ANHB 2215 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM

Questions asked about human variation:

1) to what extend human norms follow the pattern of other vertebrates
mammals and primates helps understand causation
2) observable variation within homo sapiens follow the general patterns of
variation derived frm interspecific studies of mammals
3) how development reflects and interact with environment to cause
variation in adults phenotypes
4) how culture reflects on adaptation in the same sense that other
features of morphology or behaviour are adaptive
5) most variation is plastic why or what are the evolutionary pressures
that select for plasticity?

Explaining variation
Life history evolution
Genes
Ecology constraints and opportunities in varying environments relative
to organism characteristics
Development change of individual organism over time
Culture transfer of acquired info from 1 organism to another

Scientific Method: process
First observe than formulate a hypothesis next test it through
observation of natural variation which in return u would rule out the
hypotheses if it counter indicates and reformulate a new hypothesis.

Review
Natural selection
Kin Selection
Hamiltons rule
Sexual selection
Population
Force of Selection
Genotype &Phenotype
Human as Primates
Basic Genetics
Ultimate and Proximate Explanations

Macro-Evolutionary Patterns
These pattern will help us through comparative studies to understand the
patterns of adaptation to various kinds of environments. Like those of:
Bergmans rule body size and temperature
Allens Rule appendage size and temperature

Life History 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Understand evolution of life history
Review
There are 2 levels of explanation
Level 1 explanation
Proximate level of explanation tell you how something would work
within the life time the organismsthe how and what qns. How organism
develops, how it stimulates and what effect it produces
Ultimate level of explanation after proximate you have to jump straight
to ultimate level which is about the advantages of survival and
reproduction. Fitness issues.

Natural Selection
Only directional mechanism, when we mean directional mechanism we
mean a change that takes generations.
No foresight.
But we can see a pattern from generation to generation. Because it has to
do with reproduction.
Change in freq of genotype would result because of the variation of their
phenotype to produce surviving offspring in a particular environment.
Genotype change so phenotype will change so offspring can
survive in new environment.

Natural selection requires:
Variation ( no individuals are same)
Heritability ( H = og/og+oe)
Competition ( no equal success in acquiring energy, no
competition over population)
Differential replication (some individual better able to reproduce
than others)

Population Characteristics
Its about 1 geneotype which is similar in the population and
there is a variability in genotypes among the members of the
population
Differential mortality different individual die at different ages
Differential fertility within populations different women fertility
rate and success
Population changes from generation to generation, its nature of
the population.

Adaptation is a process how a population is changing as certain
phenotypic traits changes to suit the environment and become more freq
in the population.
Generation by generation change result in more efficient use of
environment by individuals due to change in phenotype.
An adaptation outcome of the process that allows a
species to increase its survival rate in a particular environment.
Either through N.S. or immediate adaptation within a lifetime of
individual.

Population shift
You have a directional selection whereby generation 2 moves away to
the higher end of the scale from generation 1
You have a Disruptive selection whereby you either have a higher low
end and a higher high end, being in the middle of the graph is not ideal
by generation 2 u have a 2 bell curves,
Stabilizing selection over a long period of adaptation and a trait is well
adapted to the environment. Majority has that match of trait, you have
some who have a low end of trait or high trait due to mutation. More
stable environment organism lives in, the more stable more of the trait
becomes as its been living on that environment for a long time.

Competition: physics and fitness
All survival, growth and reproduction need energy
Energy is limited in some way and a source of competition
Principle of allocation: very critical, its the resources being allocated to
one consumptive process cannot be used for another so wen u r
growing energy is used for growth and when you start reproducing,
energy would shift to reproduction and limits at growth.
For everything an animal does there will be a cost, leading him to be
unable to do something, too much time spent for growing leads him to
have lesser time to reproduce, either by being killed or something else
happens.
Allocated to what process and when?
Too long energy is placed in growth, than there will be a cost faced, might
end up killed before reproduction

Pie chart if u look at it, if u have a bigger unit of growth, ur
reproduction becomes smaller, and if u have a smaller growth,
reproduction is more larger,
Small body, will end up being easy to get preyed on, need a big bang on
reproduction.
Low growth and low maintencance high mortality.

Reproductive success and fitness
RS number of offspring produced by individuals
Fitness measure of contribution to the next generation of 1 genotype in
a population relative to the contributions of other genotypes within the
population
Fitness is whereby the individuals RS to population
So if u have 2 children and population average is 3, ur fitness is
low.

Mammalian & Primate Life History Pattern 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Life history
It is about our time from conception to death, happens in a
particular time.
How long does each mammal spends in each category.

Bigger animals live longer, animals that are bigger mature slower, they
live longer after growing, so that means reproduction period is longer.

LG Adult life span

Observed Allometry
Big animals not enlarged versions
Y=alpha x Xbeta equals to Log Y = log a + Beta log X intercept +
slope
Beta = 1 y will increase proportionately to X and if beta is more than 1 y
increase slowly and is less than 1 y will increase more faster than x

Life history
The trade off btw energy uses of patterns followed
There are some groups with higher energy patterns and others with lower
patterns
And that differences would be due to the selective pressure.
Within the phylogenetic constraints which is referring to what is normal in
a species, normal range of response, there is some plasticity in response
to environmental variation (grow slowly because not enough food to give
energy).
Can we use the kind of variation in human among and/or within
population by those same environmental condition?
Because than we can use them to understand

Correlation of mammals life history traits after controlling for
body mass
More time in gestation, more time nursing, more time as dependant
juvenile and longer time as adults
Trade off lesser babies and if u have twins, the child is smaller,

Patterns of parental investment relative to mammalian relative adult
longevity
Energy put into a particular young is related to adults life span,
Longer life span would mean it will have small litter size than u
will compare its body size
Longer post weaning immature period than we
longer lactation period beyond comparing body size.

Importance of Age at Sexual Maturity
Most impt aspect of life, as its the end of growth, 1
st

opportunities to replicate,
o If its late more chances of replication and early lesser
chances of replication as mortality is early.
o High juvenile mortality will be strong selection pressure for
lower age at maturity and larger littler sizes.
o Age of reproduction will decline wen adult mortality
happens at younger age, as in before they can also
reproduce this is through selective pressure.

Smallness result of lack of time to grow
Small because takes time to grow, too much time invest in growing leads
them ending up mortal before they can reproduce.

Primate Gestation and Lactation
Primates that spend more time in gestation would spend more time
lactating. Where after birth it needs more time to be cared for by its
parents. In gestation, there will not be much variability in a populating
but in lactation in a population and between individuals there will be
difference. reasons

Primate Lactation and Juvenile
Able to get a bit of food, but needs protection from parent. Amt time
lactating can explain 40% of their juvenile time being dependent.

