20 cm
The existence of this correlation indicates a link between the thermal and
relativistic plasma also in peripheral cluster regions.
3.3 Mini-Halos
Mini-halos are small size ( 500 kpc) diuse radio sources at the center of
cooling core clusters, usually surrounding a powerful radio galaxy, as in the
Perseus cluster (Fig. 10, left panel), Virgo cluster [95], PKS 0745-191 [4],
A2626 [63]. Since there is an anticorrelation between the presence of a cool-
ing core and that of a major merger event, mini-halos are the only diuse
sources which are not associated with cluster mergers. A peculiar example
is represented by the cluster A2142, which contains a cooling core but also
shows a cold front and thus merging activity [87]. The mini-halo in this clus-
ter is about 200 kpc in size and does not surround any powerful radio galaxy
(Fig. 10, right panel). For the latter reason, it could be also considered as a
small halo.
The radio spectra of mini-halos are steep, as those of halos and relics. In
the Perseus mini-halo, the integrated spectrum steepens at high frequency
and the spectral index distribution shows a radial steepening [110].
Gitti et al. [62] argued that the radio emitting particles in mini-halos can-
not be connected to the central radio galaxy in terms of particle diusion or
buoyancy, but they are likely associated with the ICM in the cooling ow re-
gion (see Sect. 4.4). This is supported by the correlation observed between the
mini-halo radio power and the cooling ow power [63]; however, the number
of objects is still low and the parameters are aected by large errors.
156 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
0.1 Mpc
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J
2
0
0
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
15 58 25 20 15 10 05 00 57 55
27 18
17
16
15
14
13
12
0.1 Mpc
MINI-HALO
12
3
h
17
m
0
s
10
m
0
s
41
m
4
s
20
28
D
e
c
.

