Fairbanks Ranch Country Club (Rancho Santa Fe, California) successfully demonstrates that, with careful

maintenance practices, a quality golf course can be achieved despite having been built on a salt lake bed.
Understanding Water Quality
and Guidelines to Management
An overview of challenges for water usage on golf courses for the 21st century.
by R. R. DUNCAN, R. N. CARRO~ and M. HUCK
W
TH GLOBAL demand for fresh
or potable water doubling every
20 years, competition for this
valuable resource will increase in the
21st century. Potable water reserves
comprise only 2.5% of the total avail-
able global water supply, with ground-
water reserves averaging about 1.7%of
that total. For groundwater, only 45%
isfresh water, and this source supplies
30% ofthe human and industrial users,
with the remainder fromsurface water
resources. This potable water dilemma
will result inturfgrass managers having
no choice but to irrigate with recycled
and other non-potable alternative
14 USGA GREEN SECfION RECORD
water resources of lesser quality that
contain increased levels of dissolved
salts.
Several overriding issues will change
21st-century turfgrass management
strategies. A primary concern is water
quality and the consistency of that
water quality. Non-potable water can
be referred to as brackish, effluent, re-
cycled, wastewater, reclaimed, regen-
erate, or grey water. Water released
from sewage plants can vary from
primary to secondary to tertiary treat-
ment levels, and quality will bepartially
dictated bythe 1) quality of the original
source prior to potable use, 2) salts
and solids added by first-time users
(e.g., discharges from factories or by-
products of other manufacturing facili-
ties), and 3) contamination of salts and
solids added via surface runoff into
treatment facilities.
Quality factors include the presence
of:
1. Solids (sand-silt-clay and organic
particles) that potentially can clog the
irrigation delivery system, plug soil
micropores, and cause excess wear on
sprinkler nozzles and pumping com-
ponents.
2. Biological (nematodes, weed seeds,
algae, fungal spores) and chemical
Continuous use of saline water sources without leaching the soils can
lead to serious salt accumulations and ultimately tur/grass decline.
ppm
meq/L
ppmand
meq VI
Often, the laboratory analysis comes
back with confusing units for some of
the data values. The conversion factors
can befound in Table 1.
analytical laboratory for analysis. What
data should you ask for, and in what
specific units should these data be
presented? Preferred
Quality Factor _U_n_it_s __
Water pH
Carbonates and mg/L,
Bicarbonates ppm, or
meq VI
Total Salinity (impact on plant
growth fromhigher total salts)
Electrical dS/m
conductivity (EC)
Total dissolved
salts (TDS)
Ion Toxicity (impact on root
and foliar contact)
Na meq/L and ppm
CI ppm
B ppm
Na Permeability Hazard
(impact on soil structure)
Sodium meq/L
adsorption
ratio (SAR)
Adjusted SAR
(adj SAR)
Residual sodium meq/L
carbonate
Nutrients
involving grass selection, cultivation,
and irrigation scheduling must be
developed accordingly.
High sodium concentrations, espe-
cially in conjunction with high bicar-
bonates and relatively low calcium
(Ca+
2
) and magnesium (Mg+2)levels
identified in the water analysis, can
potentially cause a sodium perme-
ability hazard. This hazard must be
assessed, and high values have the
potential for developing serious soil
structural deterioration and water in-
filtration problems. Assessment and
management strategies must be 1)
based on site-specific soil and water
conditions and 2) aggressively moni-
tored and frequently adjusted to
address specific constraints involving
grass selection, amendments to the
water and/or the soil, regular cultiva-
tion, and careful irrigation scheduling
(leaching) .
Specific toxic ions must beassessed
as to their level of toxicity and their
potential impact on the turf root sys-
tem as well as foliar damage. Finally,
nutrient load inthe irrigation water is
afourth problem that can contribute a
substantial amount of fertilizer to the
turfgrass and can often induce defi-
ciencies of other critical nutrients in
salt-challenged turf grass systems.
Calculations and Unit Conversions
Development of aneffectivemanage-
ment program starts with collection of
arepresentative water sample and sub-
mission of that sample to a reputable
(pesticides, fertilizers, other salt resi-
dues, pollutants) materials that can
affect turfgrass performance.
3. Salt-related problems such astotal
salinity, sodium permeability hazard
(impact on soil structure), specific toxic
ions, and nutrient balance.
Water quality variability is site-
specific and can change seasonally or,
in extreme cases, on a daily basis. The
focus of this article ison assessment of
water for these salt-related problems.
Water Quality Assessment
Water quality assessment is one of
the most confusing and complex prob-
lems facing turf managers. The types
and quantities of chemicals that are
applied to the turf systemthrough irri-
gation water have adramatic influence
on soil chemical/physical aspects and
turf performance. Variable levels of
salts and extreme environmental con-
ditions (high prolonged heat and
humidity, severe drought, and traffic)
magnify water quality problems. Water
samples submitted to laboratories for
analysis often come back with data in
confusing units or with no reference
points. Do you haveaproblem with the
water on your course? How do you
assess the data? What are the critical
points to look for? How can youadjust
your management to prevent apoten-
tial future problem? These are all valid
questions that will beaddressed inthis
article.
Problems
Four critical problem categories
must be considered fromthe data pre-
sented in awater analysis report: total
salt content, sodium permeability
hazard, specific ion toxicity, and
critical nutrient levels. Each category
is a salt problem but differs from the
other three problem areas in specific
effects on soil traits and turf perfor-
mance. In addition to these salt prob-
lems, inorganic or organic suspended
solids need to be consistent. The four
problem areas can result in many dif-
ferent combinations and degrees of
stress.
High total salts or total salinity
concentrations will often reflect the
potential for a saline soil problem to
develop. Saline conditions inhibit
water uptake by turfgrasses and cause
asalt-induced drought stress. This isthe
most common salt-related water issue
that occurs and must be managed on
golf courses. Total salinity problems are
site-specific and must be assessed on
that basis, and management strategies
SEPfEMBER/OcrOBER2000 15
Other Conversion Factors:
1mmhos cm-
i
= 1dSm-
1
= 1,000umhos cm-
i
= 0.1 Sm-
i
. 1umhos cm-
i
=0.001 dSm-
i
=0.001 mmhos cm-
i
1ppm = 1mgVI (solution) = 1mgkg.i (soil)
1% concentration =10,000ppm
1mmole Vi = 1meq Vi
1ECw (dSm-
i
) =640 ppm (TDS =Total Dissolved Salts)
TDS (ppm) = ECw x 640; TDS (lb./ac.-ft.)::= TDS (ppmx 2.72)
ppm =grains per gallon+x 17.2
(grains/gallon isstill used by domestic effluent water purveyors to report hardness)
Sumof cations and anions (meq Vi) ::=EC (dSm-
i
) x 10
Note: 1mg VI =1ppm
For example, to convert 220 mg VI Na+to meq VI:
(220 mg VI) x (0.043) =9.46 meq VI Na+
Electrical Conductivity of Water
ayellowish brown and purplish color,
depending on turf species. Salt crystals
may actually form on the soil surface,
especially in bare-soil areas. Salts that
contribute to total salinity include cal-
cium, potassium, magnesium, sodium,
chloride, sulfate, nitrate, ammonium,
and bicarbonate.
