1

Biosensors for Environmental Applications

Lvia Maria da Costa Silva,
Ariana Farias Melo and Andra Medeiros Salgado
Laboratory of Biological Sensors/EQ/UFRJ Biochemical Engineering Department,
Chemistry School, Technology Center, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro
Brazil
1. Introduction
The increasing number of potentially harmful pollutants in the environment calls for fast
and cost-effective analytical techniques to be used in extensive monitoring programs.
Additionally, over the last few years, a growing number of initiatives and legislative actions
for environmental pollution control have been adopted in parallel with increasing scientific
and social concern in this area [1-4]. The requirements for application of most traditional
analytical methods to environmental pollutants analysis, often constitute an important
impediment for their application on a regular basis. The need for disposable systems or tools
for environmental applications, in particular for environmental monitoring, has encouraged
the development of new technologies and more suitable methodologies. In this context,
biosensors appear as a suitable alternative or as a complementary analytical tool. Biosensors
can be considered as a subgroup of chemical sensors in which a biological mechanism is
used for analyte detection [1,3-4].
A biosensor is defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
as a self-contained integrated device that is capable of providing specific quantitative or
semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element (biochemical
receptor), which is retained in contact direct spatial with a transduction element [5].
Biosensors should be distinguished from bioassays where the transducer is not an integral
part of the analytical system [4-7]. Biosensing systems and methods are being developed as
suitable tools for different applications, including bioprocess control, food quality control,
agriculture, military and in particular, for medical applications.
Biosensors are usually classified according to the bioreceptor element involved in the
biological recognition process (e.g., enzymes, immunoaffinity recognition elements, whole-
cells of micro-organisms, plants or animals, or DNA fragments), or according to the
physicochemical transducer used (e.g., electrochemical, optical, piezoelectrical or thermal).
The main classes of bioreceptor elements that are applied in environmental analysis are
whole cells of microorganisms, enzymes, antibodies and DNA. Additionally, in the most of
the biosensors described in the literature for environmental applications electrochemical
transducers are used [5].
For environmental applications, the main advantages offered by biosensors over
conventional analytical techniques are the possibility of portability, miniaturization, work
on-site, and the ability to measure pollutants in complex matrices with minimal sample
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preparation. Although many of the developed systems cannot compete yet with
conventional analytical methods in terms of accuracy and reproducibility, they can be used
by regulatory authorities and by industry to provide enough information for routine testing
and screening of samples [1,3,8].
Biosensors can be used as environmental quality monitoring tools in the assessment of
biological/ecological quality or for the chemical monitoring of both inorganic and organic
priority pollutants. In this review article we provide an overview of biosensor systems for
environmental applications, and in the following sections we describe the various
biosensors that have been developed for environmental monitoring, considering the
pollutants and analysis that are usually mentioned in the literature.
2. Heavy metals
Heavy metals are currently the cause of some of the most serious pollution problems. Even
in small concentrations, they are a threat to the environment and human health because they
are non-biodegradable. People are constantly been exposed to heavy metals in the
environment [8-9]. The dangers associated with heavy metals are due to the ubiquitous
presence of these elements in the biosphere, their bioavailability from both natural and
anthropogenic sources, and their high toxicity. Thus, there are several cases described in the
literature where exposure of populations to these pollutants has resulted in severe damage
to their health, including a significant amount of deaths. The metal contaminants most
commonly observed in the environment are: lead, chromium, zinc, mercury, cadmium and
copper [10-11].
Conventional analytical techniques for heavy metals (such as cold vapour atomic absorption
spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) are precise, but suffer
from the disadvantages of high cost, the need for trained personnel and the fact that they
need to be performed in the laboratory [9]. For the reasons cited earlier, biosensors are being
developed and utilized for monitoring heavy metal concentrations in environmental
samples [9,12-14]. Furthermore, their biological basis makes them ideal for toxicological
measurement of heavy metals, while conventional techniques can only measure
concentrations [15].