(
1
9
5
0
)
R.A (1950)
Fig. 10. Left panel: Radio contour map of the mini-halo in the Perseus cluster
(z = 0.018) at 92 cm [110], Right panel: The mini-halo in A2142 (z = 0.089),
superimposed onto the optical image [59]
4 Radio Emitting Particles
From the diuse radio emission described in the previous sections, it is de-
termined that highly energetic relativistic electrons ( 10
4
) are present in
clusters, either in the central or in the peripheral regions. They are found both
in merging (halos and relics) and relaxed (mini-halos) clusters, thus under dif-
ferent cluster conditions. These radio features are currently not known to be
present in all clusters. They show steep radio spectra, thus the radiating par-
ticles have short lifetimes ( 10
8
yr). Given the large size of the radio emitting
regions, the relativistic particles need to be reaccelerated by some mechanism,
acting with an eciency comparable to the energy loss processes. Several pos-
sibilities have been suggested for the origin of relativistic electrons and for the
mechanisms transferring energy into the relativistic electron population.
4.1 Connection Between Halos/Relics
and Cluster Merger Processes
Evidence favour the hypothesis that clusters with halos and relics are char-
acterized by strong dynamical activity, related to merging processes. These
clusters indeed show: (i) substructures and distortions in the X-ray bright-
ness distribution [109]; (ii) temperature gradients [86] and gas shocks [90];
(iii) absence of a strong cooling ow [109]; (iv) values of the spectroscopic
parameter which are on average larger than 1 [46]; (v) core radii signicantly
larger than those of clusters classied as single/primary [46]; (vi) larger dis-
tance from the nearest neighbours, compared to clusters with similar X-ray
luminosity [108]. The fact that they appear more isolated supports the idea
that recent merger events lead to a depletion of the nearest neighbours.
Buote [23] derived a correlation between the radio power of halos and
relics and the dipole power ratio of the cluster two-dimensional gravitational
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 157
potential. Since power ratios are closely related to the dynamical state of
a cluster, this correlation represents the rst attempt to quantify the link
between diuse sources and cluster mergers.
Maps of the radio spectral index between 0.3 and 1.4 GHz of the halos
in the two clusters A665 and A2163 show that the regions inuenced by the
merger, as deduced from X-ray maps, show atter spectra [49]. This is the
rst direct conrmation that the cluster merger supplies energy to the radio
halo. Finally, we point out that we are not presently aware of any radio halo
or relic in a cluster where the presence of a merger has been clearly excluded.
4.2 Relativistic Electrons in Radio Halos
Origin
The relativistic electrons present in the cluster volume, which are responsible
for the diuse radio emission, can be either primary or secondary electrons.
Primary electrons were injected into the cluster volume by AGN activity
(quasars, radio galaxies, etc.), or by star formation in normal galaxies (super-
novae, galactic winds, etc.) during the cluster dynamical history. This popula-
tion of electrons suers strong radiation losses mainly because of synchrotron
and inverse Compton emission, thus reacceleration is needed to maintain their
energy to the level necessary to produce radio emission. For this reason, pri-
mary electron models can also be referred to as reacceleration models. These
models predict that the accelerated electrons have a maximum energy at
< 10
5
which produces a high frequency cut-o in the resulting synchrotron
spectrum [20]. Thus a high frequency steepening of the integrated spectrum is
expected, as well as a radial steepening and/or a complex spatial distribution
of the spectral index between two frequencies, the latter due to dierent reac-
celeration processes in dierent cluster regions. Moreover, in these models, a
tight connection between radio halos and cluster mergers is expected.
Secondary electrons are produced from inelastic nuclear collisions be-
tween the relativistic protons and the thermal ions of the ambient intraclus-
ter medium. The protons diuse on large scales because their energy losses
are negligible. They can continuously produce in situ electrons, distributed
throughout the cluster volume [10]. Secondary electron models can reproduce
the basic properties of the radio halos provided that the strength of the mag-
netic eld, averaged over the emitting volume, is larger than a few G. They
predict synchrotron power-law spectra which are independent on cluster loca-
tion, i.e., do not show any features and/or radial steepening, and the spectral
index values are atter than 1.5 [20]. The proles of the radio emis-
sion should be steeper than those of the X-ray gas (e.g. [67]). Since the radio
emitting electrons originate from protons accumulated during the cluster for-
mation history, no correlation to recent mergers is expected, but halos should
be present in virtually all clusters. Moreover, emission of gamma-rays and of
neutrinos is predicted.
158 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
Present observational results, i.e., the behaviour of radio spectra (see
Sect. 3.1), the association between radio halos and cluster mergers (Sect. 4.1),
and the fact that halos are not common in galaxy clusters [81], are in favour of
electron reacceleration models. A two-phase scenario including the rst phase
of particle injection, followed by a second phase during which the aged elec-
trons are reaccelerated by recent merging processes was successfully applied
by Brunetti et al. [19] to the radio halo Coma C, reproducing its observational
properties.
Reacceleration
In the framework of primary electron models, a cluster merger plays a cru-
cial role in the energetics of radio halos. Energy can be transferred from the
ICM thermal component to the non-thermal component through two possi-
ble basic mechanisms: (1) acceleration at shock waves [77, 107]; (2) resonant
or non-resonant interaction of electrons with magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD)
turbulence [19, 21, 51, 97].
Shock acceleration is a rst-order Fermi process of great importance in ra-
dio astronomy, since it is recognized as the mechanism responsible for particle
acceleration in the supernova remnants. The acceleration occurs diusively, in
that particles scatter back and forth across the shock, gaining at each cross-
ing and recrossing an amount of energy proportional to the energy itself. The
acceleration eciency is mostly determined by the shock Mach number. In
the case of radio halos, however, the following arguments do not favour a
connection to merger shocks: (i) the shocks detected so far with Chandra at
the center of several clusters (e.g. A2744, [76]; A665, [88]; 1E0657-56, [89])
have inferred Mach numbers in the range of 12.5, which seem too low to
accelerate the radio halo electrons [53]; (ii) the radio emission of halos can be
very extended up to large scales, thus it is hardly associable with localized
shocks; (iii) the comparison between radio data and high resolution Chandra
X-ray data, performed by Govoni et al. [70], shows that some clusters exhibit
a spatial correlation between the radio halo emission and the hot gas regions.
This is not a general feature, however, and in some cases the hottest gas re-