Electrical conductivity (ECw) is the
extent to which water conducts elec-
tricity, which isdirectly proportional to
the concentration of dissolved salts.
ECw is used to estimate the total dis-
solved salts (TDS) in water (TDS 7
640 =ECw). TDS will occasionally be
referred to as total soluble salts (TSS)
or total dissolved solids (TDS) by
analytical laboratories. Irrigation water
containing high total salts such as
sewage effluent can lead to saline soil
conditions and poor turf grass perfor-
mance. Most sewage effluent ranges
from200 to 3,000 ppmTDS or ECw =
0.30 - 4.7 dSm-
i
(Feigin et al., 1991).
Irrigation quantity, leaching duration
and frequency, drainage requirements,
and turf species/cultivar selection re-
quirements increase as ECw or TDS
increases (Table2). Water quality moni-
toring must be used to predict future
soil salinity problems and to adjust
management strategies to minimize
deterioration of turfgrass performance.
Management Strategies
for Total Salinity
Indicators of total salinity impact on
turfgrass growth will beECw and TDS,
and both measurements are interre-
lated. When awater analysis indicates
that total soluble salts (> 0.75d Sm-
i
ECw or >500 ppm TDS) are the pri-
mary problem, irrigation scheduling
and cultivation plus leaching become
the predominate management options.
Sodium (Na), chlorine (CI), and boron
(B) levels may be high, and if ECw >
1.50dSm-
i
and TDS >1,000ppm, selec-
tion of salt-tolerant turf species and
specific cultivars within that species
becomes increasingly important.
Drainage requirements also increase
since leaching frequency and the water
quantity needed for leaching escalates
as the total salinity hazard increases.
Leaching directly affects nutrient avail-
ability, particularly with mobile ions
such as potassium (K), magnesium
(Mg+
2
), nitrate (N03tiron (Fe), and
manganese (Mn). Fertilizer programs
must be adjusted accordingly, and this
topic will be discussed in the section
on "Nutrient Variability."
The success or failure of the manage-
ment strategy for dealingwith hightotal
Multiply by:
0.01
100
100
6.4
640
640
0.0016
Toconvert meq/L to
ppm, multiply by:
23.0
20.0
12.2
35.4
39.0
48.0
30.0
61.0
In USGA greens, the perched water
table zone, located below the normal
rootzone, is an area of potential salt
accumulation where salts could riseby
capillary action into the rootzone dur-
inghigh ET periods. Toavoid capillary
rise, sufficient surface water must be
applied to break tension in a USGA-
type green and periodically flush out
excess salts. In a native soil, a net
downward movement of salts beyond
the active turf rooting area must be
maintained by ample irrigation.
Excess salts inhibit water uptake by
turfgrass roots and cause wilting. Salts
literally prevent water uptake even in
a moist soil, and the turf can change
color rapidly (sometimes overnight) to
ConvertECw
mSm-
1
to dSm-
i
dSm-
1
to mSm-
1
mScm-
i
to m,Sm-
i
mSm-itoppm
dSm-
i
to ppm
mScm-
i
to ppm
ppm to dSm-
i
Table 1. Conversion factors
Toconvert ppm to
meq/L, multiply by:
0.043
0.050
0.083
0.029
0.026
0.021
0.033
0.016
K+I
S04-
2
C0
3
-2
HC0
3
-
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Chloride
Potassium
Sulfate
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Total Salinity
The most common salt problem on
turf is accumulation of high total salts
leading to a saline soil condition.
Saline soils can cause salt~induced or
physiological drought. Turfgrasssymp-
toms include reduced growth, dis-
coloration, wilting, leaf curling, and
eventually leaf firing. or desiccation.
Drought or water stress symptoms can
occur a) if salt from irrigation water is
allowed tpaccumulate within the root-
zone, b) if accumulated salts in the
rootzone (previously added by salt-
laden irrigation water) rise up into the
active rootzone by capillary action, or
c) when both occur simultaneously
during hot, dry periods.
16 USGA GREEN SECfION RECORD
Salinity ECw IDS
Hazard Class (dSm-
1
) (ppm)
Low <0.75 <500
Medium 0.75 - 1.50 500 - 1,000
High 1.5- 3.00 1,000- 2,000
>2,000 . >3.00
Table 2. Total salinity hazard classification guidelines for variable
quality irrigation water based on ECw and TDS (Carrow and Duncan, 1998)
Management
Requirements
No detrimental effects
expected
.Moderate leaching
to prevent salt
accumulation
Turf species/ cultivar
selection, good
irrigation, leaching,
drainage
Most salt-tolerant
cultivars, excellent
drainage, frequent
leaching, intensive
management
Very High
Excess suspended solids can plug water-
conducting pores at the soil surface.
Low-quality effluent irrigation sources
are notorious for containing high loads
of suspended organic solids.
salts ispredicated on one key aspect of
turf management, namely water man-
agement. In particular, good irrigation
scheduling and adequate volumes that
promote leaching areessential. Cultiva-
tion isan integral part of regular man-
agement insalt-affected environments,
encompassing both deep aeration (8-
12 inches) once or twice each year
and shallow aeration (3-6 inches) as
needed, depending on soil texture.
Infiltration, percolation, and drainage
will dictate how effectively total salts
aremoved away fromthe turfgrass root
system and are not allowed to build
up in subsoil layers where they could
potentially rise to the rootzone during
periods of inadequate leaching.
Theoretically, sandy soil profiles are
easier to leach than heavier clay soils.
However, both soil types often require
regularly scheduled deep and shallow
cultivation followed byadequate leach-
ingto movethe excess salts downward.
If aeration is regularly performed, but
irrigation is scheduled for only 5-10
minutes daily (Le.,light, frequent irriga-
tion), salts can move back up through
the soil micropores by capillary action,
form a concentrated layer in the root-
zone, and limit water uptake or even
kill the turf root system. This usually
occurs when evapotranspiration (ET)
exceeds the amount of water applied
to the turf during prolonged high
temperature or windy conditions. Also,
if large diameter aeration holes are not
backfilled with topdressing sand prior
to leaching, largevolumes of water can
run into the holes and beyond the sur-
face, while leaving behind asalt-laden
zone between holes.