Primate Juvenile and Adult Span
Graphs looks like a cloud and it has more variation
Gorilla short adult lifespan longer time as juvenile will mean trade
off as an adult. There is a strong against nautral selection
The graph has a weak relationship and variation

Primate Body and litter size
Primates have small number of litters, usually most is 2 and if its 3 they
are called daubentoniodiea, primates that are evolved early and have
their retains the charactertics of ancestors forms

Anthropoid primates life history character
Singleton litter
Delayed maturity dependent on parents for a longer time
More social
Long life span
Larger brains


Sex 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Male needs to grow faster principle of allocation

Male produce smaller gametes n female produce larger

Lactation more energy
Sex Differences 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Its father who determines the gender of the offspring
Approx. during the 7
th
week when the embroyo is developing, it also
determines the amount of development for masculine. There is a small bit
of the Y chromosome which is called the Sry gene that starts to express.
It results in the atrophy of mullerian ducts that relates to the ovaries and
develops of the wolffian ducts slightly differently into seminal vessicles.
That than releases the low level of androgens. The low level of androgen
affects the brains in very early stages, organisational sex differences. It
actuals affects how the brain would be structured biochemically (male
brain diff from female brain) differences in the brains that are
constructed biochemically.
Without an SRY mammals will be female. if they dont have SRY to
influence androgens

So in other words, SRY gene stops the development of the
mullerian duct and develops the wolffian duct into male
reproductive structure.
Opp for birds.

Adrogen effects
Organizational affects structural developments during physical
and physiological developments this shows up in pre-pubertal
as sex differences androgen effects in growth pattern this is
happens in utero effects of androgen presences causing baby to
develop and have sex differences
Activational there are other effects that show up in puberty
testes producing more androgens and (female)estrogen this is
during puberty when androgen presences again shows active sex
differences with hormonal input.

Pre-hormonal sex differences

Caveat
We are a product of genes and development, there is a large amt
of variation in degrees of androgen effects.
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia production of high amount of
androgen causing genetically girls to be more masculine to a
various degree. shows early in childhood
Can happen in males whereby the androgen receptor has
problems thus feminize genetic male. androgen analog blocks
receptor blocking the androgens causing male to be more
feminize.

Human sex differences

Mammalian males & female
Female invest more time in offspring and so increase fitness
more by obtaining better quality mates immunity or masculine
more energy goes to looking after their offspring, so they can
increase their fitness by obtaining better quality mate, define
quality in different ways and also differs by species could be
genetically quality or immunity function or find mates to defend
her from other mates or defend her offsprings.
Males invest less in offspring an so usually increase their fitness
more by obtaining greater number of mates have more small
sperms they dont have problems with internal fertilisation, no
lactation or gestation. Again human male are different as they
directly or indirectly help in the offspring. invest less in offspring,
so they increase fitness by having more mates. So there are
selection pressure but its different in pressure, though they have
to compete to get the female as they dont have to spend much
time with the offspring they can find more mates.

Sexual selection
Definition Increase individual fitness(evolution fitness) through
obtaining larger number of mates or better quality mates
o Though females would prefer better quality over more
number as once she is pregnant she cant get more
pregnant.
Intrasexual selection competition members of same sex
compete with each other to gain access to opp sex gametes in
mammals males compete for females before mating or for
insemination after
o 1 male 1 female society how does it change the
competition where the male mates with the female and
spends most of his time with her so now the female has
to compete for high quality males as there is a delay,
males are more discerning
Intersexual selection mate selection members of one sex
have preference for som triat of the opp sex and are more
accepting to mate with those with the preferred trait.
o Selection acts like natural selection competing for good
mates.
Different selection pressures acting on 2 sexes of 1 species

Anisogamy unequal gametes, and than it ramifies into bigger issues of
whose taking care of the kids. differentiation of gametes
Developmental mechanism vary among individuals, it moderates the
variation in feminization and masculination so that when we go out we
can see that the product produce is based on genes and development of
the environment.
Cultures able to distinguish male frm females through clothing. Cluture
elaborate sex differences

Many human sex differences can be explained ultimately through natural
selection or sexual selection
Differ due to NS reproductive organs, genitalia form and
breast development
o Ppl think that breast evolve because male likes breast, but
how likely is that, when u have all this internal gestation,
and than u need lactating, u need mammary tissue, why so
few species have mammary tissues? This is because it is
cheaper in energy to maintain mammary tissues. Because
it would consume a lot of energy during lactation, to build
tissues and start making milk, every time the female has a
child. In the hunters gathers life time, breast formation is
made easier as they have to lactate 3 to 4years straight
with every child they have, btw the age of 18 to 40.
o Fat deposition patterns in female, it is a healthier fat,
which has a different way of metabolising. Less toxic,
different fats from what we have around our other organ.
Its through NS and it actually helps woman in the success
of giving birth and having the lactating energy.
o Vocal differences(dont know) verbal differences not so
sure, female have a softer voice for talking to babies or is
it because female talk a lot to females thus adopting so.
o Spatial skills male has better than female because
female spends time pregnant with children and lactating
while male hunts for food not sure too.
Diifer due to SS
o muscular mass is to compete for the female
o body size differences is for competition physically
competition popular in primate world doesnt mean
its a adaptation.
o canine dimorphism a male being larger than female,
male being bigger is due to male male competition.
o waist to hip .7 is the preferences for male because they
just feel 1 is better than the other. Female did it before
because its for giving birth. What does it tell a male
female being at her fertile period of her life and will have a
successful pregnancy and lactation. Its a subconscious
preferences a NS that became SS
o strange male preferences?? Sometimes good sometimes
not so good, some interest where females likes a new male
who jus entered a group
o Facial hair in a group of male male competition, they
tend to have heavy skin and a lot of hair in the neck
region. Its a defence for them, or is it jus something that
female get attracted.
o Breasts? Its something that its NS rather than SS

90% of cultures allocate jobs that has a lot of physical and risk to males
so as woman doesnt have to do these sort of jobs. If woman do such
jobs, it might affect the chances of having babies. If the chances of
having babies reduces, the culture will die off. So culture has to replicate
itself through children.

75% cultures only allow females to preform water carrying, cooking and
grain grinding. Very independent sample, the cultures dont live next
door. Doesnt relate to hunters gathers as they dont usually for water.

