CONSTRUCTION

Building construction is the process of preparing for

and forming buildings and building systems.
Construction starts with planning, design, and financing
and continues until the structure is ready for occupancy.
Far from being a single activity, large scale
construction is a feat of human multitasking. Normally,
the job is managed by a project manager, and
supervised by a construction manager, design engineer,
construction engineer or project architect. For the
successful execution of a project, effective planning is
essential. Those involved with the design and execution
of the infrastructure in question must consider the
environmental impact of the job, the successful
scheduling, budgeting, construction site safety,
availability and transportation of building materials,
logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by
construction delays and bidding, etc.
Building in this article is used as a noun as "...that
which is built; a structure, edifice...". The distinction
between a building and a non-building structure is not
always clear but is sometimes determined if the
structure has walls or by its size or use. The Oxford
English Dictionary includes that structure may be used
for a large or imposing building.
Construction is a very general term meaning the art and
science to form material or immaterial objects, systems
or organizations, and comes from Latin constructionem
(from com- "together" and struere "to pile up") and Old
French construction. Construction is used as a verb: the
act of building, and a noun: how a building was built,
the nature of its structure.
Construction is often used as a synonym with building
in its verb tense. As a noun, Russell Sturgis
distinguished between architecture as being artistic
structure, where a building is unadorned and can be
"...poor...commonplace, ugly, insufficient, or otherwise
of small importance; "and the use of the word
construction as meaning built using scientific principles
in a highly skillful way.
This article is about building construction. Other
construction topics are covered in many other articles.
Types of construction projects
In general, there are nine types of construction:
1. Residential building construction
2. Light commercial construction
3. Multi-family construction
4. Health-Care construction
5. Environmental construction
6. Industrial construction
7. Commercial building construction
8. Institutional construction
9. Heavy civil construction
Each type of construction project requires a unique
team to plan, design, construct and maintain the project.
Building construction
Building construction is the process of adding structure
to real property or construction of buildings. The vast
majority of building construction jobs are small
renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation
of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as
laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire
project. However, all building construction projects
include some elements in common design, financial,
estimating and legal considerations. Many projects of
varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as
structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation. For
this reason, those with experience in the field make
detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the
project to ensure a positive outcome.
Commercial building construction is procured privately
or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies,
including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price,
traditional, management contracting, construction
management-at-risk, design & build and design-build
bridging.
Residential construction practices, technologies, and
resources must conform to local building authority
regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily
available in the area generally dictate the construction
materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber).
Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per
square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically
based on site conditions, local regulations, economies
of scale (custom designed homes are often more
expensive to build) and the availability of skilled
tradespeople. As residential construction (as well as all
other types of construction) can generate a lot of waste,
careful planning again is needed here.
Residential construction
The most popular method of residential construction in
North America is wood-framed construction. Typical
construction steps for a single-family or small multi-
family house are:
Develop floor plans and obtain government building
approval if necessary
Clear the building site
Pour a foundation with concrete
Build the main load-bearing structure out of thick
pieces of wood and possibly metal I-beams for large
spans with few supports
Add floor and ceiling joists and install subfloor
panels
Cover outer walls and roof in particleboard or
plywood and vapor barrier
Install roof shingles or other covering for flat roof
Cover the walls with siding, typically vinyl or wood,
but possibly stone or other materials
Install windows
Frame out interior walls with wooden 2x4s
Add internal plumbing, HVAC, electrical, and natural
gas utilities
Building inspector visits if necessary to approve
utilities and framing
Install interior drywall panels and fiberglass
insulation to make walls and ceilings
Install bathroom fixtures
Spackle, prime, and paint interior walls and ceilings
Additional tiling on top of drywall for wet areas,
such as the bathroom and kitchen backsplash
Install final floor covering, such as floor tile, carpet,
or wood flooring
Install major appliances
Unless the original owners are building the house,
at this point it is typically sold or rented.
Move in furniture, decor, personal items, and any
appliances not originally supplied
New construction techniques and sustainability
As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent
years, new construction technologies and methods have
emerged. University Construction Management
departments are on the cutting edge of the newest
methods of construction intended to improve efficiency,
performance and reduce construction waste.