Many of the bacterial biosensors developed for analysis of heavy metals in environmental
samples, make use of specific genes responsible for bacterial resistance to these elements,
such as biological receptors. Bacterial strains resistant to a number of metals such as zinc,
copper, tin, silver, mercury and cobalt have been isolated as possible biological receptors
[16-18]. The metal resistance of these genes is induced only when the element reaches the
bacterias cytoplasm. The specificity of this resistance mechanism contributes to the
construction of cell biosensors for detection of metals from the fusion of these resistance
genes with genes encoding bioluminescent proteins, for example, luciferin. In this case, the
production of light, which can be measured by luminometers and photometers, indicates the
presence of a heavy metal in the sample [9,17].
Enzymatic methods are also commonly used for metal ion determination, since these can be
based on the use of a wide range of enzymes that are specifically inhibited by low
concentrations of certain metal ions [19-20]. Domnguez-Renedo et al. [21] developed
enzymatic amperometric biosensors for the measurement of Hg+2, based on the inhibitory
action of this ion on urease activity. They used screen-printed carbon electrodes as support
and screen-printed carbon electrodes modified with gold nanoparticles. The same enzyme
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was used by Kuswandi [22] in the development of a simple optical fibre biosensor for the
determination of various heavy metal ions: Hg(II), Ag(I), Cu(II), Ni(II), Zn(II), Co(II) and
Pb(II). Durrieu and Tran-Minh [23] developed an optical biosensor to detect lead and
cadmium by inhibition of alkaline phosphatase present on the external membrane of
Chlorella vulgaris microalgae, used as biological recognition element. Moreoever, a
biosensor with microalgae Tetraselmis chui was developed for the voltammetric
measurement of Cu+2 for Alpat et al. [24]. The developed algae-based biosensor was also
successfully applied to the determination of copper (II) in real sample and the results were
confirmed when compared to those obtained by atomic absorption spectrophotometric
method. Table 1 lists some examples of biosensors developed for heavy metal determination.

Analyte
Recognition
biocomponent
Transduction
system
Matrix Ref.
Zinc, copper,
cadmium and
nickel
Pseudomonas fluorescens
10586s pUCD607 with
the lux insertion on a
plasmid
Optical
(luminometer)
Soil [25]
Cadmium DNA Electrochemical Standard solutions [26]
Cadmiun Phytochelatins
Optical (localized
surface plasmon
resonance)
Standard solutions [27]
Mercury, cadmium
and arsenic
Urease enzyme Electrochemical Standard solutions [28]
Nickel ions
Bacillus sphaericus strain
MTCC 5100
Electrochemical
Industrial effluents
and foods
[29]
Zinc, copper,
cadmium, nickel,
lead, iron and
aluminum
Chlorella vulgaris strain
CCAP 211/12
Electrochemical Urban waters [30]
Cadmiun Escherichia coli RBE23-17 Electrochemical Wastewater [31]
Zinc, cobalt and
copper
Pseudomonas sp. B4251,
Bacillus cereus B4368 and
E. coli 1257
Electrochemical Water [32]
Mercury (II) and
lead (II) ions
DNA Optical Water [33]
Copper (I) and (II)
ions
DsRed (red fluorescent)
protein
Optical Standard solutions [34]
Cadmium, copper
and lead
Sol-gel-immobilized-
urease
Electrochemical
Synthetic
effluents
[35]
Table 1. Examples of biosensors developed for heavy metal determination.
3. Biochemistry Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD or BOD
5
) is a parameter widely used to indicate the
amount of biodegradable organic material in water. Its determination is time consuming,
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and consequently it is not suitable for online process monitoring. Fast determination of BOD
could be achieved with biosensor-based methods. Most BOD sensors rely on the
measurement of the bacterial respiration rate in close proximity to a transducer, commonly
of the Clark type (an amperometric sensor developed by Clark in 1956 for measuring
dissolved oxygen) [2].
