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STATICS: FORCES ACTING AT A POINT

FORCE AND ITS REPRESENTATION

The Meaning of Force

A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with
another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a
force upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer
experience the force. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction. For simplicity
sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories:

• contact forces, and

• forces resulting from action-at-a-distance
Contact forces are those types of forces which result when the two interacting objects
are perceived to be physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include
frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied
forces

Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces which result even when the two
interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a
push or pull despite their physical separation

Contact Forces Action-at-a-Distance Forces

Frictional Force Gravitational Force
Tension Force Electrical Force
Normal Force Magnetic Force
Air Resistance Force
Applied Force
Spring Force

The chart at the end of the booklet (page 16) shows essential information on the
forces most frequently found in Mechanics.

The meaning of each of these forces listed in the table will have to be thoroughly
understood to be successful during this course. Ultimately, you must be able to read a
verbal description of a physical situation and know enough about these forces to
recognize their presence (or absence) and to construct a free-body diagram which
illustrates their relative magnitude and direction.
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MEASURING FORCES

We measure forces with a FORCE-METER. A force-meter also called a (newton-

meter) is a spring covered with a sheath that carries a scale. It is based on the
change-in-shape effect of forces. The stretching of the spring (called its
EXTENSION) is proportional to the force pulling from it (for example the weight
of the load).

EXTENSION = A CONSTANT
FACTOR X THE FORCE

This law is known as HOOKE’S law and it will hold as long as the stretching is not too
long. In that case the force-meter will be spoiled (will not turn back to the original
shape).
We say that it has passed beyond its elastic limit.

HOOKE’S LAW (Experimental)

Introduction
Forces can produce changes in movement or in the shape of objects. You will
experiment to find if there is any relationship between the stretching of a spring (or
extension) and the force applied on it by hanging different loads (weights).
Instructions
1- Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Design a chart to
record your data:
2- Length (mm), Mass (g), Load (N), Extension (length - unloaded
length) (cm).
3- Measure the mass of each of the loads.
4- The weight of each load can be calculated as mass x gravity
(gravity can be considered as 10 N/kg for this practical)
5- Measure the length of the unloaded spring
6- Add one load
7- Find the new length
8-Add a second load
9- Find the new length
10- Repeat 8 and 9 with a third and a fourth load
11- Plot your results as a line graph (extension against load)
12- Label the axes properly
13- BE CAREFUL NOT TO LOAD THE SPRING TOO MUCH BECAUSE IT
CAN BE PERMANENTLY DEFORMED (You should not reach the “elastic limit”)

14- What is the shape of your graph?

15- If your spring stretched 25 mm, what force was being applied to it?
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16- What is the mathematical relationship between extension and load?

17- You have re-discovered Hooke’s law (Hooke discovered this in the 17th century):
state it with your own words.
18- Write the mathematical relation showing this statement

THE USE OF FORCE METERS IS BASED IN HOOKE’S LAW

FORCES ARE VECTORS

The mathematical quantities which are used to describe the

motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The
quantity is either a vector or a scalar. These two categories
can be distinguished from one another by their distinct
definitions:

• Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical
value) alone.
• Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a
direction. In fact, a vectorin 2-D is defined in maths as an ordered pair of numbers
with some operational rules (e.g. addition)

A force is a vector quantity and has both magnitude and direction. To fully describe
the force acting upon an object, you must describe both the magnitude (size or
numerical value) and the direction.
Force is a quantity which is measured using the standard metric unit known as the
Newton. A Newton is abbreviated by an "N" (we shall study later how the Newton is
defined). But the Newtons will give you just the magnitude of the force, not its
direction.
Thus, 10 Newtons is not a full description of the force acting upon an object. In
contrast, 10 Newtons, downwards is a complete description of the force acting upon an
object; both the magnitude (10 Newtons) and the direction (downwards) are given.

Because a force is a vector which has a direction, it is common to

represent forces using diagrams in which a force is represented by an
arrow. The two pieces of information (the ordered pair of numbers)
are the intensity, size or strength of the force (the modulus of the
vector) and the direction is given by the angle it forms with a
reference axis usually the x axis (argument) Example: a 2N force
pointing northwest has a modulus sized 2N and a direction 45 °from
a horizontal line. In trhis case the force (or the vector) is described in Polar
Coordinates.

