Geographic coordinate system

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Map of Earth showing lines of latitude (horizontally) and longitude (vertically), Eckert ! pro"ection# large version (pdf,
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Geodesy
Fundamentals
Geodesy Geodynamics
Geomatics Cartography
Concepts
Datum Distance Geoid
Fig. Earth Geodetic sys.
Geog. coord. system
Hor. pos. represent.
Lat./Long. Map proj.
Ref. ellipsoid at. geodesy
patial ref. sys.
Technologies
G! G" GL#!$ %R!
Standards
ED&' E(R)* GR )'
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R%D .(M /G)0
History
History of geodesy
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,

(

E
) geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system that ena*les every location on the Earth to *e
specified *y a set of num*ers% +he coordinates are often chosen such that one of the num*ers
represent vertical position, and two or three of the num*ers represent horizontal position% ) common choice of
coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation%
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Contents
2hide3
4 Geographic latitude and longitude
1 Latitude and longitude in practice
+ .(M and ." systems
0 tereographic coordinate system
& Geodetic height
- Cartesian coordinates
5 hape of the Earth
) E6pressing latitude and longitude as linear
units
* Datums often encountered
4' Geostationary coordinates
44 ee also
41 !otes
4+ References
40 E6ternal lin7s
,edit-Geographic latitude and longitude
Main articles: Latitude and Longitude
.atitude phi (/) and .ongitude lam*da (0)
.atitude and .ongitude of the Earth
+he latitude (a**reviation1 .at%, /, or phi) of a point on the Earth2s surface is the angle *etween the e3uatorial
plane and a line that passes through that point and is normal to the surface of a reference ellipsoid which
appro4imates the shape of the Earth%
,n &-
+his line passes a few kilometers away from the center of the Earth
e4cept at the poles and the e3uator where it passes through Earth2s center%
,n '-
.ines "oining points of the same
latitude trace circles on the surface of the Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the e3uator and to each
other% +he north poleis 567 8# the south pole is 567 9% +he 67 parallel of latitude is designated the e3uator,
the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate systems% +he e3uator divides the glo*e into 8orthern and
9outhern :emispheres%
+he .ongitude (a**reviation1 .ong%, 0, or lam*da) of a point on the Earth2s surface is the angle east or west
from a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point% )ll meridians are halves of
great ellipses (often improperly called great circles), which converge at the north and south poles%
) line passing near the ;oyal <*servatory, Greenwich (near .ondon in the =>) has *een chosen as the
international zero?longitude reference line, the @rime Meridian% @laces to the east are in the eastern
hemisphere, and places to the west are in the western hemisphere% +he antipodalmeridian of Greenwich is
*oth &A67W and &A67E% +he zeroBzero point is located in the Gulf of Guinea a*out C'D km south of +ema,
Ghana%
!n &AAE the =nited 9tates hosted the !nternational Meridian Fonference and twenty?five nations attended%
+wenty?two of them agreed to adopt the location of Greenwich as the zero?reference line% +he Gominican
;epu*lic voted against the adoption of that motion, while France and (razila*stained%
,'-
+o date, there e4ist
organizations around the world which continue to use historical prime meridians which e4isted *efore the
acceptance of Greenwich *ecame common?place%
,n $-
+he com*ination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the planet, *ut does not
consider altitude nor depth%
+his latitudeBlongitude Hwe**ingH is known as the conjugate graticule%
!n defining an ellipse, the short (vertical) diameter is known as the conjugate diameter, and the long
(horizontal) diameterIperpendicular, or HtransverseH, to the con"ugateIis the transverse diameter%
,$-
With a