BOD biosensors are the most common commercial biosensors for environmental
monitoring. The first commercial BOD sensor was produced by the Japanese company
Nisshin Electric in 1983 and a number of other commercial BOD biosensors based on
microbial cells are being marketed by Autoteam GmbH, Medingen GmbH and Dr. Lange
GmbH in Germany; Kelma (Belgium); Bioscience, Inc. and US Filter (USA) [2,4,12].
Nakamura and Karube [36] developed a system for measuring BOD from cells of
recombinant Escherichia coli with Vibrio fisheri genes lux AE. With this system the real time
analysis of multiple samples was possible. These handy devices have been marketed
primarily for food and pharmaceutical industries. Moreover, an optical biosensor for
parallel multi-sample determination of biochemical oxygen demand in wastewater samples
has been developed by Kwok et al. [37]. The biosensor monitors the dissolved oxygen
concentration in artificial wastewater through an oxygen sensing film immobilized on the
bottom of glass sample vials. Then, the microbial samples were immobilized on this film
and the BOD value was determined from the rate of oxygen consumption by the
microorganisms in the first 20 minutes.
4. Nitrogen compounds
Nitrites are widely used for food preservation and for fertilization of soils. However,
continuous consumption of these ions can cause serious implications on human health,
particularly because it can react irreversibly with hemoglobin [38]. The increasing levels of
nitrate found in groundwater and surface water are of concern because they can harm the
aquatic environment. In line with this, the regulations for treatment of urban wastewater in
order to reduce pollution, including pollution by nitrates, from sewage treatment works of
industrial and domestic, have been implemented [2].
Chen et al. [39] developed a biosensor for amperometric determination of nitrite using
cytochrome c nitrite reductase (ccNiR) from Desulfovibrio desulfuricans immobilized and
electrically connected on a glassy carbon electrode by entrapment into redox active [ZnCr-
AQS] double layered hydroxide containing anthraquinone-2-sulfonate (AQS). The
instrument showed a fast response to nitrite (5 seconds) with a linear range between
concentrations of nitrite 0.015 and 2.35 M and a detection limit of 4nM.
A highly sensitive, fast and stable conductimetric enzymatic biosensor for the determination
of nitrate in waters was described in Wang et al. [40-41]. Conductimetric electrodes were
modified by methyl viologen mediator mixed with nitrate reductase from Aspergillus niger
by cross-linking with glutaraldehyde in the presence of bovine serum albumin and Nafion
cation-exchange polymer, allowing retention of viologen mediator. A linear calibration
curve in the range of 0.02 and 0.25 mM with detection limits of 0.005 mM nitrate was
obtained. When stored in pH 7.5 phosphate buffer, the sensors showed good stability over
two weeks. Moreover, Khadro et al. [42], developed an enzymatic conductimetric biosensor
for the determination of nitrate in water, validated and used for natural water samples. The
instrument was based on a methyl viologen mediator mixed with nitrate reductase from
Aspergillus niger and Nafion cation-exchange polymer dissolved in a plasticized PVC
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membrane deposited on the sensitive surface of interdigitated electrodes. When stored in
phosphate buffer pH 7.5 at 4C, the sensor showed good stability over 2 months.
5. PCBs
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are toxic organic compounds [43-44] that are ubiquitous
environmental pollutants, even though their production was banned in several countries
many years ago [44]. It is currently assumed that food is the major source of the PCB
exposure since PCBs are highly lypophilic and accumulate in the food chain, so foods of
animal origin are an important source of exposure. The level of PCBs in the environment
depends on the matrix where it originated [43,45].