High salt levels from even low vol-
umetotal salt applications (TDS = 600-
800ppm) can build up insubsoil layers
over time in sand-based greens during
prolonged dryperiods. These salt layers
usually can be found at depths
corresponding to how deep the
irrigation water percolated into the
sand profile. If only a low volume
0.50inch) of irrigation water isapplied,
the salt accumulation zone is often
located just below the root system at
about 6-8 inches depth, unless total
salts are leached deeper by a periodic
heavy flushing from rainfall or irriga-
tion. Any zone of salt accumulation on
sandy soils should be at least 12-16
inches deep, and onfine-textured soils,
at least 16-24 inches deep to limit a
possible rapid capillary rise of salts
when irrigation volume isnot sufficient
for net leaching.
At shallower depths, salts can rise
within two or three daysthrough capil-
lary action and evapotranspiration
during extreme hot and prolonged dry,
windy conditions. The salts may have
been added through irrigation water at
600-800 ppmlevels (which isnormally
not aproblem), but the subsurface salt
accumulation zone will be at much
higher concentrations that can quickly
desiccate and kill the turfgrass root
system. Thus, net downward water
movement is essential to avoid salt
layers near the turfgrass rootzone. A
heavy nighttime leaching program fol-
lowed by an afternoon hand-watering
of localized dry areas on sand-based
greens may be necessary to prevent
turfgrass collapse when temperatures
exceed 90-95P for oneto two weeks or
more. The rule of thumb to minimize
salt accumulation is to increase water
volume applied by 12.5% for each 640
ppm rise in total dissolved salts (TDS)
in the irrigation water.
Additionally, high total salts can
have agrowth regulator effect on turf-
grasses because water uptake islimited.
Regardless of the level of salt tolerance,
all turfgrass cultivars will experience
some growth reduction from high salt
accumulations. The most salt-tolerant
cultivars (for example, seashore pas-
palum cultivars Sea Isle 1, Sea Isle
2000) have high inherent growth rates
so that they maintain adequate growth
for recovery from injury and for long-
term performance when under persis-
tent salt stress. Less salt-tolerant culti-
vars can besignificantly affected when
other stresses such as low mowing
height 'l4 inch), high salt-index
soluble fertilizers, shade, and excessive
traffic/wear/compaction negatively
affect long-term turf performance. Sites
continually irrigated with salt-laden
irrigation water should restrict cart
traffic on the golf course to cart paths
only, especially on turf species and
cultivars with low salt tolerance.
Sodium Permeability Hazard
The sodium concentration in con-
junction with the quantity and type of
other salts in irrigation water have a
major influence on a) water infiltration
into and percolation through soil pro-
files by directly affecting soil perme-
ability, b) the leaching fraction, or the
quantity of water required to leach
excessive Na or other salts, c) whether
the water should be treated prior to
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2000 17
Table3. Sodium permeability hazard and specific toxic ion reference points
(Adapted fromHarivandi and Beard, 1998; Carrow and Duncan, 1998)
Sodic and Saline-Sodic
Soil Formation
The relative quantities of soil Ca,
Mg, and Na are extremely important.
Calcium is the primary ion that stabi-
lizes soil structure. Magnesium offers
secondary structural stability. When
excess Na (> 200 ppm) is applied
through irrigation water, the Na con-
tent builds up over time and eventually
will displace the Ca+
Z
ions that are the
building blocks and that enhance the
structural integrity of the clay fraction
in the soil profile. This "push-and-
shove" relationship, which is domi-
nated byalarger Na+ion with aweaker
force or charge for holding clay par-
ticles together, eventually results insoil
structure breakdown. The result is a
sodic soil. Itissometimes referred to as
black alkali, since the excess sodium
precipitates out the organic matter
fraction in the soil, which in turn rises
to the soil surface. The deposit on the
surface is black with a slick, oily
appearance. Where excess Na+and
high total salts are both present, it is
called asaline-sodic soil and ischarac-
terized by having both white salt de-
posits and black decomposed organic
matter deposits on the surface.
Very few turfgrasses can survive
these sodium hazard conditions since
the soil structural breakdown results in
a sealed soil with little or no water
permeability. Classic symptoms ongolf
courses are heavily compacted areas,
areas with long-standing puddles, and
dead turf. A secondary symptom canbe
surface algaeand black layer formation
caused by the constant moist condi-
tions and the lack of oxygen inthe turf
root system. Sodium adsorption ratios
(SAR or adj SAR) exceeding 6meq L-l
indicate that the Na+levels are high
enough to cause structural deteriora-
tion in some soils.
A more subtle symptom often occurs
in sand-based greens or on fairways
and tees where clay soil profiles have
been capped with sand. On greens,
short duration (5-10minute) daily irri-
gation scheduling when using high Na
irrigation water may eventually result in
alayer forming inthe sand profile. This
layer normally will be as deep as the
water percolates downward each day
(usually somewhere between 4 and 12
inches deep). While sands often con-
tain few clay colloids, Na+can cause
organic matter of colloidal size to
migrate to this depth and start to seal
the soil pores, eventually leading to
black layer formation. High sulfur or
High
>18
>9
>16
>24
>18
>9
>2.50
RSC = (C03 +HC03) - (Ca +Mg),
in meq L-l
Table4. Calculation for adjusted
sodium adsorption ratio and
residual sodium carbonate
RSC or residual sodiumcarbonate
adj SARor adjusted
sodiumadsorption ratio
a) adj SARw = SAR [1+8.4- pHc]
(refer to Carrow and Duncan 1998,
and Ayers and Westcot 1985)
b) adj SARwisalso calculated by
the Hanson et al. (1999) method
late adj SARw and residual sodium
carbonate (RSC) according to Table4.
SpecificToxicIons
Sodium Content Low Moderate High
--
Toxicity to roots SARw <3 3-9 >9
ppm <70 70 - 210 >210
Toxicity to leaves
meq L-l
<3 >3
ppm <70 >70
Chloride Content
Toxicity to roots
meq L-l
<2 2 - 10 >10
ppm <70 70- 355 >355
Toxicity to leaves meq L-l
<3 >3
ppm <100 >100
Residual Chlorine (Clz) ppm <1 1-5 >5
Boron toxicity on roots ppm <0.7 0.7 - 3.0 >3.0
Bicarbonate content meq L-
1
<1.5 1.5- 8.5 >8.5
ppm <90 90 - 500 >500
*2:1 claysareshrink-swell clays
**1:1 claysdonot shrink (crack) ondryingor swell onwetting
Other 1:1typesareFe/AI oxidesandallophanes
Clay type unknown
Montmorillonite (2:1)*
Illite (2:1)*
Kaolinite (1:1)**
Sands with ECw >1.5dSm-
1
Sands with ECw <1.5dSm-
1
RSC (residual sodium carbonate)
Irrigation Water Components Degreeof Problem
Sodiumpermeability hazard (Na+-induced soil structural deterioration,
and low water/oxygen permeability)
SARw or adj SARw (sodium adsorption ratio) by clay type (ppm)
Low Moderate
<10 10- 18
<6 6-9
<8 8- 16
<16 16- 24
<10 10- 18
<6 6-9
<1.25 1.25- 2.50
application to enhance infiltration/
percolation into the soil, and d) the
options available to adjust manage-
ment scenarios to maintain or enhance
turf performance. Twokey water com-
ponent relationships must be deter-
mined before management decisions
can be made: Sodium adsorption ratio
and bicarbonate/carbonate levels.