sphere or ellipsoid, the con"ugate diameter is known as the polar axis and the transverse as the equatorial
axis% +he graticule perspective is *ased on this designation1 )s the longitudinal rings I geographically defined,
all great circles I converge at the poles, it is the poles that the con"ugate graticule is defined% !f the polar
verte4 is Hpulled downH 567, so that the verte4 is on the e3uator, or transverse diameter, then it *ecomes
the transverse graticule, upon which all spherical trigonometry is ultimately *ased (if the longitudinal verte4 is
*etween the poles and e3uator, then it is considered an oblique graticule)%
,edit-.atitude and longitude in practice
) transcontinental triangulation can never *e totally accurate% +here are underlying factors that cause these
differences and a couple of e4amples illustrates the size and nature of the pro*lem% !n :awaii, if a high
precison optical theodolite such as the 9wiss manufacturedWild +E
,E-
is set up ne4t to the water tank north of
the airport at :ilo, :awaii, intending to determine its latitude and longitude *y the stars% +he 8ational Geodetic
9urvey (8G9) data predicts you will find the tank to *e at &5%J$'$ deg 8orth, &DD%6E&' deg West%
,D-
)t the western e4treme of the island is >eahole @oint lighthouse
,C-
% +he 8G9 using astronomical calculations
places the lighthouse at &5%J'EE 8 &DC%6JAJ W%
,J-
Falculating the distance from the :ilo water tank to the
>eahole @oint lighthouse, using those points gives a distance of &6A%A km, *ut the actual measured distance is
&6D%D km% +his is a large error%
:awaii is an e4treme case of a pro*lem that e4ists everywhere% +o measure latitude and longitude *y the stars,
the measuring device must *e orientated *y gravity% For total accuracy the +E theodolite2s a4is should point to
the center of the Earth% +he +E2s level vials usegravity to ascertain where this is% +he direction of the
gravitational force is affected *y a E666?meter mountain D6 km away% +his distortion means that each theodolite
is referencing a different point in the earths core% +he error generates inaccuracy of over $km or over $K%
!n :awaii2s case, a different definition of latitude and longitude was needed% 9o around &5$6% a marker H<ahu
West (aseH
,A-
'& deg &A min &$%AA5 sec 8orth, &DJ deg D6 min DD%J5C sec West was defined, and other points
had their latitude and longitude defined with reference to the distance and direction from the marker%
,5-
+he 8G9
now says that in &55$ that point was '&?&A?6'%DEA5& 8 &DJ?D6?ED%56'A6 W using the present 8)GA$ system
I FLG9 triangulated from island to island, calculating each successive point2s latitude?longitude *y its
distance and direction from the previous points in the chain% Eventually they deemed the :ilo water tank to *e
at &5?E$?DE%D'C 8 &DD?6$?'C%EC$ W, which would make it $$5&5&%J meters from <ahu West (ase on the
Flarke &ACC spheroid% +he 8G9 now figures those two points are $$5&5'%A meters apart%
9imilarly in 8orth )merica, the lat?lons that the 8G9 gave for the Empire 9tate (uilding and a certain water
tank in )nchorage, using 8)G'J would *e different from the current ones, *ut the distance difference is only
A%' meters%
,edit-=+M and =@9 systems
Main articles: Universal Transverse Mercator and Universal Polar Stereographic
+he =niversal +ransverse Mercator (=+M) and =niversal @olar 9tereographic (=@9) coordinate systems *oth
use a metric?*ased cartesian grid laid out on a conformally pro"ectedsurface to locate positions on the surface
of the Earth% +he =+M system is not a single map pro"ection *ut a series of map pro"ections, one for each of
si4ty C?degree *ands of longitude% +he =@9 system is used for the polar regions, which are not covered *y the
=+M system%
,edit-9tereographic coordinate system
Guring medieval times, the stereographic coordinate system was used for navigation purposes%
,citation needed-
+he
stereographic coordinate system was superseded *y the latitude?longitude system%
)lthough no longer used in navigations, the stereographic coordinate system is still used in modern times to