Culture Core & Forgers 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
demography scientific study of human populations, esp with reference
to their size, structure, and distribution social statistics of birth, death,
immigration and emigration
Ecology concerned about the spacing and interdependence of ppl and
institution what size population can be supported (k = carrying
capacity)
This population is determined by the birth and death it gives the
rate of increase
Immigration and emigration would be rather considered small or
proportion

Foragers & Horticulturalists 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
different types of foragers
1) !Kung
2) Ache
3) Yanomamo
suppose to look at the intervals of the babies and level of resources
general pattern of foragers

foragers have low TFR (total fertility rate)
Foragers has low fertility because they have long birth interval 3 to
4yrs of birth for physiological reasons when a baby on demand,
turns its head and seeks for milk, there is a physiological mechanism that
reduces the chance of ovulation prolongs birth interval

Infanticide takes place in foragers not due to sex biases but due to
resources whereby new baby challenges the survival of the baby on the
ground. Female Commits infanticide to the new infants. Reason for that, if
they feed the new infants when its still a risk for the older one they have
to face all the same sources of mortality of the new infant that the older
one has bypass successfully. If they have a baby when the older child still
depends on the mother, they would have to kill the baby to allow the
older to survive. As it would consume more energy to care of both babies
who depend on the mother. From a fitness perspective, if the mother has
to chew food to feed the older one and has a newer child on its way, it
will challenge the food source of the older one. the selection to focus ur
investment on the older one and reduces the investment of the new one.
Birth interval infanticide
If the interval of birth is too close it will reduce the survival of the
children.

Horticulturalist have high mortality and high fertility.
Live till 20yrs old can live till 60yrs old

Kung San serial monogamy and some polygyny, they can break up.
Live in small bands and seasonal aggregation
They arent productive as in hunting till adulthood like us.

Inuit having animal skin shelter

Foragers have marriages that they individual decide so them being
monogamy and polygyny depends solely on themselves then their
institution most of them are monogamy

Knowledge economy Ache men are able to hunt paca(animal) at the
average age of 36, Armadilo at the age 38 and monkeys at 49. Its not as
though they can find their preys at young adulthood. It takes a long time
to look for prey and use their technology.

Female consumption more than their production btw ages 18 to 45years
old because of their pregnancy period during those time. And than their
production becomes more than consumption. More females live till old
age than male.
It can be seen in the graph as the male would have a huge production
btw 15 till around 50 where it starts declining and around 60 it reduces till
the production is lesser than consumption if they live till old age.
As you live in a social group, you probably have a lot of surplus and can
look after other individuals.

Hadza women
Post reproductive female are producing more than reproductive more
Post reproductive women lose weight more during the dry season than
reproductive women paying a bigger cost this is wat they pay for
subsiding their reproductive cause in an earlier stage of life.
Post reproductive women forage longer, bringing back more food and eat
less of their product, during the dry season thus losing more weight.
Social groping and ability to bring back more food supports life history
supports social groups

Small band structure is where they support low densitiy and requires
movement
They dont like large groups
Bands are semi independent related like if u leave a group because u
are having a fight with ur group, u can change to other groups which has
ur bro or sister. U need to be related to the group to join u need to
produce to join them
Bilateral kinship there is groups of mother side and fathers side, so u
can change to either side when u want to. Its handy as u have more
groups u can change into when u have a fight with ur own like ur
fathers side groups or mothers side group.

Very little stratification no getting to headman through heriditiy its got
to be by vote

Socialization of children relaxed way of developing children, dont let
them do things till u think they have sense of their own. no expectation
All the womens know the plants on their own and fathers know the arrows
on their own, very little trained.
Cooperation for large prey and food is shared

Resources are limited so

Environment is impt for social organisation the better the environment
the more settled they get, will have social status and be more elaborated
with their materials like hats and clothes. Will have storage places as well.

Horticulturalist societies
150 thousands years ago how humans were as foragers to how they are
as horticulturalist
shivaro settlement in the south America, they live in a circular open space
horticultural can be found in tropical environment where by the soils are
poor and have deforestation where they cut and burn to grow plants they
want.
Cut and burn to help rich the soils for short term of time, when the plants
grow.
They do this for a few years till they move to another settlement where
they start their living again. But now space is being limited,
Proximity to water
Ring like structure is defensive organised warfare.
Horticulture means cultivators of endemic plants often transitional with
foragers they will be cultivating plants and hunting animals transitional
with technology no cultivating gain crops but eat maze high diversity
in diet they work more hours than foragers why shift from less work
to more works? More labour diversity (male clear forest and females plant
while male hunt)

Live in settlement where gardens are in central villages and move wen
land depletes or pest or neighbour too annoying so around 5 to 15yrs in 1
place. More ppl per sq km with permanent housing.
They have a place where ppl know they r there, their women are there
and food is there. So they become a target. As a consequence of being
settled and having richer resources and larger group, we start seeing
warefare.

As population increase there is this pressure to produce more calories
Horticultures have more consistent food soruces for calories even though
they have to work harder to get it.

Machiguenga wen through a transition of foragers to horticultures they
watch what they brought in which was the manioc and maize, these are
consistent calories. they responds to protein through they have bulks of
calories from manioc and maize. Calories is a horticultural behaviour but
the limiting factor is the protein. That jus suggest that u dont settle down
and grow manioc and maize because you want to. Either protein declines
so u need calories or population increase so u need calories

Impt changes in population processes
Increase in fertility
There is decrease interbirth interval as mothers dont need to
walk long distances anymore she just does plantation, she can
leave the child with older sibling
Less mobility, not much energy consumed
More weaning food (sweet potato) available u have a gardens
with weaning food like sweet potato, u can feed ur older child
and still have a younger
Shorter lactational amennhorea
So with all this physiological reasons u have more babies
Increase in mortality
With an increase density there is and increase in juvenile
mortality
o




2/25/2014 9:31:00 PM
Hunters
Share food labor and child care
Cooperation is impt
Move every 4 to 6weeks
Give favourite food like honey to see how they share food fairly
among themselves.
they create social network to prevent conflicts there is female
social network and male social network with other camps
polyandrous marriage male related to each other as they marry same
woman.
Pastoral nomads dont stay around but have animals with them

Pastoralist no agriculture and no hunting jus feed off their own
animals they dont move to exploit new lands/resources, move only
because the resources for their animals deplete unlike haunter gathers
they care for their animals as they live on them
They engage in husbandry easier for animals they herd to reproduce,
they use their animals for transportation as well.
Male centric societies Segmentary lineages brothers and brothers
grp tgt and cousins and their sibling grps tgt when there is competition.
Brothers may compete with each other but will gang up together as a
group against their cousins
Limitations waste accumulation so have to move and pest
accumulations

Pastoralist
Move for seasons
Women more settles
Men sent off to move animals
Use animals for transport and dayage
Social stratification divided by herd size and age
Age class initiation male divided by age, belong to a cohot
Polygyny some males have more wifes or no wifes depends on
population and among of wealth they have for bride wealth
Bride wealth male would exchange cattles for a daughter of another
man
Female circumcision clitoridectomy removing clitoris with knife which
can cause death to women this is to restrict females mate choice
retain their virginity if she doesnt, it will leave her unmarried
(this is a negative approach, causing very high mortality rate to restrict
women from mate choice if they dont do this they wont be
marriageable)

pastoralist not significantly different in fertility rates from non-pastroalist
cultures
their TFR(total fertility rate) is lower but not significantly lower
agriculture significantly higher fertility

Fertility & animal husbandry
Argirculture has a significantly higher fertility
Animal husbandry is negative, is lower but its not significantly
lower than agriculture