gions do not exhibit radio emission; (iv) the radio spectral index distribution
in A665 [49] shows no evidence of spectral attening at the location of the
hot shock detected by Chandra [88].
Although it cannot be excluded that shock acceleration may be ecient
in some particular regions of a halo (e.g. in A520, [92]), current observations
globally favour the scenario that cluster turbulence might be the major mech-
anism responsible for the supply of energy to the electrons radiating in radio
halos. Numerical simulations indicate that mergers can generate strong uid
turbulence on scales of 0.11 Mpc. Turbulence acceleration is similar to a
second-order Fermi process and is therefore rather inecient compared with
shock acceleration. The time during which the process is eective is only a few
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 159
10
8
years, so that the emission is expected to correlate with the most recent
or ongoing merger event. The mechanism involves the following steps [12, 21]:
(1) the uid turbulence which is injected into the ICM must be converted to
MHD turbulence; the mechanism for this process is not fully established
(although the Lighthill mechanism is mostly used in the recent literature);
(2) several types of MHD turbulence modes can be activated (Alfv`en waves,
slow and fast magnetosonic modes, etc.) and each of them has a dierent
channel of wave-particle interaction;
(3) the cascade process due to wave-wave interaction, i.e., the decay of the
MHD scale size to smaller values, must be ecient to produce the MHD
scale relevant for the wave-particle interaction, i.e., for the particle reac-
celeration process;
(4) the MHD waves are damped because of wave-particle interaction, so the
reacceleration process could be eventually reduced.
The particle reacceleration through Alfv`en waves has the following limi-
tations: (i) the scale relevant for wave-particle interaction is 1 pc, thus the
reacceleration process is ecient only after a signicant cascade process; (ii)
Alfv`en waves are strongly damped through interaction with protons. It follows
that if protons are too abundant in the ICM, they suppress the MHD tur-
bulence and consequently the reacceleration of electrons. Brunetti et al. [21]
derived that the energy in relativistic protons should be < 5%10% than the
cluster thermal energy to generate radio halos. In the case of fast magne-
tosonic (MS) waves, the diculty of wave cascade to small scales is alleviated
by the fact that their scale of interaction with particles is of the order of a few
kpc. Moreover, the MS wave damping is due to thermal electrons, and thus
hadrons do not signicantly aect the electron reacceleration process [24].
Therefore, fast MS waves represent a promising channel for the MHD turbu-
lence reacceleration of particles.
The emerging scenario is that turbulence reacceleration is the likely mech-
anism to supply energy to the radio halos. All the dierent aspects discussed
above need to be further investigated in time-dependent regimes, consid-
ering all types of charged particles [22], and the contribution of dierent
mechanisms.
4.3 Relativistic Electrons in Radio Relics
Peripheral cluster regions do not host a suciently dense thermal proton
population which is required as the target for the ecient production of sec-
ondary electrons, and therefore secondary electron models cannot operate in
the case of relics. There is increasing evidence that the radio emitting parti-
cles in relics are powered by the energy dissipated in shock waves produced
in the ICM by the ows of cosmological large-scale structure formation. The
production of outgoing shock waves at the cluster periphery is indeed ob-
served in numerical simulations of cluster merger events [106]. Because of the
160 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
electron short radiative lifetimes, radio emission is produced close to the lo-
cation of the shock waves. This is consistent with the almost perpendicular
to the merger axis elongated structure of relics. The electron acceleration re-
quired to produce the relic emission could result from Fermi-I diusive shock
acceleration of thermal ICM electrons [33], or by adiabatic energization of
relativistic electrons conned in fossil radio plasma, released by a former ac-
tive radio galaxy [34, 35, 73]. These models predict that the magnetic eld
within the relic is aligned with the shock front, and that the radio spectrum
is atter at the shock edge, where the radio brightness is expected to decline
sharply.
The detection of shocks in the cluster outskirts is presently very dicult
because of the very low X-ray brightness of these regions. The X-ray data for
radio relics are indeed very scarce. The Chandra data of A754 [91] indicate
that the easternmost boundary of the relic coincides with a region of hotter
gas. From XMM data of the same cluster, Henry et al. [72] show that the
diuse radio sources (halo + relic) appear to be associated with high pressure
regions.
4.4 Relativistic Electrons in Mini-Halos
Current models for mini-halos involve primary or secondary electrons, similar
to halos. Gitti et al. [62] suggest that the relativistic primary electrons are
continuously undergoing reacceleration due to the MHD turbulence associated
with the cooling ow region. Pfrommer & Enlin [98], on the other hand,
discuss the possibility that relativistic electrons in mini-halos are of secondary
origin and thus are produced by the interaction of cosmic ray protons with the
ambient thermal protons. Predictions of these models are similar to those of
the halo models. The electron reacceleration model is favoured by the spectral
behaviour of the Perseus mini-halo, i.e. high frequency steepening and radial
spectral steepening [110], and by the observed correlation between the mini-
halo radio power and the cooling ow power [62]. Data on this class of diuse
radio sources, however, are too poor to draw conclusions.
5 Cluster Magnetic Fields
The presence of magnetic elds in clusters is directly demonstrated by the
existence of large-scale diuse synchrotron sources, which have been discussed
in Sect. 3. In this section, we present an independent way of obtaining indirect
information about the cluster magnetic eld strength and geometry, using data
at radio wavelengths. This is the analysis of the Faraday rotation of radio
sources in the background of clusters or in the galaxy clusters themselves.
Measurements of the ICM magnetic elds can also be obtained through
X-ray data from the studies of cold fronts (e.g. [119]) and from the detection
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 161
of non-thermal X-ray emission of inverse Compton origin, due to scattering
of the cosmic microwave background photons by the synchrotron electrons.
The latter emission can be detected in the hard X-ray domain (e.g. [52]),
where the cluster thermal emission becomes negligible. The studies in the
radio band are, however, the most relevant and provide the most detailed
eld estimates.
5.1 Rotation Measure
The synchrotron radiation from cosmic radio sources is well known to be
linearly polarized. A linearly polarized wave of wavelength , traveling from
a radio source through a magnetized medium, experiences a phase shift of
the left versus right circularly polarized components of the wavefront, leading
to a rotation of the position angle of the polarization, according to the
law: = RM
2
, where RM is the Faraday rotation measure. The RM is
obtained as:
RM =
e
3
2m
2
e
c
4
L