descri*e crystallographic orientations in the fields of crystallography,mineralogy and materials science%
,citation
needed-
,edit-Geodetic height
+o completely specify a location of a topographical feature on, in, or a*ove the Earth, one has to also specify
the vertical distance from the centre of the Earth, or from the surface of the Earth% (ecause of the am*iguity of
HsurfaceH and HverticalH, it is more commonly e4pressed relative to a precisely defined vertical datum which
holds fi4ed some known point% Each country has defined its own datum% For e4ample, in the =nited
>ingdom the reference point is 8ewlyn, while in Fanada, Me4ico and the =nited 9tates, the point is
near;imouski, Mue*ec, Fanada% +he distance to Earth2s centre can *e used *oth for very deep positions and
for positions in space%
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,edit-Fartesian coordinates
Every point that is e4pressed in ellipsoidal coordinates can *e e4pressed as an 4 y z (Fartesian) coordinate%
Fartesian coordinates simplify many mathematical calculations% +he origin is usually the center of mass of the
earth, a point close to the Earth2s center of figure%
With the origin at the center of the ellipsoid, the conventional setup is the e4pected right?hand1
N?a4is along the a4is of the ellipsoid, positive northward
O? and P?a4is in the plane of the e3uator, O?a4is positive toward 6 degrees longitude and P?a4is positive toward
56 degrees east longitude
)n e4ample is the 8G9 data for a *rass disk near Gonner 9ummit, in Falifornia% Given the dimensions of the
ellipsoid, the conversion from latBlonBheight?a*ove?ellipsoid coordinates to O?P?N is straightforwardIcalculate
the O?P?N for the given lat?lon on the surface of the ellipsoid and add the O?P?N vector that is perpendicular to
the ellipsoid there and has length e3ual to the point2s height a*ove the ellipsoid% +he reverse conversion is
harder1 given O?P?N we can immediately get longitude, *ut no closed formula for latitude and height e4ists%
:owever, using (owring2s formula in &5JC Survey Review the first iteration gives latitude correct within
degree as long as the point is within &6666 meters a*ove or D666 meters *elow the ellipsoid%
,edit-9hape of the Earth
Main articles: Figure of the Earth and Reference ellipsoid
+he Earth is not a sphere, *ut an irregular shape appro4imating a *ia4ial ellipsoid% !t is nearly spherical, *ut has
an e3uatorial *ulge making the radius at the e3uator a*out 6%$K larger than the radius measured through the
poles% +he shorter a4is appro4imately coincides with a4is of rotation% Map?makers choose the true ellipsoid that
*est fits their need for the area they are mapping% +hey then choose the most appropriate mapping of the
spherical coordinate system onto that ellipsoid% !n the =nited >ingdom there are three common latitude,
longitude, height systems in use% +he system used *y G@9, WG9AE, differs at Greenwich from the one used
on pu*lished maps <9G($C *y appro4imately &&'m% +he military system EGD6, used *y 8)+<, differs *y
a*out &'6m to &A6m%
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+hough early navigators thought of the sea as a flat surface that could *e used as a vertical datum, this is far
from reality% +he Earth has a series of layers of e3ual potential energywithin its gravitational field% :eight is a
measurement at right angles to this surface, roughly toward the centre of the Earth, *ut local variations make
the e3uipotential layers irregular (though roughly ellipsoidal)% +he choice of which layer to use for defining
height is ar*itrary% +he reference height we have chosen is the one closest to the average height of the world2s
oceans% +his is called the geoid%
,&-,&6-
+he Earth is not static as points move relative to each other due to continental plate motion, su*sidence, and
diurnal movement caused *y the Moon and the tides% +he daily movement can *e as much as a metre%
Fontinental movement can *e up to &6 cm a year, or &6 m in a century% ) weather system high?pressure area
can cause a sinking of D mm%9candinavia is rising *y & cm a year as a result of the melting of the ice sheets of