Ecological comparisons
Foragers live is a more extreme condition habitat like the desert
and arctic while the horticulturist live in a more Tropical forest
(higher dense compared to the other 2, have animal husbandry
like pigs) and the pastor in high mountains area(lowest dense as
camps are more settled and more like horticulture, live on animal
products like milk and blood they have tolerances to milk
compared to others, wont live in tropical forest as too many
animals to care)

Social Comparisons
The foragers are more egalitarian and are more common in having a
monogamy with a child interbirth interval of 4 to 5 yrs and dividing their
labor ()
The horticul have a common monogamy and polygyny marriage. They
have a stratified social organisation with birth intervals of 2 to 4yrs
dividing their work load btw man and woman equal
The pastoral has a segmentary social organisation and has a common
polygyny marriage(big herd so man will have many wifes than have many
sons, many sons husband animal, many daugthers later bought) with
child birth interval of 2 to 3yrs
Prefer healthier daughters to support giving birth better
Able to speed up birth interval as they only consume and have
access to milks
Woman not gg out to herd animals because there are other
younger men out with the animals so they wont want their wife
there, also dont want wives getting hurt frm animals
Wealth is distributed to children only found in pastoral

Agriculture & Environment
Increase cereals grain and husbandry ceral grains
Association in settlement and domesticated of small mammals
Sharp reduction is % of meat in diet
Diseases are easily spread across species

Life history of plants fitss better in temp regions than tropical

Technology
Animals, hydro, fossil fuels power work compensated to human labor
Wheeled dryage loading carts pulled by animals
Irrigation water being moved to plants where its need pulley system
Esther Boserup claims that population density spurs agricultural
technology while others say vice versa

Archaeological data early
Eat lost earlier in life carbs turn to sugar rotting teeth
Dental health of women decline more than man calcium
reduction, they have to provide child nutrients so the
Decline in nutritional quality narrower food range corn no
enough amino acid and rice in protein so if u belong to a certain
grp u happen to decline in the necessity in vit and nutrients
o No complete diet and incomplete proteins

Morbidity & Mortality
High fertility and high mortality
Due to high population concentration or climate diseases start being
introduced like for example malaria causing high death rate and low
fertility standing water, wells and irrigation in agriculture promotes
diseases
See the TFR increasing, but population increases slowly as a lot of ppl esp
children die more ppl die as young

This is because of the diseases due to the climate and population
concentration

Population density
Horticulture higher population density and large settlements
Shorter IBI causes maternal depletion mother might not be ready
body not recovered, not enough nutrients, dont have animal milk like
patrolist. Now because of this women die faster than male. Older and
younger infants also might die as they dont have enough nutrients being
given to them due to the challenging higher death rate

Urbanization know how to make food and surplus amount that know
they start preserving and working for others and building
Thats how productivity increased bringing in more jobs
Land and maritime transport started coming around to supply
food around population

Archaeological data early Agrarian diet
Dental Health declines
With agriculture, dental health declines as there is more caries which is
increased due to carbohydrates carbs turn to sugar which causes teeth
to rot
Dental health of woman decline more than men
A tooth for every child with every child born, woman has to support her
body nutrients and the childs as well, along which she loses more
calcium.
20
th
Century a study was conducted on a pair of twin woman in
Denmark dental care vs number of children more children dental
care worsens
Decline in Nutritional Quality
A healthy diet would be diversity of food
But in an agriculture lifestyle you would have more carbs that
has very little nutritions
Corn no amino acid, rice no protein, millet and wheat no iron
so whichever population you belong that specialises in those
food, end up have that deficiency compared to horticulture and
forgars
Famine is more likely population is growning and not enough
food to care for the amount of ppl end up with monoculture
More ppl die when the plants for what reason fails

Deleterious to Growth
Due to dietary stresses and food shortage childrens bone content reduces
causing them to be shorter or have growth retardation. This would cause
them to have more physiological stress

Agriculture & Industry 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
1) plasticity change associated with mortality
due to allocation
when the number of children declines, its easier to divide resoruces
among them, motivation to have children would decline as well
women becomes willing to have lesser babies for the prospect that the
child will survive

Gender among Agriculturalist
Woman is cut off from productions
Only 15% of hem would be main workers unlike horticultural
societies
Starts becoming a more male dominating culturvation
Could be due to an increase in heavier labor and increase in
number of children do they speperate so they have more kids
or they separate because of kids
Women no longer weening long periods as they consume grains
instead and not much mother milk, birth intervals reduced, so
this makes it tougher for mothers to go out and work as they
have a new born, 2yr old and 5yr old to look after
Female dominate preparation of food and not production of food
In horticulture women was producing so they had a little bit of
exercising power but that changes in agriculture as they dont
produce so the status reduces

Change in status and change in depences is due to the fact that woman is
no longer producing as women excess to resource is through males as
it has gotten limited
In horticulture, though male still dominated the women was still able to
exercise some choice as they were producing themselves.
Culture change is seen as well in agriculture as womens labor is seen as
less value.
You see increased in insularity it varies from place to place but still u
see this larger farms with households on them you will see families
living away from each other. Rather then them living close in the shabono
or in a village and gg away to the farm now household is closer to the
production and further away from each other which means woman are
now insular without any help from others woman now are raising
children alone with not much help
This is now interested as we though earlier humans were meant to be
cooperative breeders we did not evolve from what mothers only take
care of the offsprings but due to too close birth interval now it has
changed

Female sexuality supervised starts off from agriculture whereby
womans are guarded from other males through wearing clothes covering
them fully woman cut off from production and their reproductive nature
is being exaggerated where females are no longer allowed outside of
their household and she is no longer allowed to have face to face
interaction these are variation from societies but just a generalised

Fertility by subsistence
It is positively related to the total fertility rate and it has a
significant relationship. There is a significant change in fertility of
agriculture

Weaning and Subsistence Mode
First step of weaning is the introduction of liquids and second would be
introducing solid foods so this reduces nursing. You dont see a difference
in the agricultural, pastoral and extractive
No control for cultural non independence

Agrarian demographic change
Increase physiological stress , infectious disease, birth rate, maybe
childhood survival

Decrease in nutritional well being, dental health status and adult survival
Population increases but instable a lot more unhealthy ppl compared to
extractive economy

Social organisation
More monogamy but there are particular case where there is extreme
cases of polygamy, in horticular there were some (3 or 4 wifes,
yanamamo a man had 9wives)
As status increase man tend to have more wifes due to this there are
some men with no wives at all

Demographic Transition
Agriculture is the first step, for 8thousand years than undergoes some
changes including social changes moves from kin based social structure
to wealth based structure.
They start owning lands invest in land inheriting lands so its
individual more than a group of brothers who shares
Its through agriculture that development of institutions comes around
thats because agriculture produces all the calories plenty of food
when there is excess you can feed more ppl not everybody needs to
work to feed themselves. thus this makes ppl wanna specialise in areas
we start getting specialisation and growth of structure in specialisation
complex politics
Trade n exchange as u produce in surplus