0
n
e
B dl . (20)
In practical units, RM is related to the electron density n
e
, in units of cm
3
,
and to the magnetic eld along the line of sight B

, in units of G, through
the relation:
RM = 812
L

0
n
e
B

dl rad m
2
, (21)
where the path length l is in kpc. By convention, RM is positive (negative)
for a magnetic eld directed toward (away from) the observer.
The RM values can be derived from multi-frequency polarimetric observa-
tions of sources within or behind the clusters, by measuring the position angle
of the polarized radiation as a function of wavelength. In general, the position
angle must be measured at three or more wavelengths in order to determine
RM accurately and remove the position angle ambiguity:
true
=
obs
n.
Once the contribution of our Galaxy is subtracted, the RM should be domi-
nated by the contribution of the ICM, and therefore it can be combined with
measurements of n
e
to estimate the cluster magnetic eld along the line of
sight. This approach can be followed analytically only for simple distributions
of n
e
and B.
A recent technique to analyse and interpret the RM data is the RM Syn-
thesis, developed by Brentjens & De Bruyn [17], which uses the RM transfer
function to solve the n ambiguity related to the RM computation, and allows
one to distinguish the emission as a function of Faraday depth.
Below we present some simple cases, where the strength of the magnetic
eld can be derived by RM measurements:
162 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
Uniform Screen
In the simplest approximation of an external screen with uniform magnetic
eld, no depolarization is produced and the rotation measure follows directly
from (21):
RM = 812 n
e
B

L, (22)
where n
e
is in cm
3
, B

is in G, and L is the depth of the screen in kpc.

Screen with Tangled Magnetic Field
The eect of a Faraday screen with a tangled magnetic eld has been analyzed
by Lawler and Dennison [82] and by Tribble [116] in the ideal case that the
screen is made of cells of uniform size, with the same electron density and the
same magnetic eld strength, but with eld orientation at random angles in
each cell. The observed RM along any given line of sight will be generated
by a random walk process, which results in a gaussian RM distribution with
mean and variance given by:
RM) = 0 ,
2
RM
= RM
2
) = 812
2

(n
e
B

)
2
dl , (23)
where n
e
is in cm
3
, B is in G, and
c
is the size of each cell in kpc. A
tangled magnetic eld also produces depolarization (see [116]).
Screen with Tangled Magnetic Field and Radial
Gas Density Distribution
The case of a screen with tangled magnetic eld can be treated analytically if a
realistic cluster gas density distribution is considered, given that the cells have
uniform size, the same magnetic eld strength and random eld orientation.
If the gas density follows a hydrostatic isothermal beta model [25], i.e.,
n
e
(r) = n
0
(1 +r
2
/r
2
c
)

3
2
, (24)
where n
0
is the central electron density, and r
c
is the core radius of the gas
distribution, the value of the RM variance is given by:

RM
(r

) =
KBn
0
r
1
2
c

1
2
c
(1 +r
2

/r
2
c
)
(61)
4

(3 0.5)
(3)
, (25)
where r

is the projected distance from the cluster centre and indicates

the Gamma function. The constant K depends on the integration path over
the gas density distribution: K = 624, if the source lies completely beyond the
cluster, and K = 441 if the source is halfway through the cluster.
For =0.7 the previous formula becomes:
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 163

RM

575B
(1 +r
2
/r
2
c
)
0.8
n
0
M
1
2
l . (26)
Note that depolarization is also produced, due to the fact that the magnetic
eld is tangled.
5.2 Current Results from RM Studies
Cluster surveys of the Faraday rotation measures of polarized radio sources
both within and behind clusters provide an important probe of the existence
of intracluster magnetic elds. The RM values derived in background or em-
bedded cluster sources are of the order of tens to thousands rad m
2
(an
example is shown in Fig. 11). The observing strategy to derive information
on the magnetic eld intensity and structure is twofold: (i) obtain the aver-
age value of the RM of sources located at dierent impact parameters of the
cluster, (ii) derive maps of the RM of extended radio sources, to evaluate the
of the RM distribution.
Studies have been carried out on both statistical samples and individual
clusters (see e.g. the review by Govoni & Feretti [69] and references therein).
Kim et al. [78] analyzed the RM of 53 radio sources in and behind clusters
and 99 sources in a control sample. This study, which contains the largest
Fig. 11. VLA contour plot of the tailed radio galaxy 0053-015 in A119 at 1.4 GHz
(left), and RM image (right). The values of RM range between 350 and +450 rad
m
2
, with RM = + 28 rad m
2
, and a dispersion of
RM
= 152 rad m
2
. They
show uctuations on scales of 3.5 arcsec [44]
164 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
cluster sample to date, demonstrated that G level elds are widespread in
the ICM. In a more recent statistical study, Clarke et al. [27] analyzed RMs
for a representative sample of 16 cluster sources, plus a control sample, and
found a statistically signicant broadening of the RM distribution in the clus-
ter sample, and a clear increase in the width of the RM distribution toward
smaller impact parameters (see Fig. 12). They derived that the ICM is perme-
ated with a high lling factor of magnetic elds at levels of 48 G and with a
correlation length of 15 kpc, up to 0.75 Mpc from the cluster centre. The
results are conrmed by new data on an expanded sample [28].
The rst detailed studies of RM within individual clusters have been per-
formed on cooling core clusters, owing to the extremely high RMs of the
powerful radio galaxies at their centres (e.g., Hydra A, [113]; 3C295, [1]).
High values of the magnetic elds, up to tens of G, have been obtained,
but they only refer to the innermost cluster regions. Studies on larger areas
of clusters have been carried out e.g. for Coma [41], A119 [44], A514 [68],
3C129 [114].
Overall, the data are consistent with cluster atmospheres containing mag-
netic elds in the range of 15 G, regardless of the presence or not of diuse
radio emission. At the centre of cooling core clusters, magnetic eld strengths
can be larger by more than a factor of 2. The RM distributions are generally
patchy, indicating that large-scale magnetic elds are not regularly ordered
on cluster scales, but have coherence scales between 1 and 10 kpc. In most
clusters the magnetic elds are not dynamically important, with magnetic
pressures much lower than the thermal pressures, but the elds may play a
200
0
R
M

