ere students actively become a part of some real-world system and function according

to predetermined roles as members of that group. More important, however, is the

notion that a simulation becomes reality and the "feeling of representivity fades"
(Crookall & Oxford, 1990, p. 15), so much so that the world outside the simulation
becomes, paradoxically, imaginary (see Black, 1995; Jones, 1982, 1985, 1987; Taylor
& Walford, 1978, for a more detailed explanation of the mechanics of simulations).
The innate benefits of simulations include: (a) fulfill students' need for realism---a
desire to "relate to life 'out there' beyond the classroom's box-like walls" (McArthur,
1983, p. 101); (b) increase student (and teacher) motivation, especially for those in
EFL situations who might see English as a deferred need at best (Jones, 1982; Stern,
1980); (c) dismantle the normal teacher-student relationship so that students take
control of their own destiny within the simulation, leading towards "declassrooming"
the classroom (Sharrock & Watson, 1985); (d) help the learner confront and identify
with the target culture (Oxford & Crookall, 1990); (e) reduce anxiety levels which is
essential to language development (Dulay, Burt, & Krashen, 1982; Krashen, 1982);
and (f) allow teachers to monitor the participants progress unobtrusively.
A Link Between Simulations and Language Assessment
As part of this movement, Littlejohn (1990, p. 125) suggests that "the use of
simulations as a testing device is . . . an important development since it should be
possible to replicate the situations in which learners will have to use the language." He
also feels that this kind of replication "allows us to view not only the language product
but also the process by which that language emerged" (p. 125). Whereas standardized
methods give us insight on how the studentmight do in a real setting, "simulations will
show us how the student actually performs" (Littlejohn, p. 128; italics, the author's).
Let's Do Business: A Simulation Model for ESP Classes
Overview. To bridge this gap between simulations and testing, I have developed a
task-based model at Tokyo Foreign Language Business Academy as part of an
ongoing research project to evaluate the effects of simulation techniques in ESP
classes, taking in account the need and desire to measure language proficiency (in this
case, business English) at the intermediate level.
Design. Students are required to participate in a business simulation called "Let's Do
Business" as part of the final evaluation near the end of the second year. This
simulation deals with the rise of a travel agency called Fly Company from its
inception through the research and development of a new sales promotion over a six-
month period (which actually takes place during four consecutive class periods of 90
minutes each). I allocate each student the role of office manager, sales representative,
or office clerk, and they are required to put into full use the language, behavioral, and
business skills they have acquired during the past two years. In this case, I divide
students into four branch offices of the company that are supposedly located in cities
throughout Japan by partitioning the room into four sections, each equipped with a
computer and printer, table and chairs, white board, phone, calculator, and access to a
fax machine.
I make elaborate preparations to fulfill, what Jones (1982, pp. 4-5) terms, the three
essential elements of simulations: (a) Reality of function (participants are assigned
roles and are told they must fully accept them both mentally and behaviorally as if
they were actually those people); (b) simulated environment (a realistic setting
constructed to enhance role-acceptance by utilizing a variety of realia, e.g., in this
case, specially printed business cards, time cards, name tags, letterhead, technical
support including computers and a fax machine, and memorandums); and
(c) structure (the whole action is built around a set of problems or tasks---not invented
by the participants but rather evolve as the action progresses).
The groups are asked in a memorandum from the company president, William
Johnson, to devise a new marketing strategy for domestic travel tours in Japan based
on the results of a comprehensive survey of Japanese consumers' tastes and
preferences. After analyzing the data, participants at each branch discuss their target
market, decide how they are going to promote their services (e.g., television or radio
spot, newspaper advertisement, direct mail, fliers, etc.), communicate their ideas and
progress with the other branches by fax, phone, or mail, and then write and submit a
proposal to the president.
In the end, our main goal is to provide some measure of both the process (how they
approached the task orally in English by reviewing, organizing and weighing
alternatives, deliberating over the information available to them, etc.) and
the product (the proposal they draft demonstrating their English writing, computer,
and reading skills).