The SARZlJ, or sodium adsorption
ratio, is used to assess the sodium
status and permeability hazard (Table
3). Sodium, calcium (Ca), and mag-
nesium concentrations (inmeq L-l) are
used to compute SARw:
SARw= Na
~(Ca+Mg)/2
When bicarbonate (HC03-) and
carbonate (C03 -Z) concentrations are
>120and 15ppm, respectively, calcu-
18 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD
sulfate concentrations inthe water will
enhance the process.
The salts and excess Na congregate
inthis zone and, with normal evapora-
tion, the salt concentration will gradu-
allyincrease. When evapotranspiration
exceeds irrigation, coupled with pro-
longed hot, dry, and/or windy condi-
tions, these concentrated salts will
move back up into the turf rootzone,
cause salt-induced drought, root dessi-
cation, and may even kill the turf. The
turfgrass will turn purple or yellow to
yellowish-brown to brown, usually
within 24 hours, depending on the turf
species.
A similar scenario can develop on
fairways, roughs, or tees where sand (4-
10inches in most cases) is used to cap
aheavy claysoil. Thehigh Nairrigation
water will usually result in a concen-
tration of excessNaions at theinterface
of the sand cap and clay. Unless the
excess Na+moves laterally under the
sand cap (drainage lines can help), it
will eventually break down the clay
structure and the subsoil will seal off.
Symptoms during wet periods will be
continuously damp, boggy areas with
possible standing water. Indry periods,
salts may rise into the rootzone.
The type of clay soil has aprofound
influence onthe amount of Nathat will
eventually cause soil structural deterio-
ration. Soilsthat crack open when they
dry (montmorillonite, illite) tolerate a
much lower Na concentration before
soil structural deterioration, mainly
because Na+easily enters between clay
platelets, and because of the increased
exposure of the clay particle exchange
sites to excess Naasthese soils expand
and contract. Soils that have non-
swelling clays (kaolinite, Fe/Al oxides)
tolerate much higher Na concentra-
tions before structural breakdown be-
cause the Na ion has more difficulty
.migrating into these non-expanding
soils and in-between clay platelets.
Regardless of clay type, once a soil
has deteriorated into asodic condition,-
turning this condition around will re-
quireaprogram of aeration, application
of Ca+
2
source amendments, high-vol-
ume leaching, and careful turfgrass
selection. Calciumamendments should
beapplied immediately following aera-
tion to avoid acceleration of permea-
bility problems inthe soil profile at the
depth of the aeration treatments. This
scenario isthe most complex and diffi-
cult salt stress to overcome and may
take several months to several years to
accomplish. With poor quality, salt-
laden water as the only irrigation
source, management at ahigh level will
havetobeconstant to prevent the sodic
soil condition fromreoccurring.
Bicarbonate and
Carbonate Influence
Another set of water data factors
is also important in influencing Na+
activity - namely, relative levels of
bicarbonates (HC03-) and carbonates
(C03-2) in relation to Ca+
2
and Mg+2
concentrations (Tables3and 4). When
high HC03- and C03-2 levels (> 120
and 15ppm, respectively) are applied
through the irrigation water, these ions
Acid injection and sulfur burners
can be used to treat water with excess
bicarbonate levels. Acidifying irrigation
water to a pH of 6.5 reduces
bicarbonates by approximately 50%.
react with Ca+
2
and Mg+2to form in-
soluble CaC03 and MgC03 The de-
creased levelsof Ca+
2
and Mg+2fromthis
reaction process reduce the amount of
these ions that can compete with Na+
for exchange sites on the clayparticles.
As the Na+content increases through
daily irrigation applications, the Na+
dominates these exchange sites and
causes soil structural breakdown. The
soil becomes sealed, water does not
percolate into the soil profiles, and
the turf eventually dies. The insoluble
Ca/Mg carbonate forms precipitate out
into the soil, and remaining bicarbon-
ates reduce the effectiveness of gypsum
or sulfur treatments to the soil.
The sodium permeability hazard in
irrigation water is usually assessed by
SARwvalues when HC03- is<120 ppm
and CO/ is<15ppm. The SARwvalue
incorporates the influence ofNa+, Ca+
2
,
and Mg+2concentrations. Above these
levels, adj SAR ispreferred since these
values incorporate the influence of
HC0
3
- and C0
3
-2.
Residual sodium carbonates (RSC)
also are used to assess the sodium
permeability hazard, and this value
includes the influence of HC03- and
C03-2 as compared to Ca+
2
and Mg+2
(Tables 3 and 4). As a general rule,
whenever HC03- exceeds 120 ppm, it is
agood idea to calculate RSC. It is not
the absolute levels of HCOJ- and
CO/ present in the irrigation water
that are important, but the relative
concentrations of HC0
3
- and CO
J
-2
compared to Ca+
2
, Mg+2, and Na+
levels.
When HC03- and C03-2 concentra-
tions exceed soluble Ca and Mg con-
centrations, water acidification may be
needed if residual sodium carbonate
and adjusted sodium adsorption ratios
(adj SARw) exceed 1.25 and 6meq VI,
respectively (Table 3). If HC03- and
C03-
2
concentrations are < 120 ppm,
RSC <zero, and adj SARw <6 meq
VI, then acidification of irrigation water
should not be needed. Know all three
values before deciding to purchase a
sulfur generator or acid injection sys-
tem for water treatment! (Carrow et
aI., 1999)
Ifthe RSC is>0, indicating residual
carbonates remain above those re-
moved by Ca and Mg precipitation,
another option is to add gypsum or
a soluble Ca+
2
source to prevent Na+
accumulation in the soil. One meq VI
Ca must be added for each meq VI
HC03 However, any previously pre-
cipitated Ca and Mg tied up by the
excess bicarbonates (positive RSC
value) will not be active or available.
Thus, acidification will remove the
bicarbonate and will make available
the Ca and Mg contained in or added
to the irrigation water to react with the
excess Na adsorbed to soil CEC sites.
Additional Ca could be supplied by
adding gypsum or asoluble Casource.
The amendments are intended to im-
prove soil water infiltration and perco-
lation. (Refer to Carrow et aI., 1999,
Green Section Record, 37(6):11-15 for
more information on water treatment
options to improve infiltration.)