New techniques of building construction are being
researched, made possible by advances in 3D printing
technology. In a form of additive building construction,
similar to the additive manufacturing techniques for
manufactured parts, building printing is making it
possible to flexibly construct small commercial
buildings and private habitations in around 20 hours,
with built-in plumbing and electrical facilities, in one
continuous build, using large 3D printers. Working
versions of 3D-printing building technology are already
printing 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) of building material per
hour as of January 2013, with the next-generation
printers capable of 3.5 metres (11 ft) per hour,
sufficient to complete a building in a week. Dutch
architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars's performative
architecture 3D-printed building is scheduled to be built
in 2014.
In the current trend of sustainable construction, the
recent movements of New Urbanism and New Classical
Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards
construction, that appreciates and develops smart
growth, architectural tradition and classical design.
[8][9]

This is in contrast to modernist and short-lived globally
uniform architecture, as well as opposing solitary
housing estates and suburban sprawl. Both trends
started in the 1980s.
Construction processes
Design team
In the modern industrialized world, construction usually
involves the translation of designs into reality. A formal
design team may be assembled to plan the physical
proceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with the
other parts. The design usually consists of drawings and
specifications, usually prepared by a design team
including surveyors, civil engineers, cost engineers (or
quantity surveyors), mechanical engineers, electrical
engineers, structural engineers, fire protection
engineers, planning consultants, architectural
consultants, and archaeological consultants. The design
team is most commonly employed by (i.e. in contract
with) the property owner. Under this system, once the
design is completed by the design team, a number of
construction companies or construction management
companies may then be asked to make a bid for the
work, either based directly on the design, or on the
basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a
quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the
owner will typically award a contract to the most cost
efficient bidder.
The modern trend in design is toward integration of
previously separated specialties, especially among large
firms. In the past, architects, interior designers,
engineers, developers, construction managers, and
general contractors were more likely to be entirely
separate companies, even in the larger firms. Presently,
a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or
"construction management" firm may have experts
from all related fields as employees, or to have an
associated company that provides each necessary skill.
Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop
shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to
end. This is designated as a "design build" contract
where the contractor is given a performance
specification and must undertake the project from
design to construction, while adhering to the
performance specifications.
Several project structures can assist the owner in this
integration, including design-build, partnering and
construction management. In general, each of these
project structures allows the owner to integrate the
services of architects, interior designers, engineers and
constructors throughout design and construction. In
response, many companies are growing beyond
traditional offerings of design or construction services
alone and are placing more emphasis on establishing
relationships with other necessary participants through
the design-build process.
The increasing complexity of construction projects
creates the need for design professionals trained in all
phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an
appreciation of the building as an advanced
technological system requiring close integration of
many sub-systems and their individual components,
including sustainability. Building engineering is an
emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new
challenge.
Financial advisors
Construction projects can suffer from preventable
financial problems. Underbids ask for too little money
to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when
the present amount of funding cannot cover the current
costs for labour and materials, and because they are a
matter of having sufficient funds at a specific time, can
arise even when the overall total is enough. Fraud is a
problem in many fields, but is notoriously prevalent in
the construction field
[citation needed]
. Financial planning for
the project is intended to ensure that a solid plan with
adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place
before the project is started and is required to ensure
that the plan is properly executed over the life of the
project.
Mortgage bankers, accountants, and cost engineers are
likely participants in creating an overall plan for the
financial management of the building construction
project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly
likely, even in relatively small projects since the
owner's equity in the property is the most obvious
source of funding for a building project. Accountants
act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of
the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the
process. Cost engineers and estimators apply expertise
to relate the work and materials involved to a proper
valuation. Cost overruns with government projects have
occurred when the contractor was able to identify
change orders or changes in the project resulting in
large increases in cost, which are not subject to
competition by other firms as they have already been
eliminated from consideration after the initial bid.
Large projects can involve highly complex financial
plans and often start with a conceptual estimate
performed by a building estimator. As portions of a
project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting
one lender or owner for another, while the logistical
requirements of having the right trades and materials
available for each stage of the building construction
project carries forward. In many English-speaking
countries, but not the United States, projects typically
use quantity surveyors.
Legal aspects
A construction project must fit into the legal framework
governing the property. These include governmental
regulations on the use of property, and obligations that
are created in the process of construction.
The project must adhere to zoning and building code
requirements. Constructing a project that fails to adhere
to codes will not benefit the owner. Some legal
requirements come from malum in se considerations, or
the desire to prevent things that are indisputably bad
bridge collapses or explosions. Other legal
requirements come from malum prohibitum
considerations, or things that are a matter of custom or
expectation, such as isolating businesses to a business
district and residences to a residential district. An
attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law
governing the land where the building will be built,
either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable (the bridge
design will not collapse), or that the custom is no longer
needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in
the community).