Force Components

A force (or any vector) which is directed northwest can be thought of as having two
parts - a northward part and a westward part. A vector which is directed upward and
rightward can be thought of as having two parts - an upward part and a rightward part.
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Each part of a two-dimensional vector is known as a component. The components of a

force depict the influence of that force in a given
direction. The combined influence of the two
components is equivalent to the influence of the
single two-dimensional force. The single two-D force
could be replaced by the two components.

If Fido's dog chain is stretched upward and rightward and pulled tight by his master,
then the tension force in the chain has two components - an upward component
and a rightward component. To Fido, the influence of the chain on his body is
equivalent to the influence of two chains on his body - one pulling upward and the
other pulling rightward. If the single chain were replaced by two chains with each
chain having the magnitude and direction of the components, then Fido would not know
the difference.

The information about the force can be given by two numbers (called the components
of the vector) along the x and y axes. Both components are the sizes of the sides (Fx and
Fy) of a rectangle from which the vector (force) is the diagonal. In this case the force is
described in Cartesian Coordinates.
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Changing from one system to the other one

Using some simple geometry we get to the equations that link both descriptions

From Polar (strength and

direction) to Cartesian (x and y
components)
Fx = F . cos α and Fy = F. sinα

From Cartesian (x and y

components) to Polar (strength
and direcvtion)

F = √ Fx2 + Fy2 and tan-1 Fy / Fx

For the NE-pointing 2N force of the example:

Fx = 2N. cos45° = 2N. (+0,707) = 1,41N Fy = 2N. sin135° = 2N. (+0,707) = 1,41N

and

F =√ (+1,41N)2 + (+1,41N)2 =√ 2N + 2N = 2N
α =arc tan (+1,41) / (+1,41) =arc tan (+1) = 45°

Drawing Free-Body Diagrams

Free-body diagrams are diagrams used to show the relative magnitude and direction of
all forces acting upon an object in a given situation. Each force arrow in the diagram is
labeled to indicate the exact type of force. It is generally customary
in a free-body diagram to represent the object by a box and to draw
the force arrow from the center of the box outward in the direction
which the force is acting. An example of a free-body diagram is
shown to the right.

The only rule for drawing free-body diagrams is to depict all the
forces which exist for that object in the given situation. Thus, to
construct free-body diagrams, it is extremely important to know the various types of
forces. If given a description of a physical situation, begin by using your understanding
of the force types to identify which forces are present. Then determine the direction in
which each force is acting. Finally, draw a box and add arrows for each existing force in
the appropriate direction; label each force arrow according to its type

DETERMINING THE NET FORCE

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As we have seen the effect of a 20-Newton upward force acting upon a book is canceled
by the effect of a 20-Newton downward force acting upon the book. In such instances, it
is said that the two individual forces balance each other; there would be no
unbalanced force acting upon the book of the previous section.

Look at the diagrams to the right: in

each of the situations, there is an
unbalanced force. Is is commonly
said that in each situation there is a
net force acting upon the object.
The net force, also called resultant
force, is the vector sum of all the
forces which act upon an object. That is to say, the net force is the sum of all the forces,
taking into account the fact that a force is a vector.
Notice that a downward force will provide a partial or full cancellation of an upward
force but cannot affect a horizontal force. And a leftward force will provide a partial or
full cancellation of a rightward force but will never have any influence in an upward
direction.

This is a very important issue called orthogonality: directions that are at right
angles from one another are absolutely independent. Whatever happens on one of
them will have no effect on the other one. Horizontal forces act horizontally and
produce no vertical change and viceversa.

ADDING FORCES

When we add forces we are finding the force that can replace a whole system (set) of
forces acting on an object. This force will have the same effects as the set including the
turning effect of the system. As seen before, this force is called the resultant force or net
force. If the resultant is zero then the system is said to be balanced or in
equilibrium. If a system is balanced, any force of the set is balancing the resultant force
of the rest.
If a system is not in equilibrium its resultant will not be zero (unbalanced system). If a
problem requires finding the force that will balance an unbalanced set that is, the
equilibrating or balancing force (equilibrant), we just find the resultant force. The
balancing force is equal and opposite to it.

The directions of the forces acting on an object can either meet at a point (concurrent
forces) or not (parallel forces). Of course there are “mixed systems” too. The methods
used for summing up forces depend on whether they are concurrent (meeting at a point)
or parallel. In this Unit we shall focus just in concurrent systems.
The methods used for adding forces are either graphical or trigonometric methods.