SARlECw Interaction
The interaction of SARw and ECw
on soil water infiltration ispresented in
Table 5. High total (salt) electrolyte
concentrations in the irrigation water
can counteract the adverse effects of
Naon causing soil deterioration. When
irrigation water is very low in salts
(ECw <0.5 dSm-
I
), permeability prob-
lems can arise at the soil surface even
at low SARw (1-10 meq VI). All irriga-
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2000 19
*Soil permeability = ability of water to infiltrate into the soil and percolate/drain.
Gas exchange isreduced by low soil permeability.
Table 5. Interaction of sodium adsorption ratio (SARw) and
electrical conductivity (ECw) on soil water infiltration
(Harivandi and Beard, 1998)
Salt-Laden Irrigation Water (dSm-
1
)
Influence on Soil Permeability*
SARwand No Slight to Severe
ECw Restriction Moderate Restriction Restriction
SARw= 0-3 0-3 0-3
ECw= >0.7 0.7 - 0.2 <0.2
SARw= 3-6 3-6 3-6
ECw= >1.2 1.2- 0.3 <0.3
SARw= 6-12 6-12 6-12
ECw= >1.9 1.9-0.5 <0.5
SARw= 12- 20 12- 20 12- 20
ECw= >2.9 2.9 - 1.3 <1.3
SARw= 20 - 40 20 - 40 20 - 40
ECw= >5.0 5 -2.9 <2.9
tion water should contain at least 20
ppm or 1meq L-
1
Ca and have amini-
mum ECw = 0.5 dSm-
1
to prevent soil
dispersion (Petrie 1997). At high ECw
(> 3 dSm-
1
), the high electrolyte (salt)
concentration can function in main-
taining soil permeability even with a
high SARw (15-30 meq L-l). Thus, a
high Na hazard in the soil can be
reduced byirrigation water with ahigh
ECw (seeTable 3).
(Refer to Duncan and Carrow, 1999,
Golf Course Management, May: 58-
62, or Carrow and Duncan, 1998, for
the gypsumrequirements to reduce soil
exchangeable sodium percentage.)
Specific Ion Toxicity
Irrigation water may contain toxic
levels of certain ions that affect turf-
grass in 1) root tissues due to soil
accumulation, 2) shoot tissues due to
uptake by the turf roots and accumu-
lation in leaves, and 3) directly on the
foliage of landscape plants due to
sprinkler irrigation. The ions that
cause toxicity problems include Na,
CI, B, HC03 , and pH (H+or OH- ions).
As total salinity increases in irrigation
water, the potential for specific ion
toxicity also increases. Germinating
seed, young seedlings, and sprigs are
especially vulnerable because of their
juvenile root systems. '
The specific ion toxicity guidelines
(Table 2) apply to sensitive turf and
landscape plants, but soil accumulation
20 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD
of these ions can eventually cause
damage to eventolerant turfgrass. Over
time, sodium can become toxic to turf
roots, since it accumulates in the soil
and leaves of susceptible turf genotypes
at SAR >3meq L-l or 70ppm. Chloride
(CI)can accumulate at potentially toxic
levels for roots and leaves at 2-3 meq
L-l or 70-100 ppm, and can restrict N
uptake. Excess CI normally accumu-
lates in the tips of leaves. In turf,
regular mowing plus collection and
disposal of clippings removes these
high concentrations fromthe turf and
soil system. But leaf removal is nor-
mally not a management option for
landscape plants, or may be limited
on turf under non-mowed conditions,
such as in naturalized roughs.
Residual chlorine (CI2) that isused to
disinfect wastewater becomes toxic at
>5ppm. HC03 concentrations are not
toxic at >8.0 meq L-l or 500 ppm, but
can cause unsightly deposits on leaves
and equipment and can contribute
to excess Na+deterioration of soil
structure.
Depending on the source, some irri-
gation effluent can contain high levels
of heavy metals and other ions (Carrow
and Duncan, 1998). Maximum concen-
trations of selected heavy metals Zn
(2.0 ppm) and Cu (0.2 ppm) are note-
worthy since these ions can restrict
uptake of iron (Fe) (Table 4). The
maximum concentrations for Fe (5.0
ppm) and Mn (0.2ppm) are important
to know since these elements tend to
be deficient in salt-affected and highly
leached turfgrass systems. These maxi-
mum guidelines are based on the
potential to achieve toxic levels over
time with long-term use of the water.
Soil and Water pH
Water pH and soil pH areadditional
management considerations. The key
reference points are pHs < 5.0 (H+
dominates ontheacidic level) and> 8.5
(OH- dominates on the alkaline level).
When pHs are at or beyond these
specific extremes, management levels
must beincreased accordingly to mini-
mize deterioration inturf performance
(Carrow and Duncan, 1998).
The effect of water pH on altering
soil pH isoften short termbecause the
buffering capacity (CEC) of most clay
and loam native soils is so high that
many years of irrigation will berequired
before, a significant change will occur.
Soils with lower CECs (sands, decom-
posed granites, crushed lava rock)
should be monitored closely for pH
changes. Accordingly, acidifying water
for the sake of pH modification is
questionable when cost analyses are
considered. However, when high bi-
carbonates aresupplied incombination
with excess Na in the water source
(which ties up the Ca/Mg needed to
counter the Na), water acidification
would bejustified. Additionally, when
thewater pH isinthe 8.0-8.5 range, use
of acidifying fertilizers (sulfur-based
sources) to dissolve some of the free
calcium carbonate (lime) can counter
some of this alkaline soil pH reaction.
Beaware that extreme water pH and
high salt concentrations, when used in
the sprayer mix with fungicides, herbi-
cides, or insecticides, can have an
effect on efficacy. This is particularly
true with organophosphate and carba-
mate chemistries. Consult with manu-
facturers regarding each particular
product when confronted with this
problem.
Critical Nutrient Considerations
All irrigation water will contain a
certain level of nutrients in its compo-
sition, and wastewater may contain
elevated levels of certain nutrients.
Due to the nutrient load in effluent
irrigation water, fertility programs must
be adjusted to maximize turfgrass per-
formance and to minimize environ-
mental impact (Kinget a1.,2000).
Nutrient guidelines in irrigation are
compared in Tables 5, 6, and 7. Key
ratios to calculate include Ca:Mg,
*Irrigation water with nutrient concentrations outside these ranges can be used;
the fertility program must be adjusted to avoid deficienCies.
Table 7 . Reclaimed water guidelines - recommended maximum values
(Adapted fromL. J , Stowell, 1999. Pointers on reclaimed water
contract negotiations. Fairbanks Ranch meeting. June 7,1999.)