A construction project is a complex net of contracts and
other legal obligations, each of which must be carefully
considered. A contract is the exchange of a set of
obligations between two or more parties, but it is not so
simple a matter as trying to get the other side to agree to
as much as possible in exchange for as little as possible.
The time element in construction means that a delay
costs money, and in cases of bottlenecks, the delay can
be extremely expensive. Thus, the contracts must be
designed to ensure that each side is capable of
performing the obligations set out. Contracts that set
out clear expectations and clear paths to accomplishing
those expectations are far more likely to result in the
project flowing smoothly, whereas poorly drafted
contracts lead to confusion and collapse.
Legal advisors in the beginning of a construction
project seek to identify ambiguities and other potential
sources of trouble in the contract structure, and to
present options for preventing problems. Throughout
the process of the project, they work to avoid and
resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer
facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the
reality of the project.
Interaction of expertise
Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and
interrelate. The design must be not only structurally
sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must
also be financially possible to build, and legal to use.
The financial structure must accommodate the need for
building the design provided, and must pay amounts
that are legally owed. The legal structure must integrate
the design into the surrounding legal framework, and
enforce the financial consequences of the construction
process.
Procurement
Procurement describes the merging of activities
undertaken by the client to obtain a building. There are
many different methods of construction procurement;
however the three most common types of procurement
are:
1. Traditional (design-bid-build)
2. Design and build
3. Management contracting
There is also a growing number of new forms of
procurement that involve relationship contracting where
the emphasis is on a co-operative relationship between
the principal and contractor and other stakeholders
within a construction project. New forms include
partnering such as Public-Private Partnering (PPPs) aka
private finance initiatives (PFIs) and alliances such as
"pure" or "project" alliances and "impure" or "strategic"
alliances. The focus on co-operation is to ameliorate the
many problems that arise from the often highly
competitive and adversarial practices within the
construction industry.
Traditional
This is the most common method of construction
procurement and is well established and recognized. In
this arrangement, the architect or engineer acts as the
project coordinator. His or her role is to design the
works, prepare the specifications and produce
construction drawings, administer the contract, tender
the works, and manage the works from inception to
completion. There are direct contractual links between
the architect's client and the main contractor. Any
subcontractor will have a direct contractual relationship
with the main contractor.
Design and buildThis approach has become more
common in recent years, and involves the client
contracting a single entity to both provide a design
and to build that design. In some cases, the Design and
Build (D & B) package can also include finding the site,
arranging funding and applying for all necessary
statutory consents.
The owner produces a list of requirements for a project,
giving an overall view of the project's goals. Several
D&B contractors present different ideas about how to
accomplish these goals. The owner selects the ideas he
or she likes best and hires the appropriate contractor.
Often, it is not just one contractor, but a consortium of
several contractors working together. Once a contractor
(or a consortium/consortia) has been hired, they begin
building the first phase of the project. As they build
phase 1, they design phase 2. This is in contrast to a
design-bid-build contract, where the project is
completely designed by the owner, then bid on, then
completed.
Kent Hansen pointed out that state departments of
transportation (DOTs) usually use design build
contracts as a way of getting projects done when states
don't have the resources. In DOTs, design build
contracts are usually used for very large projects.
[12]

Management procurement systems
Main article: Construction management
In this arrangement the client plays an active role in the
procurement system by entering into separate contracts
with the designer (architect or engineer), the
construction manager, and individual trade contractors.
The client takes on the contractual role, while the
construction or project manager provides the active role
of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring
that they complete all work smoothly and effectively
together.
Management procurement systems are often used to
speed up the procurement processes, allow the client
greater flexibility in design variation throughout the
contract, give the ability to appoint individual work
contractors, separate contractual responsibility on each
individual throughout the contract, and to provide
greater client control.
Authority having jurisdiction
In construction, the authority having jurisdiction
(AHJ) is the governmental agency or sub-agency which
regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is
the municipality in which the building is located.
However, construction performed for supra-municipal
authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning
authority, which becomes the AHJ.
Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are
typically required to verify and have existing utility
lines marked, either by the utilities themselves or
through a company specializing in such services. This
lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing
electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities,
which could cause outages and potentially hazardous
situations. During the construction of a building, the
municipal building inspector inspects the building
periodically to ensure that the construction adheres to
the approved plans and the local building code. Once
construction is complete and a final inspection has been
passed, an occupancy permit may be issued.