More extreme stratification whereby the male hierarch is based on their
individual character and allies/ competition they have. It now moves away
form kin-based(not entirely) to wealth based.
males now dominate the means of productions like handling large
animals
more land would mean more production and as it would get inherited
the status which they get out of having more land would also be
inherited.
polygyny though is less overall in some cases is extreme

development of institution political complexity/instability happens in
monoculture and during famines in agriculture specialised groups form
rather than all the male grouping up and fighting these groups either
form to overthrow or maintain peace and stability. Helps maintain the ppl
to do their job

agriculture dont have daughters being traded off for cattles in exchange.
But rather they have dowry(no bride price)
Dowry is resources technically paid to bride and groom to start
off household but often to grooms family
The brides side has to give the dowry often goes to the
grooms family than for the new couple has to start off the
brides family is technically given to take her on india has a
classic dowry system
You get this where the grooms family starts asking for more and
more dowry when they are holding higher status.

as females become lower in social status where they only are used for
food preparation than production

2/25/2014 9:31:00 PM

Genotype and Phenotype 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Genotype
genetic constitution of an individual which was a set of
chromosome inherited from parents

Allele
alternative form of a gene at a specific locus
Homozygote = same allele
Heterozygote = different allele

Phenotype
Traits that are expressed which are determined by
genotype +/- environment
DNA
A biological blueprint
23 choromosone 22 autosomal plus sex chosomes
sugar phosphate backbone
nitrogenous bases ACTG base combination
o Guanine, Adenine = Purines
o Cytosine, and Thymine = Pyrimidines
o A and G CandY are groups share similar structure and
share an exchange btw and within the groups
Humans genome complex is similar to a number of genes found in other
organisms reason why we dont tend to look like them is because of
We have a large number of noncoding DNA
We have regulatory gene expression is involved in the noncoding
DNA

Structure of a Typical Human Gene
Noncoding genes in the front and back end of the gene
Promoters and enhancers that are part of the noncoding genes
Introns and Exon structures are impt in converting genes to
proteins
Exon consist of codons which are made of strings of 3
nuclearitypes bases that codes for amino acids.
And wen you gather the amino acids tgt end up with a protein,
the protein is impt in building specific phenotypes

Central Dogma of Information transfer
1
st
step in DNA replication takes place in the nucleus
DNA gets unwind but the grp of protine called replisome
RNA primase is added by the complimentaru RNA primer to each
templace strand
Transcription process is where DNA information is transferred onto a new
assembled piece of mRNA(unstable molecules). taking a
complementary template of ur genes. Goes out of the nucleus and into
the cytoplasm and ends up
Translation process is where the mRNA will translate its findings on a
ribosome. This translation takes place in the cytomplasm so this mRNA is
transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplase where it can be bound
by ribosomes
It is decoded by tRNA by being connected to a particular amino acids
Order of bases will make up the amino acids that will make up the
proteins

Biological Variation within Species
Genetic variation and how that influences our phenotype
Species with very little genetic variation would be dangerous especially
those with limited variation in their immunity system would cause
pathogens to cause them to be wiped out easily.
We differ from the person next to us by 0.1% at DNA level

Haplomap examine the variation that exist btw us humans
Through genetic variation we are now able to identify diseases
that can come about through our genes we are able to now
protect ourselves.
Full genome information
Personalised medications

Ways of observing genetic variation
Single nucleotide polymorphism single nucleotide change
o Single base insertion or deletion some might have a T
and other might not have it at all, missing that
Microsatellite mutation we have a few base that are repeated
like ATG repeated 10 times. Ppl vary in the number of times that
repeat is repeated. repeat morphis
Higher scale, size of the variation
o Element insertion some of those elment can regulate
gene expression. Someof these are of acient retro viral
ancestry. 20% of our genome are of ancient viral.
Large scale insertion and deletion some might have 1 copy of
a certain gene others could have 2 copies
o If u have 1 cope u produce a certain amount but if u have
2 copies u will produce more. copy number variation
number of diseases that are associated with this
Chromosome number changes is the one that causes the largest
variation in populations
o These are almost always deletious if u do see that its
due to some reduction of fitness happens to remove
genes that are bad
o Doesnt occur as much as SNPs
o If there is a gene thats associated to my fitness and if its
chucked out its gg to be bad.
o Larger differences between genes of ppl would only result
in functional consequences e.g. Chromosomal
translocation, trisomy, monosomy

Single Nucleotide polymorphism
Replication that happens doesnt always make mistakes
and if it does so, If error not corrected/repaired
mutation arises
Change is random and the selection occurs on that variation

Types of point mutations
Synonymous (silent)
no amino acid change TTT (Phe) to TTC (Phe) 1 letter
change and amnio acid remains same
Nonsynonymous
missense (amino acid change) CCT (Pro) to CAT (His)
nonsense (change to termination) TGC (Cys) to TGA
(Stop)

Redundancy in genetic code when at time the 3
rd
base produce a
synonymous change

What do these DNA changes do? DNA changes will lead to either a silent
or a nonsynonymous change which would cause an amino acid change
leading to a protein change in the body.

Haemoglobin Variant
Sickle cell variant a single nucleotide polymorphism can lead to that
variant whereby GAG (glu) changes to a GUG (val) leading to producing
sickle cell production which is fatal. But its been hanging around in the
population. If u have 1 copy of this gene you can survive malaria
What it is trying to say is that, if you have 2 genes passed down
to you with sickle cell variant it is fatal
But if you have jus 1 gene passed down you would survive both
sickle cell and malaria. heterozygous
Other types of changes
Indels
o Copy number variation
o Gene duplication
Starts of with just a new set, over years start
becoming a more dominating gene which can lead to
birth or death of ppl. Another reason for us to be
different from primates.

How else do we get genetic variation
Crossing over during meiosis

Rate of change
Microsatellites faster in mutation/variation in population that it is used in
forensics for DNA profiling.



Mutation and Selection
Mutation Selection balance
Mutation continually produces new genes
o Usually deleterious
Selection tries to remove bad genes
Can allow mildly deleterious mutations to remain in population
1 gene is
o Can provide evidence of heterozygote advantage eg
Malaria/ sickle cell gene

Mutated genes that causes disorder
Monogenic disease going from genotype to phenotype
Simple dominant disease mutation
Partially penetrant dominant disease mutation
o 1 gene that can cause a disease like haemophilia, so you
are a heterozygous carrier but still express the disease
o incomplete penetrance you have the genotype but u
dont express it as a phenotype maybe you dont have
the other genes that helps express it alternatively
Recessive disease mutation
Complex disorders
Involves hundreds of genes to express the diseases like diabetes, includes
environments as well.