ADDING CONCURRENT FORCES GRAPHICALLY

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The magnitude and direction of the sum of two or more forces can be determined by the
use of an accurately drawn scaled force diagram. Using a scaled diagram, the head-to-
tail method is employed to determine the vector sum or resultant: draw each of the
forces one starting at the head of the previous one but taking care to draw them parallel
to their orientation (keep the angles!). Then trace an arrow from the tail of the first of
the forces to the head of the last one. That will be the resultant force. An example of the
use of the head-to-tail method is illustrated below.

The force polygon or head-to-tail addition

The problem involves the addition of three forces (vectors). The head-to-tail method is
employed as described above and the resultant is determined (drawn in red). Its
magnitude and direction are labeled on the diagram.

20 N, 45º + 25 N, 300º + 15 N,
210º

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 N

Interestingly enough, the order in which three forces are added has no effect upon either
the magnitude or the direction of the resultant. The resultant will still have the
same magnitude and direction.
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10 Newtons + 10 Newtons = ???

How would you answer such a question? Would you quickly conclude 20 Newtons,
thinking that two force vectors can be added like any two numerical quantities? Would
you pause for a moment and think that the quantities to be added are vectors (force
vectors) and the addition of vectors follow a different set of rules than the addition of
scalars? Would you pause for a moment, pondering the possible ways of adding 10
Newtons and 10 Newtons, and conclude "it depends upon their direction?" In fact, 10
Newtons + 10 Newtons could give almost any resultant, provided that it has a
magnitude between 0 Newtons and 20 Newtons. Study the diagram below in which 10
Newtons and 10 Newtons are added to give a variety of answers; each answer is
dependent upon the direction of the two vectors which are to be added. For this
example, the minimum magnitude for the resultant is 0 Newtons (occurring when 10 N
and 10 N are in the opposite direction); and the maximum magnitude for the resultant is
20 N (occurring when 10 N and 10 N are in the same direction).

The above diagram shows what is occasionally a difficult concept to believe. Many
students find it difficult to see how 10 N + 10 N could ever be equal to 10 N. A simple
vector addition diagram for the addition of the two forces (see diagram below) shows
how this can be absolutely true!
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Parallelogram Method to Add Forces

Move the forces along their lines of action so that their tails meet at a point. Now draw a
parallelogram with its sides equal to two of the forces of the system. Trace the diagonal
that starts at the forces’ meeting point and goes to the opposite corner. That is the head
of the first partial result. In case there are more than two forces repeat the same
procedure with the next one and the resultant (partial) already found. Go on until you
have summed all the forces. The last resultant will be the resultant of the system.
Example: two 3N forces forming an angle of 60°.

3N 3N

60° R

3N 3N

ADDING CONCURRENT FORCES BY TRIGONOMETRIC METHODS

Splitting Forces Along The x / y txes (canonical method)

• Choose a Cartesian system and sketch the forces starting at the origin of the
axes
• Find Fx and Fy for each force as previously shown (Fx = F.cos α ; Fy= F.sin
α)
• Add up all the Fx and call the sum Rx
• Add up all the Fy components and call the sum Ry
• Find strength (modulus) of force as shown ( R = √ Rx2 + Ry2)
• Find direction of resultant as angle = arc tan Ry / Rx

Example: find the resultant of two forces acting on an object one of them a 3N force
forming an angle of 30° with the x axis and the second one a 5N force forming an angle
of 120° with the same axis.
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(F1)x = 3N . cos 30° = 3N . 0.866= 2,60N (F 2)x= 2N . cos 120°= 2N . (–0,500) =

-1,00N

Rx = (F1)x + (F2)x = 2,60N + (-1N) = 1,60N

(F1)y= 3N. sin 30°= 3N . 0,5= 1,5N (F2)y= 2N . sin 120= 2N . 0,866= 1,73N

Ry = (F1)y + (F2)y = 1,5N + 1,73N = 3,23N

R = √ Rx2 + Ry2 = √ (1,60N)2 + (3,23N)2 = 3,60N

Angle formed with x axis = arc tan Ry / Rx = arc tan 3,23 / 1,60 = arc tan 2,018 = 63°

R = 3,60N
α = 63°

The Cosine Theorem Method

Some people find it far easier than the previous method. The equations used are derived
from trigonometric considerations. They have been explained in the classroom and will
be posed without any demonstration or “proof”.

