Cavern - Nss - Cds
Cavern - Nss - Cds
Cavern - Nss - Cds
Cavern Diving
Harry Averill
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1. Cavern Diving Safety and Training Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Accident Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Cavern Diver Training Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. The Cave Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Landowner Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cavern and Cave Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Cave Type and Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
The Hazards of the Cave Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Cavern Diving Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Equipment Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Configuration Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Mask and Fin Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Gas Delivery Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Guidelines and Reels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Lights for Cavern Diving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Attachment Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Knives and Cutting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Proper Weighting for Cavern Diving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4. Cavern Diving Techniques/Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Propulsion Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Guideline and Reel Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Dive Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
When to Call the Dive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5. Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Command Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Light Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Hand Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Touch-Contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6. Stress Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7. Emergency Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Introduction
THIS BOOK covers the key academic information you need to master as part
of your NSS-CDS Cavern Diver course. It is designed to be used in conjunction with the Cavern Diver Course Study Guide workbook. Together,
these two items will help prepare you to successfully complete the Cavern
Diver Course Final exam. To use them, you should:
Begin
Using
If, while reading this book or completing the Study Guide, you have questions or come across information you do not understand, make a note of it.
Ask your Cavern Diver Instructor to clarify this information at the start of
the course.
Accident Analysis
Cavern Diver training is, to a large degree, designed to help you avoid the
mistakes that cause divers to die in caverns and caves. One way in which
we do this is to identify what these mistakes are, as well as the actions that
help divers avoid them.
to run a continuous guideline to open waterUnderwater caverns and caves are generally not comprised of a single, easy-to-follow
conduit. Instead, they are often a maze of interconnecting tunnels (see
Figure 1). Seldom does the way out resemble the way in. Additionally,
the presence of an easily disturbed layer of silt canin just a matter of
secondsobliterate the visibility that might otherwise make it easy to see
which way leads to the exit. Having a continuous guideline to the cavern
or cave entrance helps ensure that divers will be able to find their way
out, regardless of the complexity of the cavern or cave, or loss of visibili-
ty. In many underwater cavern and cave fatalities, the victims had sufficient breathing gas to exit from their maximum point of penetration;
however, lack of a continuous guideline prevented them from finding that
exit before their gas supply ran out.
While virtually every cavern or cave diving fatality results from one or
more of these three direct causes, there are also two contributing causes
worth noting. These are factors thatwhile not immediately responsible for
diver deathsplay such a large role in so many cavern and cave diving
fatalities, they deserve mention. These two contributing causes are:
Lack
Failure
prepare adequately for potential light failure, they must have at least three
sources of light per person. Cave divers carry at least on primary and two
back-up lights; Cavern Divers carry at least one primary one back-up
light (because Cavern Divers remain within sight of daylight, the sun
counts as the third source of light).
By restating the three direct and two contributing causes of cavern and cave
diver fatalities as procedures to be followed, we have what are called the
Five Rules of Accident Analysis. There are:
1. Be trained and certified for cavern or cave diving, and remain well
within the limits of your training and experience.
2. Maintain a continuous guideline leading to the cavern or cave entrance.
3. Remain within the safe operational (depth) limits of your breathing
media.
4. Keep at least two-thirds of your starting gas supply (air) in reserve to exit
the cave.
5. Have at least three sources of light per diver.
Here is one way many divers remember the five rules:
to Cave DiverThe next step past Cavern Diver, this course focuses on the skills required to explore caves beyond sight of the entrance,
while remaining within fairly restrictive limits. These limits include stay-
ing within the no-decompression limits and linear navigation along a single, continuous guideline. Intro-to-Cave Divers who are not under direct
instructor supervision are also limited to diving single tanks.
Apprentice
(Full)
Each of these steps requires at least two days of training and four dives.
the surface.
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These limits will appear on your NSS-CDS Cavern Diver certification card.
In addition to remaining within the limits of your own training and experience, you must also remember that the limits of any cavern or cave dive are
determined by the training and experience level of the least qualified team
member. This means that, just because you are a certified Cavern Diver, you
should not take friends who lack this training into a cavern with you. Similarly, you should not accompany divers trained to the Intro-to-Cave level, or
above, on dives that exceed the Cavern Diver limits outlined earlier.