Table 8. Nutrient ratios in irrigation water and potential deficiencies *
Ca:Mg <3:1 Ca deficiency
>8:1 Mgdeficiency
Ca:K <10:1 Ca deficiency
>30: 1 K deficiency
Mg:K <2:1 Mgdeficiency
>10:1 K deficiency
Table 6. Nutrient guidelines in irrigation water (ppm)
Nutrient Low Normal High Very High
P <0.01 0.1- 0.4 0.4 - 0.8 >0.8
P0
4
"
<0.3 0.3 - 1.21 1.21- 2.42 >2.42
P20S <0.23 0.23 - 0.92 0.92 - 1.83 >1.83
K <5 5 -20 20 - 30 >30
K20 <6 6- 24 24 - 36 >36
Ca <20 20 - 60 60 - 80 >80
Mg <10 10- 25 25 - 35 >35
N <1.1 1.1- 11.3 11.3- 22.6 >22.6
N0
3
-
<5 5 - 50 50 - 100 >100
S <10 10- 30 30 - 60 >60
S04- <30 30 - 90 90 - 180 >180
CI (ppm) 250
Na (ppm) 200
Fe 5.0
Mn 0.2
Zn 2.0
Cu 0.2
Ni 0.2
tion water in small amounts provide a
light topdressing to the native soil.
Theprimary concern with suspended
solids is their effect on newly con-
structed sand greens that can poten-
tially be contaminated by these fine-
particle-size solids delivered during
seed germination, establishment, and
grow-in. If significant amounts of
suspended soil fines are applied at this
stage, soil surface micropores can be-
come plugged, function like alayer of
TDS (ppm) 960
ECw (dSm-
I
) 1.5
SARw 5.7
adj SARw 11.6
RSC (meq VI) <1.25
HC03 (ppm) 250
B (ppm) < 0.5
mature wear or plugging of sprinkler
and pumping components as well as
increasing the potential for plugging
micropores, which conduct soil surface
water.
Suspended solids generally have
little or no impact on native soils (fair-
ways, roughs, landscaped areas) or
pushup soil tees and greens, because
the added solids normally are similar
inparticle sizeto the native soil. Inthis
case, solids added through the irriga-
Ca:K, and Mg:K (Table8), especially in
salt-affected sitesthat areirrigated with
salt-laden water. When dealing with
these conditions, certain management
considerations should be considered.
Because of the high mobility of K+
and the propensity of Na+to displace
K+on soil exchange sites, aregular K+
application may be needed every 2-4
weeks to maintain anutritional balance
inthe turf plant.
Due to high leaching events with
salt-laden irrigation water, Fe and Mn
may be needed on a regular basis in
spoon-feeding format.
Highly soluble nitrate sources
[Ca(N03)2] are recommended in a
spoon-feeding approach to maximize
turf uptake and utilization in a salt-
challenged environment.
Lesssoluble, slow-release products
with lower salt indexes may be more
appropriate when planning soil-applied
fertilization programs to reduce the
total salt load inthe turf rootzone.
Avoid unnecessary sulfur applica-
tions (except when inconjunction with
lime to form gypsum) because they
can lead to black layer and anaerobic
problems in turf.
IfP, P04-, and P20S concentrations
are in the normal range, do not apply
additional P-based fertilizers since this
nutrient is one of the least mobile of
nutrients inthe soil and can contribute
to algal blooms in holding ponds or
contamination in surface and subsur-
facewater resources.
Avoid foliar calcium applications
since this element isthe least mobile of
nutrients and isan element that ismore
effectively taken up by roots than
through foliar tissue.
Total Suspended Solids
Suspended solids are inorganic or
organic materials (sand, silt, clay,
plant debris, algae) that do not dis-
solve in water and can only be
removed by filtration. While total sus-
pended solids (TSS) is normally not
considered a salt problem, it is an
important water quality characteristic.
Low quality effluents are notorious for
containing high volumes of organic
solids. The overall effect on hydraulic
conductivity is governed by particle
size and quantity of suspended in-
organic and organic solids. Organic
materials include humic substances
such as fulvic acid 'and humic acid
that exhibit both soil aggregating and
anti-aggregating properties. Excess
suspended solids, and particularly sand
contamination, often contribute to pre-
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2000 21
foreign soil or incompatible topdress-
ing, and inhibit water infiltration and
percolation. If the irrigation water is
salt-laden, the fines can settle at the
bottom of the wetting zone and de-
velop a layer where excess salts
accumulate and concentrate. If ET is
higher than the volume of irrigation
that is applied, the concentrated salts
can rise through capillary action into
the turf rootzone to cause salt injury.
Unfortunately, no specific guidelines
have been published for predicting the
level at which TSS becomes ahazard.
Interpret TSS data based on common
sense and the potential impact that
contaminants mayor may not have on
soil structure and irrigation system
components. Usethe following method
to evaluate the TSS hazard:
1)The water quality test reports TSS
inparts per million (ppm) or milligrams
per liter (mgVI).
2) Multiply thevaluebyaconversion
factor of 2.72. The resulting value is
equivalent to the pounds of solids per
acre-foot (325,852 gallons), or the
volume of solids applied to each acre
with 12inches of irrigation water.
For example:
1)Water quality test reports 22 ppm
TSS.
2) 22 ppm x 2.72 = 59.84 or 60 lbs.
of solids applied per acre-foot of water
applied to the turf.
3) Isthis aproblem? Not likely, since
this amount (60lbs./acre-foot) isequiv-
alent to one bag of cement spread over
the golf course with each acre-foot of
water applied. Sand, silt, and clay
particle residue from a windy day
would provide more solids than this
water source (Kopec, 1998).
4) If the TSS was 735: 735 ppm x
2.72 =-2,000 lbs. or 1ton of solids per
acre-foot. This volume of fines could
be aproblem on sand greens. Filtering
the water or providing settling ponds
would be options to consider.
Summary
Steps in assessing water quality
to determine turfgrass management
options:
1. Check for bicarbonates and car-
bonates inthe water. Ifconcentrations
are greater than 120ppm and 15ppm,
respectively, calculate adj SARw and
RSC to verifythe degree of impact that
these ions will have on Ca and Mg
activity.Adj SARs>6meq VI and RSCs
>1.25may indicate that acid treatment
plus lime or gypsum applications are
needed.
2. Check Na content and calculate
SARw or adj SARw and RSC to assess
impact on soil structural deterioration
(Na permeability hazard). Also, evalu-
ate ECw in conjunction with SAR or
adj SAR to estimate the permeability
hazard (Tables3and 5). Knowledge of
the clay type will be useful. These
values will determine the level of aerifi-
cation, amendments, and leaching that
will be needed.
3. Check ECw and TDS for their
impact onturfgrass (Table2). Hightotal
salinity values inconjunction with low
Na+and HC03- values would indicate
the potential to create asaline soil con-
dition and will determine the degree of
aeration and leaching needed as your
primary management options.
4. Check S and/or sulfate levels in
the water. If S >60 ppm or S04 >180
ppm, you may need to use lime as an
This patch of seashore paspalum is surviving better than the surrounding
bermudagrass in this poorly drained, high-saLt-content soil.