• Calculate R using the “modified” cosine theorem:

R = √ F12 + F22 + 2F1F2 cos α
• Calculate the angle using the sine theorem
In this case we shall agree on some conventions:
• Call α the angle between the two forces F1 and F2
• Call β the angle between R and F1
• Call γ the angle between R and F2

• Then the following holds: F1 / sin γ = F2 / sin β = R / sin α

• You know α, R, F1 and F2 so it is easy to calculate either β or γ

Example: find the resultant if two forces with a strength of 3N and 2N act at an angle
of 45°

R =√ (3N)2 + (2N)2 + 2(3N.2N. cos 45°) =√ 9N2 + 4N2 + 12N2.0,707 = √ 21,48N =

4,64N
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To find the angle 3N / sinγ = 4,64 / sin 45° sin γ = sin45°. (3N / 4,64N) = 0,707.
0,647 = 0,4574
So γ (the angle between R and F1) is arc tan 0,4574 = 27°

R = 4,64 N
γ = 27°

RESOLVING FORCES

Sometimes you are asked to split a force into two or more forces that point to
different directions. This is also called “resolution of a force” A case you
will frequently find is to resolve a force into its Cartesian components

Parallelogram Method of Force Resolution

The parallelogram method of vector resolution involves using an accurately drawn,
scaled vector diagram to determine the components of the vector. Briefly put, the
method involves drawing the vector to scale in the indicated direction, sketching a
parallelogram around the vector such that the vector is the diagonal of the
parallelogram, and determining the magnitude of the components (the sides of the
parallelogram) using the scale. If one desires to determine the components as directed
along the traditional x- and y-coordinate axes, then the parallelogram is a rectangle with
sides which stretch vertically and horizontally. A step-by-step procedure for using the
parallelogram method of vector resolution is:

Trigonometric Method of Vector Resolution

This has been previously seen at the beginning of this Unit (Changing from Polar to
Cartesian coordinates).

A special simple case: Algebraic Addition of Co-linear Forces

Co-linear forces (forces lying on the same line)are easily treated as real numbers. Forces
pointing rightwards or upwards are usually considered to be positive and those forces
pointing opposite to them are given a negative value. Then forces are added in the usual
form for real numbers.
Example: consider a system of three co-linear forces two of them (F1 and F2) 3N strong
and pointing leftwards the third one (F3) a 4N force pointing rightwards

R = ΣFi =F1 + F2 + F3 = (-3N) + (-3N) + (+4N) = - 3N -3N +4N = - 2N

NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOVEMENT

You have learned that a force is a push or a pull upon

an object which results from its interaction with
another object. Some forces result from contact
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interactions (normal, frictional, tensional, and applied forces are examples of contact
forces) and other forces result from action-at-a-distance interactions (gravitational,
electrical and magnetic forces are examples of action-at-a-distance forces). According
to Newton, whenever objects A and B interact with each other, they exert forces upon
each other. When you sit in your chair, your body exerts a downward force on the chair
and the chair exerts an upward force on your body. There are two forces resulting from
this interaction — a force on the chair and a force on your body. These two forces are
called action and reaction forces and are the subject of Newton's third law of motion.
Formally stated, Newton's third law is:

"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction" or “If A makes a force on B
then B makes an equal and opposite force on A”

FA→B = - FB→A

The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of

forces acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the force
on the first object equals the size of the force on the second
object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to
the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always
come in pairs – equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.

A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of
a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the
water will only serve to accelerate the water. In turn, the water reacts by pushing the
fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water
equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water
(backwards) is opposite to the direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every
action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-
reaction force pairs make it possible for fishes to swim.

Consider the motion of your automobile on your way to school. An automobile is

equipped with wheels that spin backwards. As the wheels spin backwards, they push the
road backwards. In turn, the road reacts by pushing the wheels forward. The size of the
force on the road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or automobile); the
direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite to the direction of the force on
the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in
direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for automobiles to
move.

IDENTIFYING ACTION AND REACTION FORCE PAIRS

According to Newton's third law, for every action force there is an equal (in size) and
opposite (in direction) reaction force. Forces always come in pairs — known as "action-
reaction force pairs." Identifying and describing action-reaction force pairs is a simple
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matter of identifying the two interacting objects and making two statements describing
who is pushing on whom and in which direction. For example, consider the interaction
between a baseball bat and a baseball.

The baseball forces the bat to the right (an action); the bat forces the ball to the left (the
reaction). Note that the nouns in the sentence describing the action force switch places
when describing the reaction force.

PROBLEMS ON STATICS

1- Find the resultant and the balancing force for each system; solve both
graphically and analytically.
a- two 5 N forces that meet at an angle of 90°
b- two 10 N forces that meet at an angle of 45°
c- a 5 N force meeting a 10 N force at an angle of 30°
d- same as (c) but at an angle of 150°
e- three 8 N forces forming angles of 120° between any two of them

2- Two fishermen drag a boat to the shore making both of them 300 N forces at an
angle of 60°. Calculate the resultant of both forces.