Evolutionary Processes Part 1 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Alleles those variation that we look at in the DNA level. The variation
could be SNP, copy number variation, insertion deletion of a certain gene
and etc.

Evolution is a change in the allele frequency over time in a
population
1. Heritable genetic variation essential

2. Change allele frequencies
evolutionary forces
Mutation - Makes variation
most critical as it makes variation. Its random. Mutation is lower. When
Mutation happens in a coding region, it could be deleterious.
Random genetic drift - Deletes variation
sampling error. heavily depends on population size. Influences is small
Gene Flow - Mixes variation
migration, mating that occurs from new ppl entering the population,
making 2 different population similar. It has increased in the past years.
Natural selection - Selects variation
can delete variation if its dangerous or keeps a variation if its useful.

Mutation
Principles of mutation
Creates variation
Makes small changes in allele frequencies
Is a weak evolutionary force
Although mutaton is critical for evolution to occur, as it makes
the variation. But if there is a single variation that happens in a
population that doesnt change the allele frequency very much.
For what is already existing in the population. Thus it is
considered a weak evolutionary force is it happens on its own.
Mutation alone can change freq but only over a long period of time - but
some changes may have a dramatic impact
So from the graph in the lecture, it shows how the frequency of
Big Allele A decreases over time due to mutation.

Random Genetic Drift
Allele frequencies change due to chance like a sampling
error
Direction on is unpredictable because its by chance so its
unpredictable.
Ultimately alleles become lost or fixed (loss more likely for
new allele) variation will be lost if this is the only force that is
occurring. Tend to loss variation within a population. New allele is more
likely to be lost, if the person does not reproduce before he dies.
Probability for new allele to become fixed in
population is inversely proportional to N (1/2Ne) if u have a new
allele, and if the population is small, the allele will spread more quicker
than if it were in a larger population. closely tied to population size.
larger the population size, longer time to get fixed or lost.
Affects all populations
Makes isolated populations genetically different jus by
chance, 2 population that doesnt mix will become different

founder effect genetic drift example
it is a loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population
is started by a small number of individuals from a larger
population
result of loss of genetic variation, the new population becomes
different both genetically and phenotypically from the parent
population from which it derived.
The founder effect which is a small population shows sensitivity
to genetic drift, inbreeding and low genetic variation.
o reduces genetic diversity within population
o can change the variation in the new population
o serial founder effects
Occurs when population migrate over long distance.
The long distance involved the rapid movements
followed by periods of settlements
The populations in each migration carry only a subset
of genetic diversity from previous migrations causing
genetic differentiation as geographical distance
increased.
Migration of humans out of Africa is a characterized
by these serial founder effects. Having the highest
degree of genetic diversity which is consistent with
an African origin of modern humans.

Migration
New allele being introduced into the population

Migrations/gene flow
Keeps population similar(homogenizing process)
Counteracts genetic drift Increases genetic variability Increases
effective population size
Sex-specific differences in migration/gene flow
look at the y choromsome to learn about male gene flow
look at the mitochondria DNA(as its mainly contributed by mum)
for female

more males diversity between population than within population
females enter male household, so females moving. More mtDNA can be
found within population
the greater the distance between the population the more different they
are.
The female not as great and not as incline females are moving between
population, and whatever differences in genes they have they are
bringing it along with them

Natuaral selection
Evolutionary Process Part 2 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Evolutionary forces
Mutation being a weak evolutionary force but increase variation
Gene flow and migration, increases variation which counter
reacts drift that makes isolated population different from each
other and decreases variation because by chance certain genes
get lost of fix in the population and also depends on population
size.
Natural selection
o Process Some genotypes leave more offspring
than others so the frequency of alleles change
o positive selection increase variation, balance selection e.g.
sickle cell and malaria maintain genetic variation, purify or
negative selection where it removes deleterious genetic
variation within the population.
o for the case of malaria, where the allele was maintain to
keep the fitness in the population
o Measure
Fitness (reproduc&ve success)
Viability (survival, mortality)
Fertility
o Competition
o The only adaptive force
o Can increase, maintain or decrease diversity
Heterozygote advantage it is a balancing selection which
would maintain variation. In Australia you will not find AS or an
SS allele variation as malaria has not been a problem in the
population. And even if there is it would be a directional selection
whereby it will be removed as quickly as possible as the SS
variation is deleterious
In malarial regions, the SS selection would be kept in the region
as the heterozygote is the most fitted so
Another example of heterozygote advantage
o Positive selection in our genome
o Generating more and more variation is advantages and can
be seen in population level
o This happens in the genes where it is important in
regulating our immune response to pathogens and typically
intercellular site pathogens like virus
o These molecules called Human leukocyte antigens (HLA)
expressed by all nucleic cells all our cells are able to
express this HLA on its surfaces this HLA helps our T cell
which is our immunity cell identify viruses in the infected
cells. different ppl produce HLA in different shapes thus
we will present different parts of the virus differently to the
Tcell. This is also leading to the fact that we might react
differently to the virus.
o With species that have very little variation within the
population they would not be able fight off pathogen thus
leading to a wipe out, while for us due to variation, highly
polymorphic we are able to fight it off better.
o Evidence of positive selection acting on HLA genes
involved in regulating our immune response to
pathogens (viruses)
Polymorphism in the HLA affects peptide antigen
binding
Changes in the pockets, walls and floor of the HLA
peptide binding cleft. This alters interactions between
the peptide antigen and HLA moclecule, and
determines which peptides are able to bind.
At DNA level, the change in HLA is a silent change.
Natural selection and Neutral theory of evolution
Neutral theory of evolution when you look at the change in the DNA
level implication is that, many of the variation we see in the population
that is fixed is largely due to drift and not selection. And there will be few
areas in our genomes that show evidences of positive natural selection
Evidences influenza virus Neutral theory predicts Synonymous
changes (silent) will accumulate faster than Non synonymous due to drift
as silent changes not affected by NS
More likely to have a non synonymous change when you were to
randomly change a necludiotide based on the genetic code
Based on the genetic code, even through mutation making a mistake at
the coding region it will still be non synonymous.
Both agree that most mutations are deleterious but differ on the rest
advantageous (Darwin) selection major force
mainly neutral with few selectively advantageous mutations
(Kimura) - alleles fixed in population largely through drift not
selection
few genes in human genome show evidence of positive natural
selection
positive selection always involves disease resistance. Because these
disease has a fitness cost and that would have an advantage of a
genotype. Typically involving the immunity system and a life cycle of that
pathogen. What we now encounter advantageous for a pathogen will not
be advantageous for another pathogen generations time.