the last ice age, *ut neigh*ouring 9cotland is rising *y only 6%' cm% +hese changes are insignificant if a local
datum is used, *ut are statistically significant if the glo*al G@9 datum is used%
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,edit-E4pressing latitude and longitude as linear units
<n the G;9A6 or WG9AE spheroid at sea level at the e3uator, one latitudinal second measures 3!"#$ %etres,
one latitudinal minute is #&'3 %etres and one latitudinal degree is##!( )ilo%etres% +he circles of longitude,
meridians, meet at the geographical poles, with the west?east width of a second naturally decreasing as latitude
increases% <n thee3uator at sea level, one longitudinal second measures 3!*+ %etres, a longitudinal minute
is #&$$ %etres and a longitudinal degree is ###!3 )ilo%etres% )t $67 a longitudinal second is +(!"( %etres, at
Greenwich (D&7 'A2 $AH 8) #*!++ %etres, and at C67 it is #$!'+ %etres%
<n the WG9AE spheroid, the length in meters of a degree of latitude at latitude / (that is, the distance along a
north?south line from latitude (/ ? 6%D) degrees to (/ Q 6%D) degrees) is a*out
&&&&$'%5DE ? DD5%A''(cos '/) Q &%&JD(cos E/)
(+hose coefficients can *e improved, *ut as they stand the distance they give is correct within a centimeter%)
+o estimate the length of a longitudinal degree at latitude we can assume a spherical Earth (to get the width
per minute and second, divide *y C6 and $C66, respectively)1
where Earth2s average meridional radius is C,$CJ,EE5 m% 9ince the Earth isn2t spherical that result can
*e off *y several tenths of a percent# a *etter appro4imation of a longitudinal degree at latitude is
where Earth2s e3uatorial radius e3uals (,3"&,#3" % and # for the G;9A6 and
WG9AE spheroids, *Ba calculates to *e 6%55CCEJ&5% ( is known as the parametric orreduced
latitude)% )side from rounding, this is the e4act distance along a parallel of latitude# getting the
distance along the shortest route will *e more work, *ut those two distances are always within 6%C
meter of each other if the two points are one degree of longitude apart%
Longitudinal length equivalents at selected latitudes
Latitude Town Degree inute Second !"."""#$
-'8 aint "eters9urg &&.-& 7m '.*15 7m 4&.01 m &.&- m
&48 1): +); ! Green<ich -*.1* 7m 4.4&& 7m 4*.10 m -.*+ m
0&8 =ordeau6 5).5 7m 4.+4 7m 14.)- m 5.)5 m
+'8 !e< #rleans *-.+* 7m 4.-4 7m 1-.55 m *.-+ m
'8 >uito 444.+ 7m 4.)&& 7m +'.*1 m 44.4+ m
,edit-Gatums often encountered
Main articles: -eodetic syste% and .atu% /geodesy0
.atitude and longitude values can *e *ased on different geodetic systems or datums, the most
common *eing WG9 AE, a glo*al datum used *y all G@9 e3uipment%
,n E-
<ther datums are significant
*ecause they were chosen *y a national cartographical organisation as the *est method for
representing their region, and these are the datums used on printed maps% +he latitude and longitude
on a map may not *e the same as on a G@9 receiver% Foordinates from the mapping system can
sometimes *e roughly changed into another datum using a simple translation% For e4ample, to convert
from E+;FA5 (G@9) to the !rish Grid add E5 metres to the east, and su*tract '$%E metres from the
north%
,&&-
More generally one datum is changed into any other datum using a process called :elmert
transformations% +his involves converting the spherical coordinates into Fartesian coordinates and
applying a seven parameter transformation (translation, three?dimensional rotation), and converting
*ack%
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!n popular G!9 software, data pro"ected in latitudeBlongitude is often represented as a 2Geographic
Foordinate 9ystem2% For e4ample, data in latitudeBlongitude if the datum is the8orth )merican Gatum
of &5A$ is denoted *y 2GF9 8orth )merican &5A$2%
,edit-Geostationary coordinates
Geostationary satellites (e%g%, television satellites) are over the e3uator at a specific point on Earth, so
their position related to Earth is e4pressed in longitude degrees only% +heirlatitude is always zero, that
is, over the e3uator%