Measuring the Process: Performance Checklists, Recordings, and Debriefing
The most challenging step is to evaluate the process. Three techniques that work well
in tandem include a student-generated checklist, video or audio recordings, and a
debriefing session.
1. Job appraisal checklist. One useful assessment tool I use is a student-created job
appraisal checklist (see Appendix A, for one example) that, in reality, serves as a prop
used by employees within this simulation as a way of measuring performance.
Participants fill out this checklist based on whether they feel they fulfilled the duties
as outlined in their job descriptions. The advantages of utilizing such a discovery
approach are: (a) it empowers the participants with the know-how to evaluate their
strengths and weaknesses without the constant feedback from an external evaluator;
(b) its application is not limited to the classroom, but can be used later on the job; and
(c) it satisfies the students' belief that their work should be fairly judged based on a
system they clearly understand rather than be graded, in one of my student's opinion,
"by a subjective scale created at the whims of the teacher."
Because I feel participant-reported responses often lack impartiality, I spend time
training students how to be more objective by putting them in charge of writing the
checklist as part of the regular coursework and then having them view past students
on video engaged in similar business tasks and identifying positive models of the
skills they want to acquire. Then, they practice evaluating each other in short role
plays that resemble situations found in the simulation. At the same time, I take notes,
record my own evaluations, and later discuss how my ratings coincide with those the
students wrote down. My feedback at this point reinforces in their minds the validity
and reliability of their own marks.
At the close of the simulation, the regional manager asks each participant to complete
the job appraisal checklist before a year-end performance interview. The purpose of
the interview, they are told, is to review their progress for possible promotion and pay
raise in the near future. At this point, the simulation ends.
2. Videotaping or tape recording. Recording simulations can serve as a powerful tool
for encouraging self-correction as well as student and/or teacher-initiated feedback.
First, I try to position the camera so it will blend in with the surroundings without
inhibiting students from assuming their roles in a more natural setting. I make sure the
camera has become a regular fixture of the classroom weeks before (or months
through repeated use) I carry out the simulation. By that time, students have accepted
its presence and are not aware of whether it is rolling or not. Also, because four
different meetings are going on simultaneously, I rotate the camera among groups to
ensure that everyone appears on the video.
Furthermore, because tape recorders are always easier to come by and require less
supervision, I set up a recorder in each office to tape the group's discussions. I connect
the machine to a long extension cord and have the play button always on, so that by
just plugging in the cord from outside their office, I can activate the recorder without
participants conscious of when it is going or not.
3. Debriefing. The ultimate success of this simulation hinges on the efficacy of a
wrap-up or debriefing session (together with the self-evaluation checklist and
recordings) where students and the controller can openly discuss behaviors, outcomes,
general language difficulties, and the contextual appropriateness of their language
discourse. Because I, as the controller, do not take part in the simulation, I am able to
look in as an observer without inhibiting students from assuming their roles.
Although there are several different approaches to debriefing (see Bullard, 1992), I
hold a two-hour session the next class period, giving me time to reflect back on the
simulation and organize my comments regarding students' behavioral or linguistic
errors that were most apparent---and giving students a needed respite from such an
intensive experience. Furthermore, as Bullard puts it, "the teacher has the chance to
analyze the errors and to develop strategies for dealing with them at leisure rather than
having to operate on the spur of the moment" (p. 64). Pedagogically speaking, this
break has allowed me to view or listen to the tapes, record my observations, and
prepare follow-up classroom lessons in the form of short role plays to reinforce areas
that need improvement.
One simple technique for using the recordings in the debriefing is to write a checklist
of listening or observation tasks. For example, I give students a checklist of the
expressions studied in class for asking and expressing opinions in business settings,
ask the students to watch the video, and check off the ones they hear, or see (in the
case of certain non-verbal communication, e.g., gestures, facial expressions,
paralanguage, etc.). Then, we come up with a group impression of how well students
did.
What do you think about . . . ?
What's your opinion on . . . ?
If you ask me, . . .
In my opinion, . . .
You're exactly right.
Yeah.
That's how I feel!
I agree.
I don't see it that way.
I don't agree.
I see what you're saying, but . . .