(
r
a
d

m

2
)
0 1000 2000 3000
200
b (h
1
kpc)
75
Fig. 12. Galaxy-corrected rotation measure plotted as a function of source impact
parameter in kiloparsecs for the sample of sources from Clarke et al. [27]. Open dots
refer to cluster sources, closed dots to control sources
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 165
fundamental role in the suppression of the particle thermal conduction [26]
and in the energy budget of the ICM.
5.3 Magnetic Field Structure
The simplest model is a uniform eld throughout the cluster. However, this
is not realistic: if the eld values detected at the cluster centres extend over
several core radii, up to distances of the order of Mpc, then the magnetic
pressure would exceed the thermal pressure in the outer parts of the clusters.
The magnetic eld intensity is likely to decrease with the distance from the
cluster centre, as derived in Coma [19]. This is also predicted as a result of
compression of the thermal plasma during the cluster gravitational collapse,
where the magnetic eld-lines are frozen into the plasma, and compression of
the plasma results in compression of ux lines. As a consequence of magnetic
ux conservation, the expected growth of the magnetic eld is proportional
to the gas density as B
2/3
.
Dolag et al. [31] showed that in the framework of hierarchical cluster for-
mation, the correlation between two observable parameters, the RM and the
X-ray surface brightness, is expected to reect the correlation between the
magnetic eld and gas density. Therefore, from the analysis of the RM ver-
sus X-ray brightness it is possible to infer the trend of magnetic eld versus
gas density. The application of this approach has been possible so far only
in A119, giving the radial prole of the magnetic eld as B n
0.9
e
[31]. The
magnetic eld decline with radius is conrmed in this case.
Another important aspect to consider is the structure in the cluster mag-
netic eld, i.e. the existence of laments and ux ropes [32]. The magnetic
eld structure can be investigated by deriving the power spectrum of the eld
uctuations, dened as: [B