An operating building must remain in compliance with
the fire code. The fire code is enforced by the local fire
department.
Changes made to a building that affect safety, including
its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire
protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ
for review concerning the building code.
Industry characteristics
In the United States, the industry has around $850
billion in annual revenue according to statistics tracked
by the Census Bureau, with an $857 billion annual rate
in March 2013, of which $600 billion is private (split
evenly between residential and nonresidential) and the
remainder is government. As of 2005, there were about
667,000 firms employing 1 million contractors
(200,000 general contractors, 38,000 heavy, and
432,000 specialty); the average contractor employed
fewer than 10 employees. As a whole, the industry
employed an estimated 5.8 million as of April 2013,
with a 13.2% unemployment rate.
Careers
There are many routes to the different careers within
the construction industry. These three main tiers are
based on educational background and training, which
vary by country:
Unskilled and semi-skilled General site labor with
little or no construction qualifications.
Skilled Tradesmen who've served apprenticeships,
typically in labor unions, and on-site managers who
possess extensive knowledge and experience in
their craft or profession.
Technical and management Personnel with the
greatest educational qualifications, usually graduate
degrees, trained to design, manage and instruct the
construction process.
Skilled occupations include carpenters, electricians,
plumbers, ironworkers, masons, and many other manual
crafts, as well as those involved in project management.
In the UK these require further education qualifications,
often in vocational subject areas. These qualifications
are either obtained directly after the completion of
compulsory education or through "on the job"
apprenticeship training.
[16]
In the UK, 8500
construction-related apprenticeships were commenced
in 2007.
[17]

Technical and specialized occupations require more
training as a greater technical knowledge is required.
These professions also hold more legal responsibility. A
short list of the main careers with an outline of the
educational requirements are given below:
Quantity surveyor Typically holds a master's
degree in quantity surveying. Chartered status is
gained from the Royal Institution of Chartered
Surveyors.
Architect Typically holds 1, undergraduate 3 year
degree in architecture + 1, post-graduate 2 year
degree (DipArch or BArch) in architecture plus 24
months experience within the industry. To use the
title "architect" the individual must be registered on
the Architects Registration Board register of
Architects.
Civil engineer Typically holds a degree in a related
subject. The Chartered Engineer qualification is
controlled by the Engineering Council, and is often
achieved through membership of the Institution of
Civil Engineers. A new university graduate must
hold a master's degree to become chartered;
persons with bachelor's degrees may become an
Incorporated Engineer.
Building services engineer Often referred to as an
"M&E Engineer" typically holds a degree in
mechanical or electrical engineering. Chartered
Engineer status is governed by the Engineering
Council, mainly through the Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers.
Project manager Typically holds a 4-year or
greater higher education qualification, but are often
also qualified in another field such as quantity
surveying or civil engineering.
Structural engineer Typically holds a bachelor's or
master's degree in structural engineering. A P.ENG
is required from the Professional Engineers Ontario
(Canada). New university graduates must hold a
master's degree to gain chartered status from the
Engineering Council, mainly through the Institution
of Structural Engineers (UK).
Civil Estimators are professionals who typically have
a background in civil engineering, construction
project management, or construction supervision.
In 2010 a salary survey revealed the differences in
remuneration between different roles, sectors and
locations in the construction and built environment
industry. The results showed that areas of particularly
strong growth in the construction industry, such as the
Middle East, yield higher average salaries than in the
UK for example. The average earning for a professional
in the construction industry in the Middle East, across
all sectors, job types and levels of experience, is
42,090, compared to 26,719 in the UK. This trend is
not necessarily due to the fact that more affluent roles
are available, however, as architects with 14 or more
years experience working in the Middle East earn on
average 43,389 per annum, compared to 40,000 in
the UK. Some construction workers in the US/Canada
have made more than $100,000 annually, depending on
their trade.
Safety
Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations
in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than
any other sector in both the United States and in the
European Union. In 2009, the fatal occupational injury
rate among construction workers in the United States
was nearly three times that for all workers. Falls are one
of the most common causes of fatal and non-fatal
injuries among construction workers. Proper safety
equipment such as harnesses and guardrails and
procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting
scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries
in the construction industry. Other major causes of
fatalities in the construction industry include
electrocution, transportation accidents, and trench cave-
ins.
History
The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or
with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze
Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers
and carpenters, appeared. Occasionally, slaves were
used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, these
were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-
powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and
electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators
and bulldozers.
Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in
the 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of
construction projects are now fast-track construction.