There are 209 polychlorinated biphenyl congeners that persist worldwide in the
environment and food chain. These congeners are divided into three classes based upon the
orientation of the chlorine moieties, i.e., coplanar, mono-ortho coplanar, and non-coplanar
[43]. Conventional techniques used for the analysis of PCBs are generally based on gas
chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC.MS) [43,45]. Alternative techniques
based, for example, on immunoassays, are inexpensive and rapid screening tools for sample
monitoring in laboratory and field analysis. Moreover, immunoassays are simple, sensitive,
reliable, and relatively selective for PCBs testing. Among several immunoassay techniques,
the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) combined with colorimetric end-point
detection are the most popular. Another interesting approach is the use of immunosensor
technology [45]. Imunosensors are a class of biosensors that use as biological recognition
elements, antibodies or antigens [45]. Pribyl et al. [44] developed a novel piezoelectric
immunosensor for determination of PCB congeners in the range of concentrations usually
found in real matrices (soil). The presented method allows one to carry out analysis of
extracts directly without any additional purification steps. Moreover Gavlasova et al. [45]
had a successful application of a sol-gel silica entrapment of viable Pseudomonas sp. P2 cells
for constructing low-cost sensors for environmental monitoring using real soil.
6. Phenolic compounds
A considerable number of organic pollutants, which are found widely distributed in the
environment, have phenolic structures. Phenols and their derivatives, are well known
because of their high toxicity and are common compounds in industrial effluents, coming
from the activities related to production of plastics, dyes, drugs, antioxidants, polymers,
synthetic resins, pesticides, detergents, desinfectants, oil refinery and mainly pulp and
paper [46].
Several substituted phenols, such as chloro- and nitrophenols, are highly toxic to humans
and aquatic organisms [47-48]. These two groups of substituted phenols are the main
degradation products of organophosphorus pesticides and chlorinated phenoxyacids. Even
at small concentrations (< 1 ppm), phenolic compounds affect the taste and odor of drinking
water and fish [47]. Many of these compounds have toxic effects in animals and plants,
because they easily penetrate the skin and cell membranes, determining a wide range of
genotoxicity, mutagenicity, hepatotoxic effects, and affect the rate of biocatalyzed reactions,
and the processes of respiration and photosynthesis [2]. Thus, phenols and specially their
chlorinated, nitro and alkyl derivatives have been defined as hazardous pollutants due to
their high toxicity and persistence in the environment, and are found in the list of hazardous
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substances and priority pollutants of the EC (European Commission) and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
The toxic pollutants in wastewater usually interact with DNA, leading to the damage to
human health, but these very interactions between these toxic pollutants and DNA can be
used in electrochemical DNA biosensors, generating a response signal, thus providing an
effective approach for rapid screening of pollutants. Based on this principle, various
electrochemical DNA sensors for environmental monitoring have been proposed. It has
been demonstrated that DNA-based devices hold great promise for environmental
screening of toxic aromatic compounds and for elucidating molecular interactions between
intercalating pollutants and DNA. Using a disposable electrochemical DNA biosensor made
by immobilizing double stranded DNA onto the surface of a disposable carbon screen-
printed electrode, toxicants in water and wastewater samples have been successfully
detected, which correlates well with the classic genotoxicity tests based on bioluminescent
bacteria [49-53]. Parellada et al. [54] developed an amperometric biosensor with tyrosinase (a
polyphenol oxidase with a relatively wide selectivity for phenolic compounds) immobilized
in a hygrogel on a graphite electrode, which correlated satisfactorily with the official
method for the determination of the phenol index in environmental samples. Chlorophenols
have been also detected with a chemiluminescence fibre-optic biosensor adapted a flow
injection analysis (FIA).
Phenolic compounds widely distributed in the environment as organic pollutants can be
oxidized by conventional carbonaceous electrodes generally in high voltage (0.8 V vs. ECS).
Under such over-voltage conditions, these compounds can dimerize and produce other
electroactive species (radicals), resulting in higher than expected electrical current levels. In
other cases, there may be adsorption or formation of polymeric products with consequent
passivation of the electrode, leading to the observation of peaks with intensities very below
those expected. In these cases the high applied potential may increase background current
levels, and consequently the level of noise. Thus, by the use of electrodes modified with
oxidase enzymes, coupled with the principle of biochemical oxidation followed by
electrochemical reduction, one can undo or minimize these variables. Enzymes commonly
used in the manufacture of biosensors are the laccase, tyrosinase and peroxidases [55-56].