22 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD
Without proper management, sodium, in combination with bicarbonates, can cause
crusting and sealing of the soil surface.
amendment. The high sulfates (sulfur)
in the water will combine with limeto
form gypsum. Removing the excess
sulfur and sulfates will help minimize
anaerobic problems and black layer
formation when regular aeration and
leaching are used in management
protocols.
5. Check actual Na, CI, and Bvalues
for their specific ion toxicity potential
(Table 3). These ions normally will
affect landscape plants and susceptible
turf cultivars, but continued accumu-
lation can eventually influence even
tolerant species. Plants tolerant to high
total salinity also aregenerally tolerant
to high levels of these specific ions.
6. Check levels of actual nutrients
and make appropriate adjustments in
your fertility program to account for
nutrient additions or any induced defi-
ciencies (Tables 6 and 7). Calculate
Ca:Mg, Ca:K, and Mg:K ratios and
adjust the fertility program accordingly'
(Table8). Watch for deficient levels of
Fe and Mn. With very high CI- levels,
you may need to increase N by 10-25%.
P and K are critical to maintenance of
agood root systeminasalt-challenged
ecosystem. Annual P and K rates may
needtobeincreased 25-50'%abovenon-
salt-affected sites, but with a spoon-
feeding application regime. High Ca
and Mgapplications to replace excess
Na can depress K uptake. High Na
also depresses K uptake. N:KzO ratios
should bemaintained at 1:1up to 1:1.5
by light, frequent applications.
7.Aerate, aerate, aerate followed by
leach, leach, and leach. Keep the salts
moving!
Glossary of Term~
Acid injection: Used to treat water with
high HC03 and C03 content. Adding an
acid evolves the HC03 and C03 off as CO
2
and water. Commonly used sources include
sulfuric, urea-sulfuric, and S02 gas from
sulfurous generators.
B: Boron, amicronutrient, essential at very
low concentrations. Can become toxic at
soil concentrations of 0.5-6.0 ppm. Most
turfgrasses have agood tolerance to boron,
while some ornamental species are very
sensitive.
Bicarbonate: HC03 ion.
Ca: Calcium is an essential plant nutrient
and cation responsible for good soil
structure.
CaCI2: Calcium chloride, a very soluble
calcium salt that can be dissolved inirriga-
tion water to lower the SAR or increase the
ECw.
CaC03: Calciumcarbonate (lime), insoluble
formof calcium precipitated by water high
inCa, HC03, and C03 Sometimes naturally
occurring in calcareous/caliche soils in
aridregions. Insoluble until reacted with an
acid.
CaC03 MgC03: Calcium/magnesium car-
bonate (dolomitic lime), insoluble calcium/
magnesium combination precipitated from
water high in Ca, Mg, HC03, and C0
3

Sometimes naturally occurring in calcare-

ous/caliche soils in arid regions. Insoluble
until reacted with an acid.
Carbonate: C0
3
-2ion.
CaN03: Calcium nitrate, a highly soluble
source of calcium and nitrogen that can be
dissolved in irrigation water to lower the
SAR or increase the ECw.
CaS04: Calciumsulfate, commonly referred
to as gypsum. An amendment used to dis-
place sodium from the soil exchange sites
and can be added to irrigation water
(usually as a suspension) to increase ECw
or the ratio of Ca/Na, thereby lowering
SAR.
CEC: Cation exchange capacity, the sum
total of exchangeable cations that asoil can
absorb.
CI: Chloride isrequired insmall amounts as
a plant nutrient; it is a highly soluble salt
and toxic inlarger quantities (70-100 ppm).
Treesand ornamental plants areoften more
sensitive to chloride than turf, and accumu-
lation isfirst noted in leaf tips. Most plants
aregenerally more sensitive to chloride salts
than sulfate salts.
C12: Chlorine, used by water treatment
plants to disinfect water of various patho-
gens. Excess or residual chlorine (> 5.0
ppm) can cause toxicity.
C03: Carbonate, combines with Ca (cal-
cium) and Mg(magnesium) to formCaC0
3
and MgC03 (calcium carbonate and mag-
nesium carbonate) forms of insoluble lime
or calcite.
Cu: Copper, an essential micronutrient, but
if concentrations are excessive (>0.2 ppm)
can restrict the uptake of iron.
dS/m_1: Decisiemens per meter, the stan-
dard measurement used to report electrical
conductivity of water (ECw).
ECw: Electrical conductivity of irrigation
water. This isameasure of the total salinity
or total dissolved salts. 640 ppmTDS = 1.0
dS/mECw.
ESP: Exchangeable sodium percentage,
used to classify sodic and saline-sodic soil
conditions. The degree of saturation of the
soil exchange complex with sodium as
compared to other exchangeable cations
occurring from irrigation with sodium-
dominated water.
ET:Evapotranspiration, thetotal amount of
water loss fromsoil evaporation and plant
transpiration.
Fe: Iron, essential plant nutrient that tends
to become depleted inhighly leached, salt-
affected soils.
H:zS04: Sulfuric acid, either forms in soil
when acidifying amendments/fertilizers are
used such as soil sulfur (S), ammonium
sulfate, etc., or is injected into irrigation
water via a sulfurous generator or acid
injection and products such asurea sulfuric
acid (NpHURIC).
HC03: Bicarbonate, combines with Ca
(calcium) and Mg (magnesium) to form
CaC03 and MgC03 (calciumcarbonate and
magnesium carbonate) forms of insoluble
lime or calcite. Can also cause unsightly
deposits on omamentals.
K: Potassium, an essential nutrient that
influences rooting, drought, heat, cold, and
disease tolerance. Potassium can be dis-
placed by sodium at the cation exchange
site.
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2000 23
1.25- 2.5
>2.5
DR. RON R. DUNCAN (tur/grass genetics/
breeding, stress physiology) and DR.
ROBERT N. CARROW (tur/grass stress
physiology and soil physical and chemical
stresses) are research scientists in the
Crop and Soil Science Department, Uni-
versity of Georgia, Georgia Experimental
Station at Griffin. MIKE HUCK is an
agronomist with the USGA Green Section
Southwest Region.
Harivandi, A. 1998. Reclaimed water irri-
gation. GCSAA, Lawrence, KS. 129p.
Harivandi, M. Ali. 1999. Interpreting turf-
grass irrigation water test results. Univ.
California Pub. 8009 (http://anrcatalog.uc-
davis.edu).
Harivandi, M. A., and J. B. Beard. 1998.
How to interpret a water test report. Golf
Course Mgmt. 66(6):49-55.
Hayes, Allan. 1995. Comparing well water
with effluent: what superintendents need to
know. Golf Course Mgmt. June: 49-53.
Hawes, Kay. 1997. Quenching golf's thirst.
Golf Course Mgmt. June: 71-72, 74, 78, 80,
84-86.