[
2

n
, where represents the wave number of
the uctuation scale. By using a semi-analytic technique, Enlin & Vogt [36]
and Vogt & Enlin [120] showed that the magnetic eld power spectrum can
be estimated by Fourier transforming RM maps, if very detailed RM images
are available. Alternatively, a numerical approach using Monte Carlo simu-
lations has been developed by Murgia et al. [94] to reproduce the rotation
measure and the depolarization produced by magnetic eld with dierent
power spectra.
5.4 Reconciling Values Derived with Dierent Approaches
The cluster magnetic eld values obtained from RM arguments are about
an order of magnitude higher than those derived from both the synchrotron
diuse radio emission (Sect. 3.1) and the inverse Compton (IC) hard X-ray
emission (e.g. [52]). The discrepancy can be alleviated by taking into account
that:
166 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
estimates of equipartition elds rely on several assumptions (see Sect. 2.3);
Goldsmith & Rephaeli [64] suggested that the IC estimate is typically
expected to be lower than the Faraday rotation estimate, because of the
spatial proles of the magnetic eld and gas density. For example, if the
magnetic eld strength has a radial decrease, most of the IC emission will
come from the weak eld regions in the outer parts of the cluster, while
most of the Faraday rotation and synchrotron emission occurs in the strong
eld regions in the inner parts of the cluster;
it has been shown that IC models which include the eects of aged electron
spectra, combined with the expected radial prole of the magnetic eld,
and anisotropies in the pitch angle distribution of the electrons, allow
higher values of the ICM magnetic eld in better agreement with the
Faraday rotation measurements [19, 97];
the magnetic eld may show complex structure, as lamentation and/or
substructure with a range of coherence scales (power spectrum). Therefore,
the RM data should be interpreted using realistic models of the cluster
magnetic elds (see Sect. 5.3);
Beck et al. [5] pointed out that eld estimates derived from RM may be
too large in the case of a turbulent medium where small-scale uctuations
in the magnetic eld and the electron density are highly correlated ;
it has been recently pointed out that in some cases a radio source could
compress the gas and elds in the ICM to produce local RM enhancements,
thus leading to overestimates of the derived ICM magnetic eld strength
[105];
evidence suggests that the magnetic eld strength will vary depending on
the dynamical history and location within the cluster. A striking example
of the variation of magnetic eld strength estimates for various methods
and in various locations throughout the cluster is given in [74].
Future studies are needed to shed light on these issues and improve our
current knowledge on the strength and structure of the magnetic elds.
5.5 Origin of Cluster Magnetic Fields
The eld strengths that we observe in clusters greatly exceed the amplitude
of the seed elds produced in the early universe, or elds injected by some
mechanism by high redshift objects. There are two basic possibilities for their
origin:
(1) ejection from galactic winds of normal galaxies or from active and star-
burst galaxies [80, 121];
(2) amplication of seed elds during the cluster formation process.
Support for a galactic injection in the ICM comes from the evidence that
a large fraction of the ICM is of galactic origin, since it contains a signicant
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 167
concentration of metals. However, elds in clusters have strengths and coher-
ence size comparable to, and in some cases larger than, galactic elds [71].
Therefore, it seems quite dicult that the magnetic elds in the ICM derive
purely from ejection of the galactic elds, without invoking other amplication
mechanisms [29, 101].
Magnetic eld amplication is likely to occur during the cluster collapse,
simply by compression of an intergalactic eld. Clusters have present day over-
densities 10
3
and in order to get B
ICM
> 10
6
G by adiabatic compression
(B
2/3
) requires intergalactic (seed) elds of at least 10
8
G. These are
somewhat higher than current limits derived in the literature [3, 11]. A possible
way to obtain a larger eld amplication is through cluster mergers. Mergers
generate shocks, bulk ows and turbulence within the ICM. The rst two of
these processes can result in some eld amplication simply through compres-
sion. However, it is the turbulence which is the most promising source of non-
linear amplication. MHD calculations have been performed [30, 102, 112]
to investigate the evolution of magnetic elds. The results of these simula-
tions show that cluster mergers can dramatically alter the local strength and
structure of cluster-wide magnetic elds, with a strong amplication of the
magnetic eld intensity. Shear ows are extremely important for the ampli-
cation of the magnetic eld, while the compression of the gas is of minor
importance. The initial eld distribution at the beginning of the simulations
at high redshift is irrelevant for the nal structure of the magnetic eld. The
nal structure is dominated only by the cluster collapse. Fields can be am-
plied from initial values of 10
9
G at z = 15 to 10
6
G at the present
epoch [30]. Roettiger et al. [102] found a signicant evolution of the structure
and strength of the magnetic elds during two distinct epochs of the merger
evolution. In the rst, the eld becomes quite lamentary as a result of stretch-
ing and compression caused by shocks and bulk ows during infall, but only
minimal amplication occurs. In the second, amplication of the eld occurs
more rapidly, particularly in localized regions, as the bulk ow is replaced by
turbulent motions. Mergers change the local magnetic eld strength drasti-
cally, but also the structure of the cluster-wide eld is inuenced. At early
stages of the merger the lamentary structures prevail. This structure breaks
down later ( 23 Gyr) and leaves a stochastically ordered magnetic eld.
Subramanian et al [112] argue that the dynamo action of turbulent motions
in the intracluster gas can amplify a random magnetic eld by a net factor of
10
4
in 5 Gyr. The eld is amplied by random shear, and has an intermittent
spatial distribution, possibly producing laments.
6 Radio Emission from Cluster Radio Galaxies
Recent results on the thermal gas in clusters of galaxies has revealed a signi-
cant amount of spatial and temperature structure, indicating that clusters are
dynamically evolving by accreting gas and galaxies and by merging with other
168 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
clusters/groups (roughly every few Gyrs). Simulations suggest that the ICM
within clusters is violent, lled with shocks, high winds and turbulence. This
gas can interact with a radio source in dierent ways: modifying its morphol-
ogy via ram pressure, conning the radio lobes, possibly feeding the active
nucleus. We discuss below some of the recent results on these topics (see also
the review of Feretti & Venturi [47]).
6.1 Interaction Between the Radio Galaxies and the ICM
Tailed Radio Galaxies
A dramatic example of the interaction of the radio galaxies with the ICM is
represented by the tailed radio galaxies, i.e. low-power radio sources (FR I
type, [38]) where the large scale low-brightness emission is bent towards the
same direction, forming features similar to tails. These radio galaxies were
originally distinguished in two classes: narrow-angle tailed sources (NAT),
which are U shaped with a small angle between the tails, and wide-angle
tailed sources (WAT), which are V shaped with a larger angle between the
tails (see Fig. 13). We note that distortions in powerful radio galaxies (FR II
type, [38]) are marginal and only present in weak structures.
The standard interpretation of the tailed radio morphology is that the
jets are curved by ram pressure from the high-velocity host galaxy moving
through the dense ICM, whereas the low brightness tails are material left
Galaxy
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
L
N