3- One of them gets tired and pulls with half the initial force. Calculate the
resultant force in this new situation.

4- A pack of five Artic wolves are exerting five different forces upon the carcass of
a 500-kg dead polar bear. A top view showing the magnitude and direction of
each of the five individual forces is shown in the diagram below. The
gravitational and normal forces balance each other. Use a scaled vector diagram
to determine the net force acting upon the polar bear.

Real situation
Physical situation
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5- A flower pot hags from achain in the wall and is kept in pplace by an iron bar.
Calculate the forces that the upper chain and the iron bar are making at the
meeting point

6- Dr. K’s portrait was hung from two ropes that had different
sizes. For that reason the forces made by the ropes are not
equal. Calculate them if the angle formed by the the ropes with
the x axis are 60º and 30º respectively.

7- Find the tensional force T. Can you calculate the forces Fh pulling sideways?

Fh
Fh

150 N
8- Some ill-tempered physics students took revenge on
Professor H. Nevertheless as a posthumous homage Leila
L. calculates the forces meeting at point X. Help her please!

9- Calculate the force that prevents a 500 N block from sliding down an inclined
plane tilted 30° from the floor.

10- A stone is hanging from a force meter on Peter’s hand. The stone weighs 50 N.
a- Sketch the forces acting on the stone. How big are they?
b- Sketch the forces acting on the force meter. How big are they?
c- Are the forces on the stone “contact” or “at-distance” forces?

11- A spring is 20 cm long when a 10 N weight is hanging from it and 30 cm long if

the hanging weight is 20 N. Find the length of the spring when bearing no
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charge and when a 0.5 Kg mass is hanged on it. Plot an extension/load graph for
this spring.

12- Calculate the tension of the ropes for the three cases and draw a general
conclusion.

13- Tim (a 70 pound young boy) is skating at a speed of 10 km / hr. Rachel (his
plump 170 pound sister) skates at 12 km / hr in the opposite direction. She
crashes against him and both rebound in opposite directions.
a- Which one receives the hardest push?
b- Which one will rebound at a higher speed?

14- If I make a force on the floor to walk, the floor makes exactly the same force to
me but opposite. If both forces are equal and opposite they cancel so: how come
that I move?

15- A block stands on a table. The forces on the block are its weright and the normal
force. They are equal and opposite: do they form an action/reaction pair?
Explain.
Type of Description of Force Type of Description of Force 16
Fo Forc
rce e
Applied An applied force is a force which is applied to an object by a person or Air The air resistance is a special type of frictional force which acts upon
F another object. If a person is pushing a desk across the room, then Res objects as they travel through the air. The force of air resistance is
o there is an applied force acting upon the object. The applied force is ista often observed to oppose the motion of an object. This force will
rc the force exerted on the desk by the person. nce frequently be neglected due to its negligible magnitude (and due to the
e For fact that it is mathematically difficult to predict its value). It is most
Fapp ce noticeable for objects which travel at high speeds
Fair
Gravity The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other Tension The tension force is the force which is transmitted through a string,
F massively large object attracts another object towards itself. By For rope, cable or wire when it is pulled tight by forces acting from
o definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects upon earth ce opposite ends. The tension force is directed along the length of the wire
rc experience a force of gravity which is directed "downward" towards Ftens and pulls equally on the objects on the opposite ends of the wire.
e the center of the earth.
(also
k
n
o
w
n
a
s
W
ei
g
ht
)
Fgrav
Normal The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object which is Spring The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched
F in contact with another stable object. For example, if a book is resting (ela spring upon any object which is attached to it. An object which
o upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an upward force upon the stic compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by a force which
rc book in order to support the weight of the book. On occasions, a ) restores the object to its rest or equilibrium position. The magnitude of
e normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects which are in For the force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or
Fnorm contact with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, ce compression of the spring.
the wall pushes horizontally on the person. Fspring

Friction The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves
F across it or makes an effort to move across it. There are at least two
o types of friction force - sliding and static friction. The friction force
rc often opposes the motion of an object. For example, if a book slides
e across the surface of a desk, then the desk exerts a friction force in the
Ffrict opposite direction of its motion. Friction results from the two surfaces
being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular attractive forces
between molecules of different surfaces. As such, friction depends
upon the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they
are pressed together.