[25]

Construction phases
Vision/fantasy/idea - a concept never intended to
be built, may be an aesthetic or structural design
exercise
Proposed - a building concept that is under review
by a government
Approved - a building concept that will be
constructed in the near future
Deferred - a building concept that may be
constructed in the far future
Cancelled - a building concept that usually has lost
funding or support, in some cases construction
already started
Under-construction - a fully designed building
currently being built
Topped-out - a fully designed building that has
reached its highest point
Complete/built - a fully designed building that has
been fully built, excluding future expansions
Outline of construction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
See also: Index of construction articles
The following outline is provided as an overview of and
topical guide to construction:
Construction process of building or assembling
infrastructure. A complex activity, large scale
construction involves extensive multitasking. Normally,
a job is managed by a project manager, and supervised
by a construction manager, design engineer,
construction engineer or project architect.
Contents
1 Essence of construction
2 Types of construction
3 History of construction
4 General construction concepts
o 4.1 Components of a building
o 4.2 Design elements of a building
o 4.3 Heavy construction projects
4.3.1 Heavy equipment
5 Construction lists
6 See also
7 External links
Essence of construction
Building
House
Nonbuilding structures including infrastructure
Types of construction
Building construction
o Home construction
o High-rise construction
o Industrial construction
Factories
Refineries
etc.
Heavy/Road construction
History of construction
Main article: History of construction
History of architecture
History of the civil engineering profession
History of the science of civil engineering
History of structural engineering
Vernacular architecture
General construction concepts
Architecture
Architectural engineering
Blueprint
Building code
Building material
Civil engineering
Construction and demolition waste
Construction bidding
Construction engineering
Construction loan
Construction management
Construction site safety
Construction worker
Deconstruction (building)
Design-bid-build
Design-build
Fire safety
Occupancy
Occupational safety
Prefabricated buildings
Project management
Real estate (the product of most construction)
Tools
Zoning
Components of a building
Appliances
Escalator
Electrical wiring
Elevator
Fireplace
o Chimney
Floor
o Flooring
Foundation
Light fixtures
Plumbing
o Plumbing fixtures
Roof
Stairs
Walls
o Doors
o Wallcoverings
o Windows
Design elements of a building
Halls
o Entryway
Rooms
o Bathroom
o Bedroom
o Dining room
o Garage
o Kitchen
o Living room
o Utility room
Heavy construction projects
Bridge
Highway
Heavy equipment
Engineering vehicle
o Bulldozer
o Excavator
Earthworks (engineering)
Earthworks are engineering works created through the
moving or processing of parts of the earth's surface
involving quantities of soil or unformed rock. The earth
may be moved to another location and formed into a
desired shape for a purpose.
[1]
Much of earthworks
involves machine excavation and fill or backfill.
Types of excavation
Excavation may be classified by type of material:

Topsoil excavation
Earth excavation
Rock excavation
Muck excavation - this usually contains excess
water and unsuitable soil
Unclassified excavation - this is any combination of
material types
Excavation may be classified by the purpose:

Stripping
Roadway excavation
Drainage or structure excavation
Bridge excavation
Channel excavation
Footing excavation
Borrow excavation
Dredge excavation
Civil engineering use
Typical earthworks include roads, railway beds,
causeways, dams, levees, canals, and berms. Other
common earthworks are land grading to reconfigure the
topography of a site, or to stabilize slopes.
Military use
In military engineering, earthworks are, more
specifically, types of fortifications constructed from
soil. Although soil is not very strong, it is cheap enough
that huge quantities can be used, generating formidable
structures. Examples of older earthwork fortifications
include moats, sod walls, motte-and-bailey castles, and
hill forts. Modern examples include trenches and
berms.
Equipment
Heavy construction equipment is usually used due to
the amounts of material to be moved up to millions
of cubic metres. Earthwork construction was
revolutionised by the development of the (Fresno)
scraper and other earth-moving machines such as the
loader, production trucks, the grader, the bulldozer, the
backhoe, and the dragline excavator.
Mass haul planning
Engineers need to concern themselves with issues of
geotechnical engineering (such as soil density and
strength) and with quantity estimation to ensure that
soil volumes in the cuts match those of the fills, while
minimizing the distance of movement. In the past, these
calculations were done by hand using a slide rule and
with methods such as Simpson's rule.
Now they can be performed with a computer and
specialized software, including optimisation on haul
cost and not haul distance (as haul cost is not
proportional to haul distance).