King, K. W, J. C. Balogh, and R. 0. Harmel.
2000. Feeding turf with wastewater. Golf
Course Mgmt. January: 59-62.
Kopec, 0. 1998. Truegrit - understanding
TSS on awater quality report. Cactus Clip-
pings. Newsletter of the Cactus. and Pine
(Arizona) Golf Course Superintendents
Association.
.Newcom, J., and E. McCathy. 1999. Lay-
person's guide to water recycling. Water
Education Foundation. Sacramento, CA
95814.
Pitrie, S. E. 1997.Understanding irrigation
water quality. UNOCAL Solution Sheet.
April: 1-4.
R)lOades, J. D., A. Kandiah, and A. M.
~ashali. 1992. The use of saline waters for
./crop production. FAOIrrigation and Drain-
agePaper #48. Rome, Italy. 133p.
Ross, B. B. 1988. Irrigating turf grass under
adverse water quality conditions. Land-
scape and Irrigation 12(4): 148, 150, 151,
154..
Schinderle, Gary. 1990. Identifying and
correcting severe water quality problems.
Golf Course Mgmt. May.
Throssell, C. S., and 0. M. Kopec. 1994.
Irrigation water quality. Salt-affected irri-
gation water and soil: impact on turf-
grass growth and management. GCSAA,
Lawrence, KS. 50p.
U.S. Golf Association. 1994. Wastewater
reuse for golf course irrigation. Lewis Publ.,
Chelsea, MI.
Yenny, Reed. 1994. Salinity management.
USGA Green Section Record 32(6):7-10.
Zupancic, J. 1999. Reclaimed water: chal-
lenges of irrigation use. Grounds Mainte-
nance 34(3):33,36,38,85.
References
Ayers, R. S., and 0.W Westcot.1985. Water
quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper, 29. Rev. 1,Food and Agric.
Organiz., Rome, Italy.
Berndt, W Lee. 1995. "Quality'" water
for your plants. Landscape Management
34(10): 21-23.
Bond, W. J. 1998. Effluent irrigation- an
environmental challenge for soil science.
Austral. J. Soil Res. 36: 543-555.
Borchardt, Julie. 1999. Reclaiming a re-
source. Golf Course Mgmt. Jan.: 268-272,
276-278.
Carrow, R. N. 1995.Water qualitytesting for
turfgrass sites. Ga. Turfgrass Assoc. Mgmt.
Brief #1. 7p.
Carrow, R. N., and R. R. Duncan. 1998.
Salt-affected turfgrass sites: assessment and
management. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea,
MI. 185p.
Carrow, R. N., R. R. Duncan, andM. Huck.
1999. Treatingthe cause, not the symptoms.
Irrigation water treatment for better infil-
tration. USGA Green Section Record.
37(6): 11-15.
Cohen, Stuart, A. Surjeck, T. Durborow,
and N. L. Barnes. 1999. Water quality
impacts by golf courses. J. Environ. Qual.
28: 798-809.
Duncan, R. R., and R. N. Carrow. 1999.
Establishment and grow-in of paspalum
golf course turf. Golf Course Mgmt. May:
58-62.
Duncan, R. R., and R. N. Carrow. 2000.
Seashore paspalum, the environmental
turfgrass. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, MI.
Feigin, A., L. Ravina, and J. Shalhevet. 1991.
Irrigation with treated sewage effluent.
Management for environmental protection.
Springer-Verlag. Berlin.
Hanson, Blaipe, Stephen R. Grattan, and
Allan Fulton. 1999. Agricultural Salinity
and Drainage. Div. Agric. Natural Res. Pub.
3375, U. Cal. Irrig.. Program, Univ. Calif.,
Davis, Ca. 160p.
S03 Generator: Sulfurous generator, also
known as asulfur burner. Equipment used
to treat irrigation water containing high
carbonates and bicarbonates. Bums sulfur
at high temperatures to produce sulfurous
gas that when combined with water be-
comes sulfuric acid. This evolves the HC03
and C03 off as CO2 and water. This is
another method of acid injection.
S04: Sulfate, when combined with lime
while inan acid formcreates gypsum. May
also combine with other cations to form
various soluble salts.
IDS: Total dissolved salts, normally re-
ported as parts per million (ppm).
TSS: Total suspended solids, organic and
inorganic materials (sand, silt, clay, algae,
plant debris, etc.) that do not dissolve in
water and must be removed by filtration or
settling.
Potential Irrigation Use
Generally safefor
irrigation
Marginal
Usually unsuitable
unless treated
S: Sulfur, asecondary plant nutrient used as
asoil amendment to modify pH inalkaline
soils. Also used in calcareous and caliche
soils (containing high lime) to convert lime
into gypsum.
SARw: Sodium adsorption ratio of irriga-
tion water. SARw is used to determine
whether sodium (Na) levels of water will
cause soil structure to deteriorate. Unad-
justed SAR (SARw) considers only Na, Ca,
and Mg.
Adj SAR: Adjusted sodium adsorption
ratio of irrigation water. Adj SARwpredicts
the increased influence of sodium (Na)
upon soil structure due to the influence of
carbonates and bicarbonates.
meq/l: Milliequivalents per liter. Parts per
million (ppm) divided by equivalent weight
equals milliequivalents per liter.
mgVI: Milligrams per liter, equals parts per
million.
Mg: Magnesium, an essential plant nutrient
and cation associated with good soil struc-
ture, providing it is not available in exces-
sivequantities in relationship to Ca.
MgC03: Magnesium carbonate, insoluble
form of magnesium precipitated by water
high in Mg, HC03, and C03. Sometimes
naturally occurring in calcareous/caliche
soils inarid regions. Insoluble until reacted
with an acid.
Mn: Manganese, essential plant nutrient
that tends to become depleted in highly
leached, salt-affected soils.
Na: Sodium, non-essential as a nutrient, a
"small" cation with a large hydrated size
that disperses soils, thereby affecting infil-
tration and soil aeration. Can displace
potassium on soil exchange sites.
N~S04: Sodium sulfate, a soluble salt
formed when gypsum is used to treat soils
with high sodium content.
pH (water): A logarithmic measurement of
relative alkalinity or acidity. Water with
low pH often reflects higher quantities of
sulfates or iron, while high pH tends to
reflect high bicarbonates or sodium.
ppm: Parts per million. Milliequivalents per
liter multiplied byequivalent weight =parts
per million.
RSC: Residual sodium carbonate, like the
adj SARw, it is used to determine whether
Na will cause soil structure problems. The
RSC compares the concentrations of Ca
and Mgto HC03 and C03 and determines
when calciumand magnesium precipitation
can occur inthe soil and result inadditional
sodium domination of soil cation exchange
sites. RSC = (C03 + HC03) - (Ca + Mg).
This calculation is done with all measure-
ments in meq/l.
RSCValue
<1.25
24 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD