"I Like Being A Teacher": Career Satisfaction, The Work Environment and Work Engagement
"I Like Being A Teacher": Career Satisfaction, The Work Environment and Work Engagement
"I Like Being A Teacher": Career Satisfaction, The Work Environment and Work Engagement
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N
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t
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s
:
W
k
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w
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k
l
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;
C
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n
,
c
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t
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;
R
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w
,
r
e
w
a
r
d
;
C
o
m
,
c
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m
m
u
n
i
t
y
;
F
a
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r
,
f
a
i
r
n
e
s
s
;
V
a
l
,
v
a
l
u
e
s
;
W
k
D
e
m
,
w
o
r
k
d
e
m
a
n
d
s
;
J
o
b
S
a
t
,
j
o
b
s
a
t
i
s
f
a
c
t
i
o
n
;
C
a
r
S
a
t
,
c
a
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e
e
r
s
a
t
i
s
f
a
c
t
i
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;
W
L
B
,
w
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k
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l
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f
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b
a
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a
n
c
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;
N
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g
S
p
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,
n
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a
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w
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t
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w
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p
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;
P
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p
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p
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w
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p
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;
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,
v
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o
u
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;
D
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d
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i
c
a
t
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o
n
;
A
b
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a
b
s
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r
p
t
i
o
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;
E
x
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x
h
a
u
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t
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o
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;
D
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d
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t
.
C
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1
Table II.
Correlations and
Cronbachs a of
study variables
778
JEA
51,6
had significant (positive) relationships with absorption, exhaustion and
disengagement, demonstrating a lack of support for H3a, but resonating with H3b.
Workload also demonstrated significant positive associations with work demands and
negative work-to-non-work spill-over (H2b). Work-life balance had strong negative
associations with workload, work demands and negative work-to-non-work spill-over.
While negative associations were produced between two of the three engagement
dimensions (vigour and dedication) and workload, work demands and negative work-
to-non-work spill-over, it is noted that the relationships are weak and, with the
exception of absorption, mostly non-significant (H2b). It is noteworthy that
correlations between the three engagement variables (vigour, dedication and
absorption) and the two burnout dimensions (exhaustion and disengagement) are at
best moderate in size and, for absorption and exhaustion were all non-significant.
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the research
hypotheses both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The cross-sectional regression
equations were constructed as follows: at step 1 the control variables of gender, age
group and employment status were entered. At step 2 career satisfaction was entered
in order to have a separate assessment of the SDT and at step 3 the remaining
workplace variables were entered. The longitudinal regression equations were tested in
the same way, but with T2 criterion variables. Each respective T1 criterion variable
was therefore included in the analyses as a control at step 2; career satisfaction was
entered at step 3 and the remaining variables at step 4.
Table III reveals that the strongest predictor variable within the cross-sectional
equations was career satisfaction, thus supporting SDT perspectives, and that
different patterns emerged in regard to the influence of different aspects of the work
environment in the prediction of work engagement and burnout in support of the JD-R
theory. For example, negative work-to-non-work spill-over was a strong predictor of
both vigour and exhaustion, but not of the other criterion variables. Similarly, values
(which measures congruence between individual and organisational values) was only
significantly associated with dedication. An examination of R
2
change values
demonstrated that with the exception of exhaustion (where 42 per cent of the variance
is explained by workplace variables), workplace variables explain a small amount of
variance (12-17 per cent). Community was the only workplace variable which did not
demonstrate predictive capacity in regard to any of the criterion variables and
for reasons of clarity, was removed from the analyses. Career satisfaction was
significantly associated with all of the criterion variables and accounted for 27 per cent
of the variance in vigour, 36 per cent of the variance in dedication, 12 per cent of the
variance in absorption, 10 per cent of the variance in exhaustion and 32 per cent of
the variance in disengagement. Statistics for these regression equations were as
follows: vigour, F(15, 296) 16.58, po0.001; dedication, F(15, 296) 22.86, po0.001;
absorption F(15, 296) 7.69, po0.001; exhaustion, F(15, 296) 26.78, po0.001; and
disengagement F(15, 296) 20.72, po0.001.
Results of the longitudinal regression analyses are provided in Table IV. The T1
criterion variable was the strongest predictor of T2 engagement and burnout variables
accounting for at least 60 per cent of the variance. The T1 career satisfaction predictor
was significantly associated with T2 vigour, dedication and disengagement criterion
variables demonstrating partial support for H1a and H1b. Specifically, a sense of
satisfaction that they had chosen the right career endured and influenced peoples
vigour and dedication. Career satisfaction demonstrated a significant negative
relationship with disengagement in the longitudinal analysis which indicates that
779
Career
satisfaction
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Table III.
Cross-sectional (T1)
regression analyses of
study variables
780
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51,6
people who are satisfied with their career are less likely to report that they are
disengaged with their work. In comparison with the cross-sectional results, the
workplace variables displayed different patterns of significance in the prediction of T2
engagement and burnout. Only positive work-to-non-work spill-over at T1 was
significantly associated with dedication and was negatively associated with
disengagement at T2. Statistics for these regression equations were as follows:
vigour, F(16, 295) 20.56, po0.001; dedication, F(16, 295) 18.72, po0.001;
absorption F(16, 295) 13.24, po0.001; exhaustion, F(16, 295) 11.81, po0.001; and
disengagement F(16, 295) 13.10, po0.001.
Finally, Figure 1 provides information as to respondents perception of the best and
worst features of their job environment. Most respondents marked more than one item
in this section so percentages reflect the numbers of affirmative responses in each
section (best or worst aspects of work). In regard to the best aspects of their job, the
majority of respondents (56 per cent, n 175) indicated colleagues, and (74 per cent,
n 231) students. In all, 17 percent (n 53) checked pay, 9.3 per cent (n 29) checked
hours, 5.8 per cent (n 18) checked organisational communication and 1 per cent
(n 3) indicated paperwork. Of the 38 (12.2 per cent) respondents who reported an
other response for the best aspects of their job, aspects mentioned included
intellectual challenge, holidays, community interaction and values.
Reference to negative aspects of work revealed a different pattern of responses. The
majority of respondents (64.1 per cent, n 200) indicated that one of worst aspects of
their job was paperwork, 38.5 per cent (n 120) indicated hours, 36.5 per cent (n 114)
indicated organisational communication, 24 per cent (n 75) indicated pay, 6.7 per cent
(n 21) indicated colleagues and 4.5 per cent (n 14) indicated students. Aspects
mentioned in relation to other with respect to the worst aspects of their job by the
11.1 per cent (n 35) who marked this option, were school administration, difficult
Vigour
T2
Dedication
T2
Absorption
T2
Exhaustion
T2
Disengagement
T2
DR
2
b DR
2
b DR
2
b DR
2
b DR
2
b
Step 1 (control) 0.01 0.03* 0.06*** 0.03* 0.04**
Gender 0.05 0.11 0.24*** 0.15* 0.09
Age group 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.07 0.17**
Employment
status 0.02 0.07 0.03 0.07 0.05
Step 2 0.42*** 0.42*** 0.42*** 0.38*** 0.35***
T1 criterion 0.66*** 0.67*** 0.67*** 0.63*** 0.60***
Step 3 0.01* 0.02** 0.01 0.00 0.02**
Career
satisfaction 0.13** 0.17** 0.09 0.06 0.17**
Step 4 0.01* 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02*
Positive work
to non-work
spill-over 0.09 0.10* 0.01 0.10 0.12*
R
2
at Step 1 0.00 0.02* 0.05*** 0.02* 0.03**
R
2
at Step 2 0.42*** 0.44*** 0.47*** 0.40*** 0.38***
R
2
at Step 3 0.43* 0.46** 0.48* 0.40 0.40**
Total R
2
0.44* 0.46 0.48 0.40 0.41*
Note: n 312
Table IV.
Longitudinal analyses
of study variables
781
Career
satisfaction
parents, having to take work home, curriculum issues and lack of respect for
teachers in the community.
Discussion
This research has found some persuasive evidence that supports compatibility
between the SDT and JD-R theoretical perspectives. The SDT association between
fulfilment of psychological needs and work engagement (May et al., 2004) informed the
hypothesis that career satisfaction would demonstrate strong relationships with work
engagement. In the current study, this was the most compelling finding, thereby
offering strong support for the SDT perspective (Ryan and Deci, 2000) in regards to
work engagement. Career satisfaction not only demonstrated strong relationships with
all criterion variables in the current study, but also an enduring (over time) effect in
regards to vigour, dedication and disengagement. This suggests that peoples
aspirations and needs are reflected in their choice of career and how satisfied they
are with that choice.
The current research demonstrates that while the JD-R model (Bakker and
Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001) accounts for the exhaustion component of
work burnout, its application to the work engagement construct is incomplete. This is
interesting in view of the fact that the dedication component of work engagement as
articulated by Schaufeli and Bakker (2003) does reflect an understanding that engaged
workers find their work meaningful and fulfilling. Yet the JD-R model assumes an
understanding that workers are motivated by an abundance of resources (Bakker and
Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al. 2001). The current research finds that while the JD-R
model does have considerable utility in explaining exhaustion, a lack of satisfaction in
ones career provides a more adequate elucidation of disengagement. May et al.s (2004)
described the psycho-social work environment as enabling the fulfilment of employees
aspirations by providing an atmosphere in which they have a sense of psychological
safety. This suggests a mediator (enabling rather than causative) role in the
development of worker well-being for a supportive work environment. Therefore it is
observed that a sense of personal satisfaction that one has chosen the right career
provides a more enduring account of the vigour and dedication facets of work
engagement than do workplace variables tested in the current research.
100
80
60
40
20
0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
C
o
l
l
e
a
g
u
e
s
S
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
C
o
m
P
a
p
e
r
w
o
r
k
H
o
u
r
s
P
a
y
O
t
h
e
r
C
o
l
l
e
a
g
u
e
s
S
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
C
o
m
P
a
p
e
r
w
o
r
k
H
o
u
r
s
P
a
y
O
t
h
e
r
The best aspects of my job are in relation to:
100
80
60
40
20
0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
The worst aspects of my job are in relation to:
74.0% 56.1% 9.3% 17.0% 12.2%
6.7% 4.5% 35.5% 64.1% 38.5% 24.0% 11.2%
5.8%
Note: Com, organistional communication
Figure 1.
Best and worst aspects
of teachers jobs
782
JEA
51,6
Nevertheless the JD-R model has considerable explanatory power in accounting for
burnout of workers based on experience of the immediate workplace environment. It is
observed that the JD-R theory provided adequate explanations in the cross-sectional
analyses in that significant b values were observed between the psycho-social
predictor variables and their T1 criterion variables. Therefore it is suggested that a
favourable balance of job demands and job resources may contribute to a persons
feeling of congruence in their work environment and hence their sense of well-being
(Bakker and Demerouti, 2007). While conditions in the workplace may change over
time, it is possible that employees response to a favourable experience is more
enduring. This point was evident in the present research, by the T1 criterion variables
accounting for most of the variance in their equivalent T2 criterion. These results
appear to be consistent with Rousseaus (1995, p. 6) description of psychological
contracts as enduring mental models which are not easily dislodged, unless there
was an overt breach of contract or other significant negative change within the
organisation (see also Miller, 2001). However, underlying peoples day-to-day
experiences in negotiating the challenges of their work is a sense of satisfaction or
dissatisfaction with their choice of career (Shaver and Lacey, 2003). The current
research has demonstrated that career satisfaction is an important associate
of all aspects of work engagement. Hence it is suggested that a more comprehensive
appreciation of work engagement is possible by combining the JD-R and the SDT
theoretical perspectives.
One interesting finding was the lack of significance of community to all the criterion
variables, in spite of the fact that teaching is by nature relationship-based and the
respondents reported that students and colleagues were among the most pleasant
aspects of their work. This finding could reflect Leiter and Maslachs (2006) framing of
the community measure in terms of support, trust and cooperation specifically from
work colleagues. According to Rice (2005) most teachers work is performed in
classrooms away from the scrutiny of colleagues or superiors, hence teachers rarely
work in traditional work-groups. Consequently, teachers relationships with significant
people in their work environment may fall outside the parameters of Leiter and
Maslachs community measure. Rice (2005) maintained that the isolated autonomy
experienced by teachers contributed to widespread insecurity in regard to perceived
teaching ability in relation to colleagues, assessment of societal judgements on the
profession as a whole, and unrealistic expectations on the part of teachers themselves.
Friedmans (2000) perception of teachers sense of unaccomplishment has salience to
Rices observation and suggests a sense of insecurity in regard to peoples intrinsic
need for competency (Ryan and Deci, 2000).
Another interesting finding pertains to the nature of career satisfaction for teachers.
The current finding of high career satisfaction juxtaposed with a prevailing perception
that teaching has low community status has some accord with previous research.
According to Dinham and Scott (2000), teachers in three countries (Australia,
New Zealand and the UK) reported that their careers were intrinsically satisfying and
extrinsically dissatisfying. Dinham and Scott suggested this was because while
teachers personally found their work meaningful and fulfilling, they perceived that it
was not valued within the wider community. Thus fulfilment of peoples psychological
need to express authentic self-concepts (May et al., 2004) is undermined by a lack
of fulfilment in regard to esteem needs (Bandura, 1969; Rosenstock et al., 1988) leading
to dissonance and therefore insecurity. In addition, Timms et al. (2007) observed that
teaching involves emotional labour where it is important to achieve a consistent level
783
Career
satisfaction
of functioning in daily interactions with children, which also creates a source of
ambiguity (acting out emotions that are not felt can be a source of exhaustion).
This observation also provides some insight into the current findings with regards
to work-to-non-work spill-over. Grzywacz and Marks (2000) suggested that skills,
behaviours and values gained from a positive (or negative) experience at work might
transfer their benefits across the non-work interface, thus enriching (or being
detrimental to) employees lives. Greenhaus and Powell (2006) posited that positive
work experiences enrich peoples lives by providing skills (instrumental path) and
psychological well-being (affective path) that promotes positive relationships in
multiple domains. The cross-sectional research of Grzywacz and Marks has been
supported in the current longitudinal study with evidence that positive work-to-non-
work spill-over is associated with improved long-term mental health outcomes.
While the current researchs cross-sectional findings in regard to negative work-to
non-work spill-over (strongly associated with reduced vigour, more exhaustion and
more disengagement) also support Grzywacz and Marks (2000) work, it is interesting
that this relationship was not an enduring one.
Contribution of the research
The JD-R model is a pervasive theoretical perspective which explains both work
engagement and burnout (e.g. Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001;
Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Self-determination approaches are occasionally used in regard
to worker health and well-being (e.g. Ryan and Deci, 2000, 2001) with some general
theoretical applications to work engagement (see May et al., 2004; Saks, 2006). However,
previous work has not specifically linked career satisfaction (Shaver and Lacey, 2003)
with either work engagement or burnout. The current research suggests that while
psycho-social factors (such as the JD-R model) may provide some explanation of work
engagement, other more intrinsic factors may well be involved in energising and
absorbing people at work (see May et al., 2004). In the case of teachers the association has
previously been made between expectations of professional excellence and burnout (e.g.
Friedman, 2000) but not work engagement. While the current study has supported the
JD-R models predictions of psycho-social influences in regard to teacher well-being at
work, it has demonstrated that one of the most important predictors is a sense of having
chosen a career that is personally meaningful and fulfilling.
Research limitations
While the current study provides longitudinal analyses that potentially assist in
highlighting a causal framework for the criterion variables, the low response rate
produced by this research is a potential research limitation. Both administrations of the
survey took place near the middle of the respective semesters. In terms of intense
activity, the middle of semester is usually not as busy as the end of semester for
teachers; however, it is possible that the appearance of the survey was viewed by the
teaching respondents as an added imposition on an already heavy workload, which
may explain the low response rate. Krosnick (1999) observed that people who work
long hours are less likely to respond to surveys. Therefore, given that respondents in
the present research reported long working hours in normal, as well as in busy
weeks, this may explain the low response rate. It is also noted that the present
research found that the age and gender of respondents were equivalent to those
previously found by Australian Government who reported statistics relating to
the Australian population of teachers (McKenzie et al., 2008), suggesting that the
784
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51,6
respondents in the current research are generally representative of the Australian
teaching population.
Theoretical implications
Because employee mental health is such an important aspect of organisational
functioning (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Brough et al., 2009b; ILO, 2000; Maslach and
Leiter, 1997; Schaufeli, 2004) it is important to understand the factors that both
contribute to and undermine employee mental health. It is observed that much of the
recent research involving work engagement has been derived from previous research
involving work burnout and it has been assumed that engagement has similar
predictors (Maslach et al., 2001). This has led to models predicting work engagement
such as the JD-R model (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007) which have assumed that
engagement and burnout have the same antecedents. Recently, Dollard and Bakker
(2010) expanded the JD-R model to incorporate the organisational PSC, which is seen as
the setting in which the balance or imbalance of demands and resources impacts on
employees. However, Dollard and Bakker did not consider SDT perspectives such as an
individuals motivation to achieve their potential which is, of necessity, at the core of
finding work meaningful and fulfilling (Ryan and Deci, 2000, 2001). Similarities are
noted between the PSC (Dollard and Bakker) and May et al.s (2004) concept of
psychological safety. There appears to be little doubt that such a work environment is
consistent with the facilitation of work engagement. We suggest that this may be the
meeting point of the SDT and JD-R theories. One theoretical perspective (SDT)
suggests that fulfilling human psychological needs is a precursor to engagement with
work (May et al., 2004; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Saks, 2006). The other perspective (JD-R)
appears to have derived an appreciation of work engagement and worked backwards,
first from work burnout and its psycho-social predictors (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007),
currently focusing on the environment in which people respond to the balance of
demands and resources (Dollard and Bakker). Consequently it is observed that the
theories of SDT and JD-R while coming from different directions appear to be
compatible, with each perspective enriching the other.
Career satisfaction is closely aligned with peoples choice of career and their
satisfaction with how that choice has evolved over their working experience (Shaver
and Lacey, 2003). While job satisfaction (which is more organisation focused) is widely
used in organisational research (e.g. Brough and Frame, 2004), career satisfaction has
not been widely tested in relation to work engagement. The career variable used in the
current research actually names the respondents career and asks whether they like it,
whether they feel efficacious within the career and whether it fulfils their expectations.
It is therefore proposed that this measure of career satisfaction is more closely linked to
a sense of realisation of aspirations. The fact that this variable was significantly
associated with vigour, dedication, absorption and disengagement over time provides
an extra dimension to understanding workers mental health; in that it suggests that
the choice of career is influential in employees experiences of work engagement.
Practical implications
The current research found that teachers are generally highly satisfied with their
choice of career and that this choice is significantly associated with their experiences of
work engagement. The literature suggests that engaged workers are more productive
(Schaufeli, 2004) and are more likely to cooperate voluntarily in regard to their work
(Saks, 2006). However, the teachers in the present research also indicated that they did
785
Career
satisfaction
not believe their profession was highly regarded in the wider community. Fink (2003)
observed that teachers reduced their participation in extra-curricular activities
(such as school sports and drama) because of increases in work demands and a sense
that their work was not valued. It is observed that bright students would be very
aware of this incongruence and consequently may not consider teaching as a choice of
profession for themselves. In view of the fact that teaching is an ageing profession
(McKenzie et al., 2008) it is necessary that this perception of the profession be
addressed and that teachers be enabled to feel efficacious about their work
(Bandura, 1969; Friedman, 2000) in order to improve the teaching career profile among
potential teachers.
Conclusion
The current research found support for a combination of two theoretical perspectives
in regard to explaining teachers mental health. The SDT (Ryan and Deci, 2000) which
linked the fulfilment of psychological needs to work engagement provided an
important framework for understanding teachers work engagement. However, we also
found that the psycho-social work environment has a significant impact upon both
work engagement and psychological burnout. While these findings provide support
for the JD-R model (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007) they also endorse May et al.s (2004,
SDT) vision of psycho-social factors of the work environment contributing to a sense of
psychological safety, thus enabling psychological need fulfilment (Ryan and Deci,
2000). We found that teachers career satisfaction has a powerful influence on their
long-term levels of engagement/disengagement with their work. The contribution of
favourable work environments is important in establishing a baseline of employee
mental health which is enduring over time. In view of the fact that teaching is a
profession that is vulnerable to attrition (via impending large scale retirements;
McKenzie et al., 2008) it is suggested that factors impinging on career satisfaction and
recruitment of new teachers should be carefully considered.
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Appendix
About the authors
Dr Carolyn Timms is an Adjunct Research Fellow in the School of Education and also associated
with the department of Psychology at James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia.
Carolyn Timms is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
Professor Paula Brough is the director of the Social & Organisational Psychology Research
Unit (SOPRU) at Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
Job satisfaction
I am happy with my current work environment
I am satisfied with the quality of time I am able to provide my students
I would encourage other teachers to apply for a job with my employer
My employer places a high value on the work I do
Career satisfaction
Overall, I am satisfied with my choice of career
I like being a teacher
I wouldnt hesitate to encourage talented young people to study to become a teacher
The experience of being a teacher fulfils expectations I had when I was training for my career
Source: Adapted from Shaver and Lacey (2003)
Table AI.
Job and career
satisfaction items
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