Analyte
Recognition
enzyme
Transduction
system
Matrix Ref.
Binary mixtures:
phenol/clorophenol,
catechol/phenol,
cresol/clorocresol and
phenol/cresol
Laccase and
tyrosinase
Amperometric
multicanal
wastewater [37]
m-cresol or catechol DNA Amperometric

wastewater
[30]
Phenol
Mushroom tissue
(tyrosinase)
Amperometric wastewater [38]
phenol, p-cresol, m-cresol
and catechol
Polyphenol
oxidase
Amperometric wastewater [39]

Table 2. Some of the most commonly used biosensors in phenolic compounds
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Regarding the selectivity of biosensors based on peroxidase, greater sensitivity to the
compounds 2-amino-4-chlorophenol and 4-chloro-3-methylphenol was observed among 20
compounds tested [57]. While the action of tyrosinase is confined largely to phenol and
ortho-benzenediols the laccases are able to oxidize various phenolic substrates, including
phenols and diphenols (ortho-, meta- and para-benzenediols), phenols, catecholamines, etc.,
Liu et al. [58] developed a biosensor for phenol based on the immobilization of tyrosinase on
the surface of modified magnetic MgFe
2
O
4
nanoparticles. Table 2 presents some examples of
biosensors used in the detection of phenolic compounds in wastewater matrices.
7. Endocrine disruptors and hormones
Endocrine disruptors, exogenous compounds that alter the endogenous hormone
homeostasis, have been systematically discharged in the environment during the last years
[62]. These contaminants have been related to the decrease of human sperm numbers and
increased incidence of testicular, breast and thyroid cancers. These endocrine disruptors can
act by the following mechanisms: a) inhibition of enzymes related to hormone synthesis; b)
alteration of free concentration of hormones by interaction with plasmatic globulins; c)
alteration in expression of hormone metabolism enzymes; d) interaction with hormone
receptors, acting as agonists or antagonists; e) alteration of signal transduction resulting
from hormone action. The importance of the identification of endocrine disruptors involves
characterization of environmental contaminants and inquiry of new substances discharged
in the environment.
Natural and synthetic hormone residues can be found in the environment as a result of
human or animal excretion due to population growing and more intensive farming.
Hormones such as estradiol, estrone and ethynylestradiol have been found in water at ng/L
levels, but even at these low concentrations, some of them may have endocrine-disrupting
activity in aquatic or even terrestrial organisms. Estrone, progesterone and testosterone,
along with other organic pollutants, have been determined with a fully automated optical
immunosensor in water samples, reaching limits of detection up to sub-ng/L [63].
An electrochemical biosensor for progesterone in cows milk was developed and used in a
competitive immunoassay by Xu et al. [64]. The sensor was fabricated by depositing anti-
progesterone monoclonal antibody (mAb) onto screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs)
which were coated with rabbit anti-sheep IgG (rIgG). This sensor was operated following
the steps of competitive binding between sample and conjugate (alkaline-phosphatase-
labelled progesterone) for the immobilised mAb sites and measurements of an
amperometric signal in the presence of p-nitrophenyl phosphate using either colorimetric
assays or cyclic voltammetry [64].
8. Organophosphorus compounds (OP)
Organophosphorus (OP) compounds are a group of chemicals that are widely used as
insecticides in modern agriculture for controlling a wide variety of insect pests, weeds, and
disease-transmitting vectors [65].
8.1 Pesticides
A pesticide, as defined by the EPA, is any substance or mixture of substances intended for
preventing, destroying, repelling, or lessening the damage of any pest, [65]. Of all the
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environmental pollutants, pesticides are the most abundant, present in water, atmosphere,
soil, plants, and food [2].
Concerns about the toxicity, ubiquity and persistence of pesticides in the environment have
led the European Community to set limits on the concentration of pesticides in different
environmental waters. Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water for human consumption
has set a limit of 0.1 g/L for individual pesticides and of 0.5 g/L for total pesticides.