HIV and CCR5: case of low allele frequency in area of most need
Different type of selection can occur
How the change in variation occurs in generations if
something has a fitness cause how it change in the population
CCR5 is a genetic system/ protein system which is diverse and at
the same time has overlapping promiscuity. It has lots of
receptors which can communicate with ligands and ligands can
communicate back with them. Have a lot of overlap in the
systems. HIV uses the receptor as a co-receptor to get into ur
cell. Impt part of the hiv life cycle. If you have a certain type of
variation in your genetic code, than u will have a certain type of
outcome with HIV.
Does HIV have a fitness cost? Yes it does.
o Places that have high HIV like south Africa, has got low
access to getting antiviral drugs. This also means, women
who has the virus can pass her child the disease in utero or
when delivering or through breast milk. We have vertical
transmission like mother to child and also horizontal and
heterosexual context and man to man or IV drug use.
o In Africa, women has higher HIV due to vertical
transmission.
o Changes in population size and distribution from the
graph
Able to see that women has higher HIV than men,
children getting hiv from mothers. And a lower
access to drugs. People who are reproducing and
working. No work, no medication, no income or govt
unable to fund them. Become a vivaous cycle
If you have delta 32 you will not have the receptor
that is needed for the hiv to enter ur cells.
Has there been a selective pressure on this gene
CCR5 on another species Chim who has SIV which
is similar to HIV, chimp doing better with it. When
they are exposed to the virus, the ccr goes down a
bit but bumps back up again. When we look at the
diversity of the genes of the chimp compared to us,
all other genes expect the CCR5 has gone through
variation. Showing that it has gone through a
bottleneck. What it means is that, the CCR5 when
expose to SIV, there has been a reduction in
diversity, whereby only keeping the ccr5 that is able
to cope with SIV.



a) initial feq is 20% and the fitness differences is 0.75 and 1, what you
will expect over a short period of time is that the freq will become fixed.
Most people will have this genetic variation. this is the case of HIV
B) if the fitness differentiation is not so great, its gg to take longer or it
might not do much.
C) if you initial freq is .01 or 71% of the population has it. Even if there is
a great differences in the fitness cost, its not gg to increase. This is
because it started off in a very low frequency and drift might have
interfered in the procress, and you might lose the allele as well. Initial
frew of an allele is very impt to what happens to it over time.
If it has a low freq and a strong advantage its not gg to increase. If its got
a higher freq it will have a fixation very quickly

Who can resist the CCR5 delta 32?
Northern Europeans
A selective pressure that appeared earlier because of a plague
Little evidences though
But its been suggested that it is due to drift that the allele has increased
implying Neutral evolution
Increased due to migration over time and drift has influenced.
Remembering that smaller population would allow big influence.
Drift causes higher delta 32 to be found in northern Europeans

Why is delta 32 low in Africa?
This could be due to West Nile Virus infection. Delta 32 might be able to
resist HIV but it will fatal for those who have west nile virus. So selection
goes against it.


Influence of CCL3L1 gene-containing segmental duplications on
HIV-1/AIDS susceptibility - ligand for CCR5 (co-receptor for HIV-
1)

CCL3L1 is the ligand than attaches to CCR5
When one has HIV, they start producing CCL3L1 which would
become a competition to HIV to get in touch with the cell.
This ligand would also work the same even if it were other
diseases.
This can be helpful for disease that come before or during
reproductive age and for infectious disease. It is not so good for
autoimmune disease that come later on in age.

Human Adaptation 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
For a population at equilibrium (absence of evolutionary forces)
Allele frequencies remain constant from generation to generation
o large population size and random mating (drift will have a
minor effect wen population size is large and random
mating violates a certain principle)
o Can calculate genotype frequencies in population based on
allele frequencies
Hardy-Weinberg Law (principle) this formula is
used to determine wen selection is occurring in
population level.
p2 +2pq+q2 =1or(p+q)2 =1
(where p = f(A), q = f(a) in two allele system)
Can use formula to detect if evolutionary forces occurring
(incl selection) - null hypothesis so the formula is the
null hypothesis and if things dont follow the expected we
will believe it is either due to random mating or large
population or evolutionary forces.

How do we get the HW formula
http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/evolution/populationgenetics/proble
ms_1.html

Is there deviation from HWE?
So according to the lecture slides on the case of Prp and Kuru where the
expected is higher than the observe the null hypothesis is rejected
Reason
Due to the population, random mating, sampling issue, evolutionary
forces thats been occurring esp natural selection being the possibility. Its
probably giving them protection from this genetic disease. It was also a
small population so random mating wont have been a chance to have
occurred.

Factors that affect genotype freq
Inbreeding and assortative mating (non random mating)
Inbreeding
o Mating consanguineous individuals like first cousins can
alter the expected genotype frequency
o It will cause deleterious biological consequences
And increase in the homozygote and decrease in the
heterozygote freq which is where there will be a
problem is there is a recessive disease in the
population.
It doesnt always occur its jua that if there is a
disease, it will affect.

Variation between human
patterns of adaptation to various kinds of environments
shaped genetic diversity within populations over-time
o there are some genetic variation there are likely to have
been shaped by adaptation.
o Adaptation impt force
o Natural selection plays a role in positive selection on our
genes along with that so does selection pressure playing a
role when populations migrate from one place to another
so as to help the population adapt to the place. Usually
small population.
Physical variation in human population :skin color
How do we end up with different skin colors
Skin color is determined by melanosome type and distribution at the
epidermis area
Darker skin has more eumelanin
Lighter skin has more pheomelanin and seems to be more
clustered within organelles
In the melanocytes you will have the melanocortin 1 receptor
that converts pheomelanosome into eumealanin
o So if you interfere with the MC1R during maturation you
would end up with fairer skin.
o ASIP gene if it is interfered it will allow maturation to take
place thus causing you to have darker skin. As the ASIP
gene helps interfere to prevent maturation.
o There are actually many gene associated with skin color it
is just that the MC1R is the major.
How does the skin color associate with the sun and with fitness
Uv radiation is impt in the absorption of vitmin D to help metabolize
calcium
You have darker skin, less absorption of vitamin D unless you have a
higher intensity of sunlight. If you reduce it to a medium intensity or low
intensity level you will get Rickets. This is because darker skin, will be
blocking the uv light so you need higher intensity to be able to penetrate
through the skin. rickets associated with bone formation/metabolism
If vitamin D is not regulated Ca2, phosphorus and bone metabolism
Involved in BP regulation, maintain normal cell proliferation (preventing
cancer) and influences immunity system to fights patogens. Vitamin D
directly prevents infections helping innate and adaptive immunity system.
It can interfere in how we can react to a certain pathogen.

Folate break down in the blood stream is also associated with the uv
radiation from the sun. if you have dark skin, and too much uv intensity it
could cause decrease in fitness. If you have lighter skin with too much uv
radiation intensity, male might become infertile and have NTDs

Dietary lactose and lactase activity
A lot of adults are lactose intolerant this will lead them to a lot of
physiological outcome such as diarrhea, cramps and flatulence.
Lactose being converted into glucose and galactose with the help of
enzyme lactase and finally being converted into energy.
A lot of adults in Africa and some parts of europes are able to tolerate
lactose due to the selection allele of the gene to encode for the lactase
permitting it to persist till adulthood. this is because of their life history
of cattle domestication and milk drinking.