Landowner Relations
In terms of your relationship with the individuals, organizations and government entities that either own the land on which the caverns and caves
you dive are located, or own the land that provides access to these sites,
there are two important points to bear in mind. These are:
There
It
is important cavern and cave divers always follow whatever rules are
in effect at any siteMost popular underwater caverns and caves are
located in government controlled or privately operated parks and recreation sites. Such sites typically have and enforce various sets of rules
applying to divers of different training and experience levels. For example: Divers certified to the Apprentice Cave Diver level and above may
use double cylinders; divers certified to the Intro-to-Cave Diver level and
below may not. It is important you learn what rules are in effect at the
sites you dive and follow them. Your willingness to follow such rules will
not only affect whether you may return to the site in the future, but
whether other cavern and cave divers may do so as well.
A rule you will find in effect at Floridas state parks and recreation areas, as
well as at many privately operated sites, is the No Lights Rule. Designed to
help prevent fatalities among open-water divers, it prevents those who lack
Cavern or Cave Diver training and certification from entering the water
with dive lights. Without lights, such divers have difficulty penetrating caverns and caves far enough to get into trouble.
sure whatever site you choose to cavern dive matches your ability
to dive it in as environmentally sound a manner as possibleLets say,
for example, that several months have passed since your last cavern dive.
You realize that, as a result, your buoyancy-control skills may not be up
to par. Therefore, before diving a potentially silty cavern with fragile rock
formations, such as Peacock I, you decide to spend practice time in a relatively silt-free and damage-proof cavern, such as the one at Ginnie
Spring. In so doing, you are taking an important step in protecting
Peacock I from further harm.
The
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For
all intents and purposes, any damage you cause to the fragile cavern/cave environment will be visible foreverFragile stone formations
and speleothems (the stalactites, stalagmites and columns found in
Mexican and Bahamian caverns and caves) take tens of thousands of
years to form. They cannot grow back once damaged. Even something as
seemingly innocuous as a hand or fin print in a bed of clay can remain
visible beyond our lifetimes. They only possible way to deal with such
damage is to prevent it.
Sea
Lava
Dissolution
The most widely used term used to describe the type of terrain most conducive to the formation of caverns and caves is karst. This is where dissolution caves form.
Dissolution cave systems, such as those found in north-central Florida,
Mexicos Yucatan Peninsula and the Bahamas, are also the type most frequently visited by divers. Unfortunately, due to factors such as the complex,
maze-like passageway configuration of many such systems, this is the type
of cave most likely to be the site of diver fatalities. For these reasons, we
will spend most of this section focusing on dissolution cave formation
11
12
Figure 10: When rain falls on north-central Floridas highly porous karst
terrain, it immediately disappears under ground, saturating the limestone
below.
13
Figure 11: Rivers passing through the region often have water levels that
are lower than the surrounding water table. Gravity creates a tendency for
water to move sideways through the rock, in a effort to run downhill.
Figure 12: In its movement toward the regions rivers, ground water seeks
the path of least resistance. This can include bedding planes (the boundary
between limestone layers), fractures in the rock and even interconnecting
spongework. As this takes place, the carbonic acid works to further dissolve
these conduits. When passage diameter exceeds nine centimeters, the rate of
dissolution accelerates. Thus, the biggest conduits for water flow tend to
become even bigger over time. Eventually, these can form an interconnecting maze of cave passageways.
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Figure 13: Mature cave systems may surface in a spring basin, away from
the river, and connected to the river by a spring run.
Cavern and Cave Entrance TypesCavern and cave entrances may
be either springs or siphons. The primary difference between the two is
that:
Springs exist where water flows out of the ground.
Siphons exist where water flows into the ground.
You already know what causes the springs to form. Siphons, on the other
hand, form in one of two ways:
A temporary
reversal of spring flow caused by high water levels in adjacent rivers can create siphons.
Figure 14: If the level of adjacent rivers rise above that of the water table,
karst openings that are normally springs may temporarily siphon.
15
The
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Of
all the various sediments divers may encounter in caverns and caves,
sand is most easily disturbed; once disturbed, however, clay remains in
suspension longest.
Two additional hazards cavern and cave divers face are restrictions and line
traps.
Restrictions
Line
traps are openings into which divers may accidentally pull the
guideline, but which is too narrow for the divers to pass through themselvesThe danger associated with allowing the guideline to pass
through a potential line trap is that, should divers need to exit in limited
visibility, they will not be able to follow the guideline to do so.