Enzymatic sensors, based on the inhibition of a selected enzyme are the most extensively
used biosensors for the determination of these compounds [66].
Parathion (O,O-diethyl-O-4-nitrophenyl thiophosphate), is a broad-spectrum OP pesticide
having a wide range of applications against numerous insect species on several crops.
Parathion is also used as a preharvest soil fumigant and foliage treatment for a wide variety
of plants, both in the field and in the greenhouse. Parathion is highly toxic by all routes of
exposure ingestion, skin adsorption, and inhalation all of which have resulted in
human fatalities. Like all pesticides, parathion irreversibly inhibits AChE [67]. Table 3
presents a few examples of biosensors for determination of pesticides, including parathion.
8.2 Herbicides
For the detection of herbicides such as the phenylureas and triazines, which inhibit
photosynthesis, biosensors have been designed with membrane receptors of thylakoid and
chloroplasts, photosystems and reaction centers or complete cells such as unicellular alga
and phenylureas and triazines, in which mainly amperometric and optical transductors
have been employed [68]. Table 3 also presents some examples of biosensors used in the
detection of herbicides.

Analyte
Type of
interaction
Recognition
biocatalyzer
Transduction
system
Ref.
Pesticides
Simazina Biocatalytic Peroxidase Potentiometric [47]
Isoproturon Biocatalytic
Antibody
encapsulate
Immunosensor
immunoreaction
[48]
Parathion Biocatalytic
Parathion
hydrolase
Amperometric [50]
Paraoxon Biocatalytic
Alkaline
phosphatase
Optical [46,50]
Carbaril Biocatalytic Acetilcolinesterase Amperometric [51]
Herbicides
2,4-
Diclorofenoxiacetic
Immunoanalysis Acetilcolinesterase Amperometric [52]
Diuron, Paraquat, Biocatalytic Cyanobacterial Bioluminescence [53]
Table 3. Biosensors used in the detection of pesticides and herbicides.
8.3 Dioxins
Dioxins are potentially toxic substances for humans with a major impact on the environment
that can reach the food chain accidentally, as contaminating residues present in water and
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soil. Dioxins are organosoluble, toxic, teratogenic and cancinogenic. They are unintended
by-products of many industrial processes where chlorine and chemicals derived from it are
produced, used and disposed of. Industrial emissions of dioxin to the environment can be
transported over long distances by airstreams and, less importantly, by rivers and sea
currents. Consequently, dioxins are now widely present all over the globe. It is estimated
that even if production completely stopped today, the current environmental levels would
take years to diminish. This is because dioxins are persistent, taking years to centuries to
deteriorate, and can be continuously recycled in the environment [69]. Biosensors for
detection and monitoring of these pollutants in the area would be extremely useful.
9. Commercial activities
About 200 companies worldwide were working in the area of biosensors and bioelectronics
at the turn of the century. Some of these companies are still involved in biosensor
fabrication/marketing, whereas others just provide the pertinent materials and instruments
for biosensor manufacture. Most of these companies are working on existing biosensor
technologies and only a few of them are developing new technologies [76]. The application
of new biodevices to real-world environmental samples is a must in the final steps of
development. However, despite of the great number of newly developed biosensors, most
literature references overlook the real-world step and only report applications of the
biosensor in either distilled water or buffered solutions.
Most of the reviewed systems still have some way to go before application to real samples
can be made, and the study of matrix effects, stability issues and careful comparison with
established methods are crucial steps in this approach. Even though commercial returns
from environmental biosensors are substantially less than from medical diagnostics, public
concern and government funding have generated a major research effort aimed at the
application of biosensors to the measurement of pollutants and other environmental
hazards [77].