(
B
1
9
5
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (B1950)
00 53 30 28 26 24 22 20
01 36
37
38
39
40
41
Galaxy
N
O
I
T
A
N
I
L
C
E
D
RIGHT ASCENSION
23 36 10 05 00 35 55 50 45 40 35
26 47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
Fig. 13. Examples of tailed radio galaxies: the NAT 0053-016 in the cluster A119
(left panel) and the WAT 3C465 in the cluster A2634 (right panel). The location
of the optical galaxy is indicated
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 169
behind by the galaxy motion. The ram-pressure model was rst developed by
Begelman et al. [7]. Following dynamical arguments, the bending is described
by the Euler equation:
R h

v
j
v
g

2
, (27)
where R is the radius of curvature, is density, v is velocity (the subscript
j refers to the jet, e to the external medium, g to the galaxy) and h is the
scale height over which the ram pressure is transmitted to the jets. Thus,
from the jet bending, important constraints on both the jet dynamics and
the ICM can be placed. In some cases there is evidence that the radio jets
travel rst through the galactic atmosphere and then are sharply bent at the
transition between the galactic atmosphere and the ICM. Bends can occur
very close to the nucleus, as in NGC 4869 in the Coma cluster [40], indicating
that the bulk of interstellar medium has been stripped by the galaxy during
its motion.
In general, the ram-pressure model can explain the radio jet deection
when the galaxy velocity with respect to the ICM is of the order of 1000
km s
1
. Therefore, it can successfully explain the structure of NAT sources,
which are indeed identied with cluster galaxies located at any distance from
the cluster centre and thus characterized by signicant motion. However,
Bliton et al. [13] derived that NATs are preferentially found in clusters with
X-ray substructure. Additionally, NAT galaxies tend to have, on average, ve-
locities similar to those of typical cluster members, instead of high peculiar
motions expected if NATs were bent only from ram pressure. Thus, they sug-
gested a new model for the NAT formation, in which NATs are associated
with dynamically complex clusters with possible recent or ongoing cluster-
subcluster mergers. The U-shaped morphology is then suggested to be pro-
duced, at least in part, by the merger-induced bulk motion of the ICM bending
the jets. This is supported, in some clusters, by the existence of NAT radio
galaxies with their tails oriented in the same direction (e.g., A2163, Fig. 14;
A119, [44]), since it seems unlikely that their parent galaxies are all moving
towards the same direction.
The interpretation of WAT sources may be problematic in the framework
of the ram-pressure model, since these sources are generally associated with
dominant cluster galaxies moving very slowly (
<

100 km s
1
) relative to the
cluster velocity centroid. Such slow motion is insucient to bend the jets/tails
of WATs to their observed curvature by ram pressure. It has therefore been
suggested that WATs must be shaped mostly by other ram-pressure gradients
not arising from the motion of the host galaxy, but produced by mergers
between clusters [65, 85]. Numerical simulations lead support to this idea: peak
gas velocities are found well in excess of 1000 km s
1
at various stages of the
cluster merger evolution, which generally do not decay below 1000 km s
1
for
nearly 2 Gyr after the core passage. This is consistent with the observations,
as modelled in the cluster A562 (Fig. 15).
170 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
D
E
C
L
I
N
A
T
I
O
N

(
J

2
0
0
0
)
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
16 16 15 00 15 45 30 15
-06 00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
18
)
0
0
0
2
J
(
N
OI
T
A
NI
L
C
E
D
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
16 16 06 05 04 03 02
06 14 35
40
45
50
55
15 00
05
10
15
20
)
0
0
0
2
J
(
N
O
I
T
A
N
I
L
C
E
D
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
16 15 41.4 41.2 41.0 40.8 40.6 40.4 40.2
06 09 04
06
08
10
12
14
)
0
0
0
2
J
(
N
OI
T
A
NI
L
C
E
D
RIGHT ASCENSION (J2000)
16 15 41 40 39 38 37 36 35
06 13 30
45
14 00
15
Fig. 14. Radio image of the cluster A2163 at 1.4 GHz, with angular resolution of
15