17
Figure 17: Cross section of a typical line trap; the guideline has been
allowed to pass through an opening that does not enable divers to maintain
contact with it (and, given that the total opening size is not sufficient for
divers to pass through side by side, it further qualifies as a restriction)
18
Elimination
Making
Making
Configuration Overview
Figure 18 is an illustration I created for a SOUTHERN DIVING magazine article on cavern diving. The illustration and the explanation of each numbered
item provide a good overview of a typical cavern diving equipment configuration. Following this are more detailed explanations of each area of
equipment modification for cavern diving.
19
20
chief difference between a mask used for cavern diving and one
intended for open water diving is the absence of a snorkelSnorkels
serve no purpose in cavern diving and pose a significant entanglement
hazard.
If
at all possible, divers should tape down the loose end of fin straps to
help prevent their becoming entangled in the guidelineGiven the complex buckle assemblies found on many modern adjustable fins, this is not
always possible. Your instructor will make specific recommendations
regarding what you may be able to do to help prevent your fins straps and
buckle assemblies from becoming entangled in the guideline.
Because
21
ALTERNATE-AIR-SOURCE (octopus) second stages can literally be a lifesaver when another diver runs low on or out of air. An octopus is of little
value, however, if you or your buddy cant find it quickly, or if it has been
damaged through contact with the bottom (dangling octopuses are equally
capable of causing damage to the bottom). This is why the major training
agencies recommend that, instead of being allowed to dangle freely, alternate-air-source second stages be fastened securely to each diver, somewhere
in the region between the divers mouth and the lower corners of his or her
rib cage. Divers can accomplish this in one of two ways:
If
divers are using BC inflators that integrate an alternate-air-source second stage, doing so automatically meets the training agencies recommendations. This is because the second stage these divers will donate to a distressed buddy is already located in their mouths. These divers alternatesource-second stage, which is what they will breathe from after donating
their primary second stage to the out-of-air/low-on-air diver, should be as
easy to find as their BC inflator mechanism is, and also tend to fall within
the triangular region recommended by the training organizations.
Divers
22
the back of the divers neck and, finally, to his or her mouth. In this manner,
a single arm motion can pass a distressed diver not only a functioning second stage, but three to four feet of hose to go with it. A second arm motion,
to unhook the hose from underneath the battery canister, makes all seven
feet of hose available.
After donating the primary second stage, a cave diver so equipped
then switches to his or her backup second stage, which is secured with a
loop of surgical tubing or shock cord around the neck. This second stage
will have a normal-length (or shorter) hose.
There are a number of reasons why an increasing number of cave
divers prefer this method. Among them:
The
donor can locate and pass a second stage from his or her mouth
faster than he or she can a second stage that is mounted elsewhere.
The
distressed diver gets a second stage that both divers know is functioning.
As
the donor is most likely not the one under the most stress, he or she
can better afford to momentarily be without a second stage. The out-ofgas diver, on the other hand, may need to get a functioning second stage
right nownot when the potential donor can manage to find one to pass.
Besides, in so far as the donor has a backup second stage located only
inches from his or her mouth, he or she will not be without breathing gas
for long.
You sometimes hear divers state that, the out-of-air diver will always go
for the regulator in your mouth. There is no statistical data proving this to
be true all the time; however, we know it happens frequently. Divers whose
normal gas sharing equipment configuration assumes passing the primary
second stage (this includes cave divers breathing the long hose and openwater divers with integrated alternate-air-source inflators) are likely better
prepared for another diver ripping a second stage from their mouths than
divers configured otherwise.
However you choose to configure your equipment for air sharing,
make certain that:
Your
Whatever
23
up. What these instructors forget is that, should the distressed diver simply
take the second stage from the donors mouth, the donor will be left with a
second stage that is now upside down, and may be unusable. (If you dont
believe this happens in real life, just ask a cave diver.)
Figure 19: Common primary and safety reels, showing relative size.
Primary ReelDeployed and retrieved by the team leader, the primary
reel and its guideline help ensure that every team member always has a
continuous guideline in place. In the event of a loss of visibility, each team
member should be able to quickly make contact with this line and follow it
to the cavern exit.