10. Other applications
Many biosensors reported for environmental applications show the potential to be
developed for either single-sample formats for field screening applications or continous
formats for field monitoring applications. A discussion concerning the cleanup of a
Superfund site may provide examples of the scope and kinds of environmental screening
and monitoring problems for which biosensors could provide unique solutions
Most of the work on metal-specific bacterial sensors has been done by using a liquid
suspension of viable sensor bacteria. However, a more advanced approach is to use these
bactria in the biosensor system, e.g., by immobilising the cells onto optical fibres connected
to a photo detection device. This type of fibre-optic biosensors have been previously
constructed for Cu [76], genotoxicants, or general toxicity of industrial effluents [78]. These
fibre-optic sensors can easily be brought to the field and used for on-line monitoring.
Ivask et al (2006) developed fibre-optic biosensors for the analysis of environmental samples,
e.g., soils and sediments in situ. For that, the existing recombinant luminescent Escherichia
coli MC1061 (pmerRluxCDABE) and MC1061 (parsluxCDABE) [79] responding specifically
to Hg and As, respectively, were immobilised onto optical fibres in order to develop self
contained biosensors. The system was optimised for the Hg biosensor and the derived
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protocol was used for analysing bioavailable Hg and As in natural soil or sediment
suspensions. The biosensors consist of alginate-immobilised recombinant bacteria emitting
light specifically in the presence of bioavailable Hg or As in a dosedependent manner. The
biosensors alongside with the non-immobilised Hg and As sensor bacteria were successfully
applied for the analysis of bioavailable fractions of Hg and As in soil and sediment samples
from the Aznalcollar mining area (Spain).
Haron et al (2006) developed three layer waveguiding silicon dioxide (SiO2)/silicon nitride
(Si3N4)/SiO2 structure on silicon substrate was proposed as an optically efficient biosensor
for calibration of heavy metal ions in drinking water. Total attenuated reflection (ATR) in
portable and miniaturized SiO2/Si3N4/SiO2 waveguides was successfully exploited in the
present investigation for development of a highly sensitive biosensors and the detection
limit as low as 1 ppb was achieved for Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions.Composite membranes
containing both biologically active components, e.g. enzymes, and organic chromophores
(indicators) were formed using the polyelectrolyte selfassembly deposition technique. The
latter are sensitive to small changes in local pH caused by enzyme reactions, and thus
provided a transuding function. The difference in inhibition of enzymes urease and
acetylcholine esterase by the heavy metal ions established the possibility of designing a
sensor array for discrimination between different types of water pollutants and the device is
light, portable and robust
11. Conclusions
Most biosensor systems have been tested only on distilled water or buffered solutions, but
more biosensors that can be applied to real samples have appeared in recent years. In this
context, biosensors for potential environmental applications continue to show advances in
areas such as genetic modification of enzymes and microorganisms, improvement of
recognition element immobilization and sensor interfaces.
12. Acknowledgements
This work has been supported by CNPq (National Council for Scientific and Technological
Development), CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Level Personnel) and
the FAPERJ (Foundation for Research of the State of Rio de Janeiro).
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Environmental Biosensors
Edited by Prof. Vernon Somerset
ISBN 978-953-307-486-3
Hard cover, 356 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 18, July, 2011
Published in print edition July, 2011
InTech Europe
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This book is a collection of contributions from leading specialists on the topic of biosensors for health,
environment and biosecurity. It is divided into three sections with headings of current trends and
developments; materials design and developments; and detection and monitoring. In the section on current
trends and developments, topics such as biosensor applications for environmental and water monitoring, agro-
industry applications, and trends in the detection of nerve agents and pesticides are discussed. The section on
materials design and developments deals with topics on new materials for biosensor construction, polymer-
based microsystems, silicon and silicon-related surfaces for biosensor applications, including hybrid film
biosensor systems. Finally, in the detection and monitoring section, the specific topics covered deal with
enzyme-based biosensors for phenol detection, ultra-sensitive fluorescence sensors, the determination of
biochemical oxygen demand, and sensors for pharmaceutical and environmental analysis.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Andrea Medeiros Salgado, Lvia Maria Silva and Ariana Farias Melo (2011). Biosensor for Environmental
Applications, Environmental Biosensors, Prof. Vernon Somerset (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-486-3, InTech,
Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/environmental-biosensors/biosensor-for-environmental-
applications