[45]. The structure of tailed radio galaxies as detected at higher resolution is

shown in the insets. The tails are all oriented in the same direction
69 25
25
24
23
22
21
20
15 00
RIGHT ASCENSION (B1950)
47 45 30 15
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
06 48 30
Fig. 15. Left panel: Overlay of the grey-scale radio image of the WAT source in
A562 onto the ROSAT X-ray surface brightness contour image of the same cluster.
Right panel: Overlay of a synthetic X-ray image of a cluster merger onto a velocity
vector eld that represents the gas velocity. Note that the X-ray contours in the left
panel look very similar to the synthetic X-ray image and that the radio tails are in
the direction of the gas velocity (from [65])
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 171
Radio Emission in X-ray Cavities
A clear example of the interaction between the radio plasma and the hot
intracluster medium was found in the ROSAT image of the Perseus cluster
[15], where X-ray cavities associated with the inner radio lobes to the north
and south of the bright central radio galaxy 3C84 have been rst detected. The
high spatial resolution of the Chandra X-ray Observatory has conrmed the
presence of such X-ray holes [37], coinciding with the radio lobes and showing
rims cooler than the surrounding gas. Chandra has permitted the detection
of X-ray decient bubbles in the inner region of many cooling ow clusters,
e.g., Hydra A, A2052, A496, A2199, RBS797. These features are discussed by
C. Jones et al. in this volume.
6.2 Trigger of Radio Emission
An important issue is to understand whether and how the cluster environ-
ment plays any role in the statistical radio properties of galaxies, in partic-
ular their probability of forming radio sources. The high density of galaxies
within clusters, especially in the innermost cluster regions, and the peculiar
velocities of galaxies, most extreme in merging clusters, enhance the proba-
bility of galaxygalaxy interactions. These special conditions raise the ques-
tions whether cluster galaxies have enhanced probability of developing a radio
source, and whether they tend to have more powerful and long lived radio
emission.
A powerful statistical tool to address the above questions is the radio
luminosity function (hereafter RLF). The fractional RLF is dened as:
f
i
(P, z) =

i
(P, z)

i
(z)
, (28)
where
i
(z) is the density of objects of a particular class i at the epoch z,
and
i
(P, z) is the density of the same class objects showing a radio emission
of power P. The fractional RLF, f(P), thus represents the probability that
a galaxy in a dened sample at a given epoch emits with radio power in
the interval P dP. From an operational point of view, the RLF can be
expressed as:
f(P) =
n(P
i
)
N(P
i
)
, (29)
where n and N are respectively the number of detected radio galaxies in
the power interval P
i
and the total number of optical galaxies which could
have been detected in the same power bin. The integral form of the RLF
F(> P) can be obtained simply summing over all radio power intervals up
to the power P. In order to take into account the correlation between the
optical and radio properties of galaxies, it is useful to introduce the bivariate
luminosity function f(P, M), which gives the probability that a galaxy with
172 L. Feretti and G. Giovannini
absolute magnitude in the range MdM is radio emitting in the radio power
range P dP.
The RLF of galaxies in clusters has been rst investigated by Fanti [39],
and latter by Ledlow and Owen [83]. The most striking result is that statisti-
cal properties of radio galaxies are surprisingly similar for sources both inside
and outside rich clusters. For both cluster and non-cluster galaxies, the only
parameter relevant for the radio emission seems to be the optical magnitude,
i.e. brighter galaxies have a higher probability of developing a radio galaxy.
Furthermore, the radio luminosity function is independent on richness class,
Bautz-Morgan or Rood-Sastry cluster class. Recently, Best et al. [9] demon-
strated that, while the radio power of a radio galaxy does not correlate to its
mass, the probability of a galaxy to become a radio source is a very strong
function of both stellar mass and central black hole mass.
It is still under debate whether the universality of the local RLF for early
type galaxies can be applied also to merging clusters. According to some au-
thors (e.g. [54, 118]) the enhanced probability of galaxy interaction in merging
clusters has no eect on the probability of galaxies to develop a radio active
galactic nucleus in their centres.
In the cluster A2255, instead, Miller & Owen [93] found an excess of pow-
erful radio galaxies, which is interpreted as due to the dynamical state of the
cluster. Best [8] showed that the fraction of radio loud AGN appears to be
strongly dependent upon the large scale environment of a galaxy. This sup-
ports the argument that a merger process may aect the AGN activity, since
infalling galaxies or galaxy groups more likely produce galaxy interactions or
galaxygalaxy mergers which can trigger the AGN activity. The eect of clus-
ter merger processes on the trigger of radio emission would imply an enhanced
number of radio source in cluster at high redshift, i.e. at the earlier epochs
when the clusters are being assembled. These issues are under investigation.
The result of Branchesi et al. [16] points to a higher number of radio galaxies
in distant clusters, although with poor statistics. In conclusion, whereas the
ICM in clusters has strong eect on the structures of radio galaxies, the prob-
ability of forming radio sources is likely unaected by the cluster environment,
but may be aected by cluster mergers.
Other eects of the interaction between galaxies and ICM, as the trigger
of star formation, the gas stripping, HI deciency, etc., are discussed by other
authors in this volume.
Acknowledgments
LF is grateful to the organizers David Hughes, Omar L opez-Cruz and Manolis
Plionis for their invitation to this stimulating and very interesting school. We
acknowledge Gianfranco Brunetti for illuminating discussions on the models
of relativistic particle origin and re-acceleration.
Clusters of Galaxies in the Radio 173
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