Although any reel carrying at least 100 feet/30m of line can function
as a primary reel, most cavern divers prefer to use the same size primary
reel as cave divers do. They should, however, place a mark on the line at
between 100 feet/30m and no more than 130 feet/40m from its end. This
will ensure the team remains within the maximum cavern diving penetration distance limit.
Safety ReelIn addition to the primary reel and guideline, which is
shared by all team members, each team memberincluding the team
leadermust carry a personal safety reel. Should any team member
become separated from the primary guideline and not be able to see his/her
teammates and/or the exit clearly, that team member can deploy his or her
personal safety reel to conduct a search for the exit.
Even if the lost diver does not find the exit on the first attempt, having
a safety reel helps ensure that he or she can return to the point at which the
lost diver started the search, and try again in a different direction. By carry-
24
ing and using a safety reel, team members help guarantee they will not
become more lost than they are when they first deploy their safety reels.
Beam
Anticipated
Intense,
Nonrechargeable
Attachment Hardware
When selecting attachment hardware, consider:
Resistance
25
Likelihood
The two types of clips most commonly used by cavern and cave divers are
the sliding bolt (dog leash or gate) snap and pivoting latch (boat or
suicide) snap.
Sliding Bolt SnapThe is the preferred snap for most situations. It is
less prone to becoming stuck in the open position (a failure that can result
in loss of equipment). It is also less prone to accidentally entrapping line.
Its sole drawback is that it is not as easy to use as pivoting latch snaps. If a
single snap will be all that attaches a particular item (such as reels) to you,
this is the better choice. Many divers prefer to use only this type of snap.
Pivoting Latch SnapThis snaps latch is more likely to fail by becoming stuck in the open position. It is also easier for this type of snap to
function as its own line trap. Many divers, however, find it easier to use
than sliding bolt snaps. The best application for snaps of this type is to use
them to attach items such as instrument consoles, which divers must detach
and reattach frequently (and which cannot become lost should the snap
fail). Because of the potential for line entanglement, many cavern and cave
divers prefer not to use pivoting latch snaps for any application. Those
divers who do use such snaps should keep the open part turned inward, to
minimize the possibility of line entrapment.
Figure 20: Sliding bolt snaps are more reliable and less prone to guideline
entanglement. Many consider this type of snap to be the best choice when a
single piece of hardware is all that attaches an item to you. Pivoting latch
snaps are among the easiest to use, and may be a good choice for items
such as consoles, which you must detach and reattach frequently (and
which will not be lost if a single snap fails).
26
accessible place.
The vast majority of dive knives simply do not meet these qualifications.
They are overly large, prone to entanglement and do not really do a good
job of cutting line quickly or well. Consequently, many cavern and cave
divers prefer to use an inexpensive parachute line cutter or similar cutting
tool instead.
Figure 21: Simple, inexpensive cutting tools, such as this Z-Knife, are generally better suited for cavern diving than costly dive knives that dont
cut line particularly well
Instrumentation
Minimum instrumentation for cavern diving includes:
A submersible
A means
27
Overweighted
28
Because
Figure 22: Overweighting does not facilitate achieving proper body position (trim) for cavern and cave diving.
Before one can even consider becoming a cavern diver, he or she must be
able to properly weight himself or herself for diving in open water. This
entails knowing when, where and how to conduct a weight check. (Hint: It
is not when, where and how major training organizations suggest it is.)
The most effective time and place for doing a weight check for openwater divingregardless of the type of exposure suit wornis:
At the end of the dive.
At safety stop depth.
With 500-1,000 psi/35-75
bar remaining.
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4. Cavern Diving
Techniques/Procedures
In this section, we discuss:
Propulsion Techniques.
Guideline and Reel Use.
Dive Planning.
When to Call the Dive.
Propulsion Techniques
Cavern and cave divers use three primary propulsion techniques. These are:
Modified flutter
Frog kick.
Pulling
kick.
Of these three propulsion techniques, pulling (pull and glide) has the
greatest potential to cause environmental damage if not used correctly. Your
instructor will demonstrate (and you will practice) all three techniques.
30
Do
Do
not lay your line in such a way as to interfere with another teams
ability to exit.
Your instructor will demonstrate and have you practice all aspects of guideline and reel use, first on dry land and, later, in the water. This is the best
way to fully understand the basic points just discussed.
Dive Planning
The six elements a dive plan for cavern diving may include are:
SequenceWho
AirWhat
DepthWhat
are the anticipated and maximum depth limits for the dive?