Figure 1: Observation Task Sheet As the debriefing continues, I ask the participants to
look at the remarks they made on the job appraisal form and critique their
performance accordingly, checking to see if their own assessments concur with what
they view on tape.
Measuring the Product: The Proposal The second part of the evaluation deals with
the product: the written proposal. I assign grades by looking at several specific
criteria: (a) layout of the proposal (introduction, rationale, design, etc.), (b) mechanics
(punctuation, spelling, and capitalization as studied in class), (c), content
(organization, depth and breadth of arguments, and presentation of ideas), and (d)
language usage (business terminology). I collect these proposals at the end of the
simulation, and then score and return them. Each member of the group receives the
same grade.
The Final Assessment: Process and Product

Ultimately, I meet with the participants individually to discuss comments and ratings
on the checklist and to look over a copy of their proposal. We compare the results, and
I give a final grade for the whole simulation project based on: (a) the student's own
rating, 50%, (b) my assessment, 25%, and (c) the written proposal, 25%.
Study Design and Results
To determine both the effectiveness of the simulation and the value of the assessment
tools used as viewed by the participants, I administered a short, written questionnaire
comprised of four open-ended questions to 15 students in Japanese (to elicit more
detailed comments), and these responses were then translated into English. [Those
responses of particular interest have been cited here.]
The first question asked students to compare this simulation with other language
activities in their other classes (e.g., dictation, skits, pair work, oral interviews, written
tests, etc.). Eleven of the 15 students (S) regarded this technique more productive than
other exercises they had experienced before:
S3: It [the simulation] was fun because the students were in control of the business
rather than the teacher telling us what we should do next.
S5: It was a useful experience because the parts of the simulation didn't come straight
out of a textbook.
S7: This activity combined what we practiced all year and what we will later need on
the job.
The second question asked students whether they felt they had ample opportunities
within the simulation to practice the skills studied in class:
S2: I like it because the phone conversations were not scripted by the teacher, but
were created by the students out of a real need to communicate.
S11: Each thing we did was related to the next, so I had the chance to try many things
at once.
S15: It simulated the pressures of the real thing and allowed me to see whether I had
mastered my English or not.
The third question focused on whether the skills-assessment methods (checklist,
videotaping, debriefing session, and proposals) were helpful in measuring students'
abilities and provided enough diagnostic feedback to assist them in seeing their
strengths and weaknesses for improvement.
S2: Talking to all the students together at the final meeting was good because I could
see that other students had similar concerns and problems in English, and we could
learn from each other.
S5: The evaluation sheet was useful because it helped me learn how to check my own
ability.
S9: I enjoyed watching the video of the simulation because I could see myself using
English. I always wondered if others could understand what I was saying.
The final question dealt with the overall design of the simulation and asked students
how it could be improved. Of the 15 students, seven suggested no specific changes.
The other eight students recommended modifications in format, timing, role
allocation, and formal feedback. Some of these suggestions include:
S1: The first day was exciting, but as the simulation continued on over several classes,
it lost some of its momentum.
S10: I wish more cultural issues in working with foreign companies would have been
introduced.
S15: It would have been nice if there had been some foreign teachers acting as
members of the staff to motivate and force us to communicate more in English.
Final Reflections
The results of the survey and my own observations have helped me chart a new course
using simulations as the cornerstone of our program. One might question the
plausibility of carrying out such elaborate simulations, considering the limitations of
time and space, for example, while dealing simultaneously with weighty demands of
classroom requirements already. Finding myself under the same constraints, I have
slowly progressed from simple skits, to detailed role plays, to more involved
productions over some time, giving myself time to digest and process this unique
method of teaching and testing while gaining converts along the way. . . and the
reward has encouraged me to push on.
Whatever the obstacles, the comments in the questionnaire have shown me that once
students had tasted the benefits of simulation, their desires to learn improved
considerably. Furthermore, the extent to which the students praised our efforts not
only reflects how radically different this kind of approach still is in Japan, but how
little simulations have permeated into the classroom although they have been the
focus of discussion for many years in teacher-training circles. Finally, the students'
responses seem to mirror the current state of affairs in many language-teaching
settings: traditional methods of assessing oral proficiency do little to prepare the
trainee for the realities and demands of life.