(Not to exceed 70 feet/21m in any event.)
DurationWhat
DistanceAre
DirectionUpon
entering the cavern, which way will the team go? Right
to left? Left to right? Straight back? Each team member must be clear on
this, as well as clear on every other aspect of the dive plan.
A critical part of planning cavern and cave dives is determining the safest
possible turnaround points, based on each team members starting gas volumes. Here are some of the terms we will use in explaining this process:
Penetration GasThat portion of a divers total breathing gas supply
used to enter a cavern or cave. This should never exceed one third of the
divers total starting gas volume (and, as we shall see, in situations in
which team members have substantially different starting volumes, it
31
should never exceed the penetration gas volume of the team member
identified as the controlling diver).
Exit GasThis is the portion of a divers total breathing gas supply that
he or she keeps in reserve to use while exiting the cave. It is determined
by subtracting the divers penetration gas volume from his or her total
starting gas volume. Exit gas volume must always exceed penetration gas
volume by a factor of at least two to one. Thus, it should (hopefully) provide sufficient reserve to deal with the unforeseen.
Turnaround PointThe dividing point between penetration gas and exit
gas.
Controlling DiverThe diver with the least actual starting gas volume.
Note that this is not necessarily the same as having the lowest starting gas
pressure, when using cylinders of different capacities.
When team members use identical cylinders, determining a gas turnaround
point is relatively easy. This is due, in part, to the fact that when team members use cylinders of identical capacity, identical pressure gauge readings
also represent identical volumes.
Here are the basic steps that team members using identical cylinders
would follow to determine the safest possible turnaround points. Note that
this procedure is the same, regardless of whether team members have identical, or different starting pressures.
Identify the controlling diver(s)This is the team member (or members)
with the lowest actual starting gas pressure. If all team members have the
same starting pressure, they are allin essencethe controlling divers.
Determine the penetration gas volumeIf the controlling divers (or
divers) actual starting gas pressure is not a number easily divisible by
three, round down to the next lowest number that is. One third of this
number will represent the penetration gas volume for each team member.
Determine the turnaround point for each team memberEach team
member should deduct the controlling divers penetration gas value from
his or her actual starting pressure. (The controlling diver must remember
to also deduct this number from his or her actual starting pressure and not
the number he or she rounded down to.)
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5. Communication
In this section, we will touch on the key points pertaining to:
Command Signals.
Light Signals.
Hand Signals.
Touch-Contact.
Command Signals
Command signals are ones that every member of the team must respond to
in a certain way. These signals include:
OkayJust
HoldAny
team member can use this signal (a closed fist) to have other
team members stop and hold in place. Once a team member gives this
signal, the other team members must give the hold signal in response to
indicate they understand clearly they are not to move. When the situation
that first caused a team member to initiate the hold signal is resolved,
33
that team member signals okay. At this point, the other team members
respond with okay signals, and the dive continues.
Surface
Light Signals
Light signals are among the easiest and most efficient to use. Commonly
used light signals include:
OkaySimply
move your lights beam around that of fellow team members in a circular motion.
AttentionA slow, wide sweeping light motion.
EmergencyA short, rapid sweeping motion (this signal would most
likely be used only in instances in which the signalling diver was suddenly without a breathing gas supply).
34
Hand Signals
Hand signals involving the use of crossed fingers pertain to the use of
guidelines and reels. As shown in Figure 25, this signal can indicate messages such as reel out, tie off, entanglement and cut the line.
Other common hand signals include:
SiltIndicated
Question?Indicated
BubblesIndicated
Back-up
Which Way?Indicated
by pointing the thumb from side to side, this signal asks, Which way do we go?
Slow
35
Touch-Contact
In situations involving loss of visibility, cavern and cave divers rely on
touch-contact communication when exiting along the guideline. This is
something you will practice extensively on land and in the water. The
instructor will explain further.
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6. Stress Management
Important things to keep in mind regarding the roll of stress in cavern and
cave diving:
Time
pressure, peer pressure and self doubt are all potential causes of
psychological stress.
Cold,
exertion and equipment problems are all potential causes of physiological stress.
A certain
An
Panic
7. Emergency Procedures
Your instructor will discuss emergency procedures as part of the many field
exercises taking place during the course. Among the points he or she will
cover:
In
In
In
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