Since initiating the use of simulations as a pedagogical learning and testing tool in the
classroom, my students and I have found a great sense of fulfillment and satisfaction
in taking part in activities that innovative, pragmatic in nature, and fun. What Jones
observed several years ago is just as, if not more, significant today: "The time seems
to be ripe for extending their [simulations] use . . . particularly in the field of language
assessment" (1982, p. 77).
References
Black, M. C. (1995). Entrepreneurial English: Teaching business English through
simulation. English Teaching Forum, 33 (2), 2-9.
Bullard, N. (1992). Briefing and debriefing. In D. Crookall & R. L. Oxford
(Eds.), Simulation, gaming and language learning (pp. 55-66). New York: Newbury
House.
Crookall, D., & Oxford, R. L. (Eds.). (1990). Simulation, gaming, and language
learning. New York: Newbury House. Dulay, H., Burt, M., & Karashen, S.
(1982). Language two. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hughes. A. (1989). Testing for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Jones, K. (1982). Simulations in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Jones, K. (1985). Designing your own simulations. London: Methane.
Jones, K. (1987). Simulations: A handbook for teachers and trainers (2nd ed.). New
York: Nichols Publishing.
Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition.
Oxford: Pergamon.
Littlejohn, A. (1990). Testing: The use of simulation/games as a language testing
device. In D. Crookall & R. L. Oxford (Eds.), Simulation, gaming and language
learning (pp. 125-133). New York: Newbury House.
Littlewood, W. T. (1981). Communicative language teaching: An
introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Madsen, H. (1983). Techniques in testing. New York: Oxford University Press.
McArthur, T. (1983). A foundation course for language teachers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
McClean, J. (1995). Negotiating a spoken-English scheme with Japanese university
students. In J. D. Brown & S. O. Yamashita (Eds.), Language testing in Japan (pp.
136-148). Tokyo: The Japan Association for Language Teaching.
Onoda, S. (1995, September 18). Good testing methods a prerequisite for
teaching. The Daily Yomiuri, p. 9.
Oxford, R. (Ed.). (1990). Using and learning language through simulation /
gaming. Newbury Prk, CA: Sage.
Sharrock, W. W., & Watson, D. R. (1985). Reality construction in L2 simulations. In
D. Crookall (Ed.), Simulation applications in L2 education and research. Oxford:
Pergamon.
Stern, S. L. (1980). Drama in second language learning from a psycholinguistic
perspective. Language Learning, 30, 77-97.
Taylor, J. L., & Walford, R. (1978). Learning and the simulation game. Milton
Keynes: Open University Press.
Appendix A: Student-Generated Checklist
This assessment is based on the list of responsibilities and skills needed as a member
of Fly Company. Use the following list to judge your own abilities and write other
comments.
3 = Well done 2 = Fair - Needs improvement 1 = Unable to finish the work
satisfactorily
1. I can use the computer to write letters/faxes/memos: . . . . 3 2 1
(format, addresses, punctuation, spelling, greetings and closings, envelope format, fax
layout, abbreviations, speed, etc.)
_____________________________________________________________________
2. I am able to answer the phone and take messages in English: . . . . 3 2 1
(answering the phone, asking for additional information, recording message correctly,
responding quickly, etc.)
_____________________________________________________________________
3. I work well with other employees in the office: . . . . 3 2 1
(helping others as a team and eager to do extra work when needed, etc.)
_____________________________________________________________________
4. I am able to express my opinions clearly on important decisions: . . . . . 3 2 1
(agreeing, disagreeing, persuading, asking questions, etc.)
_____________________________________________________________________
_
5. I complete my assigned work on time: . . . . . . . . 3 2 1
_____________________________________________________________________
_
6. I come to work on time: . . . . . . . . . 3 2 1
__________________________ _____________________ _____________________
Employee's Signature Position Date
_________________________ ______________________ _____________________
Employer's Signature Position Date

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