LCT in Europeans shows the strongest signal of positive selection,
reflecting a powerful advantage that may have been more related
to milk as a source of uninfected water than as a source of
nutrition.

convergent evolution due to strong selective pressure resulting from
shared cultural traits animal domestication and adult milk
consumption18
can be seen that there has been a convergent since population
moved out of Africa to Europe. There has been a gene mutation
through SNPs in the MCM6 which is associated with the lactose
persistence.

Infectious diseases
Starts off with a forest with few mosquitoes and little malaria to humans
arrival and performing horticultural where forest is cleared and stagnant
pools come along this increases mosquitos and malaria increases.
Malaria is one of the most vicious disease that acts as the strongest force
in the recent history of human genome.
With balancing selection
Heterozygote advantage eg Haemoglobin S allele
Individuals with only one copy of S allele most fit in areas where Malaria
is endemic
Trade-off between deaths from Malaria and Sickle cell anemia (two
copies of S allele)
Resultant optimum frequency of S allele

Genetic Clues to Human Ancestry & Migration 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Measures of Genetic Diversity
Nucleotide diversity () looking at the differences at the genome
level btw ppl.
based on probability of two randomly chosen sequences from
within the population have different bases at the same nucleotide
position
Pair-wise differences
Heterozygosity
Proportion of loci at which a randomly chosen individual is
heterozygous on average
Neutral theory population size as a variable.
expected level of diversity () in a population can be expressed
in terms of the mutation rate () and drift (influenced by
effective population size = Ne) number corresponds to
molecular clock (time)
= 4Ne we can estimate the value of this formula by using
the nucleotide diversity, the pair wise differences we have
observed.
can estimate using the mean number of pair-wise differences (
) from observed data (obtain Ne)

how to determine relationship between species/populations using genetic
variation?
can use nucleotide diversity to draw trees phylogenetic analysis
it will tell us how distant or close related they are.

Did we come out of Africa and how many?
Yes we did
These are some hypothesis based on theories
Theory 1 African replacement
we came out of Africa, and with replacement of existing
population
there was no mixing
most of our allele shows we have neutral alleles from Africa and
that our divergence time was of about 200,000yrs or less
expects to have a genetic diversity based off Africa
the alleles found in Europe and asia are that subset of thos in
Africa
expecting the Ne to be as small as 10,000

Theory 2 Hybridization and assimilation
Theory 3 multiregional evolution
Allele to be ransom and the divergence time our of Africa to be
1M with the genetic diversity to be roughly equal in all regions
and each region having a unique allele and the Ne to be as large
as 40,000 to 100,000

Phylogenetic analysis of mtDNA

What happened out of Africa
Bottleneck based on selective pressure genetic variation takes place
losing some alleles
Founder event random genetic drift takes place and within a small
population so ends up losing an allele
Both event causes a reduce in genetic diversity

How much mixing was going on?

Neandertal diversity and population structure
Look at mitochondria dna, as there are many of them in a cell compared
to a nucleus. It is also less degraded after death compared to the nucleus.
It is also very restricted as it is maternally inherited. Exclude some part of
history.
Neandertal and modern humans did look similar at the mitochondria level
but phylogentic analysis says otherwise that there wasnt much mixing
Melanocortin 1 receptor analysis it showed a convergent evolution
(same advantage different mutation jus like the lactose example) as they
discovered that the Neanderthal remains showed a mutation in the MC1R
which is not found in humans but this variant reduces the MC1R activity
to a level that alters hair and skin pigment to a pale skin color and red
hair as in humans.
Selective advantages the neandertal, has gone through the same
selective pressure jus like modern humans but through a different
mutation

Advantage of having Neandertals genome in us
We will have a more vital immune system by acquiring HLA-B*73
it is a lecukocyte antigen
If we have admixture, through selective pressure we would have
acquired it.

We have came out of African theres migrating groups thats come out,
there some serial founder effects and bottelnecks due to pathogenic
exposure and other selective pressures.
But whats happened more recently in human migration?
Looking at America as thats the newest migration
coming down from the northern Asia,
they would have more founder effects due to being a smaller population
along with drift having a huge impace and selective pressure.
The amount of pathogen they would be exposure to and the
environmental differences.
So with them being a small population there will also have a change in
diversity.
How many migration?
Serial migration, and each on push the other down south possibly 3
migration. Based on how different populations are. Clusters represent
distinct population.

In amercia there is a reduction in diversity, heterozygote is used to
measure diversity. Possibly due to serial founder effect and the other is
bottlenecks

How genetic diversity in remote oceania came about
Express train came down from Nothern asia, Taiwan and continental asia
and went down to the remote parts of oceania with little interaction with
the population btw the islands along the regions. Slow train region show
some variation due to admixture and it can be witnessed by what we see
in oceania today while the entangled banks is mixed that you dont know
where they came from.

mtDNA would be able to understand the slow train region.

Phenotypic Plasticity 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Genetic imprint of admixture
The more different source population the easier to detect admixture
produce a hybrid population
Measuring admixture
(ph-pb)/(pa-pb) formula to guess the contemporary
population or ancestry
what about agriculture?
Gene flow, counter reacts random genetic drift and makes population
similar to one another, increase variation in population and increases
population.
So if agriculture spread through the population without gene flow, you will
see that the population would be more different from each other.
Agriculture is spread through the population by gene flow, you can see a
gradient of variation. When you sample contemporary population you will
be able to see the gradient of the population from both sides. Basically
showing gene flow with population making each other similar

Sex biased admixture
May have males travelling to a certain area, and reproducing with the
females there. Males have transported across and not females. Some
populations show otherwises. Depends on the mating patterns and
migration patterns that will be reflected on the genetic variation you see.

Phenotypic plasticity = Variation, under environmental influence, in the
phenotype associated with a genotype
A lot of your phenotypes will be strongly influenced by your environment
earlier or later on in your life.
2 speieces can have the same dna but due to environmental cues they
will tend to look different from one another.

Development same DNA very different end product/pathway
Shows that environment plays a strong role as we go through
differentiation to lineage commitment to lineage differentiation
Epigenetic = modifications to our dna, to which they are
packaged resulting in altered regulation of gene expression
without involving changes in the DNA sequence
Epigenome is made up of all these Epigenetic marks along the
genome can also influences phenotypes, can be inherited. Can
be changed over times.
Monozygotic twins, they have the same DNA, look the same at
early age but as they get older in life, they tend to look different
later, even the epigenetic markers are different. As their
exposure is different so epigenetic markers become different
which inturn make their phenotype different.
Epigenetics definition Practically, epigenetics describes
phenomena in which genetically identical cells or organisms
express their genomes differently, causing phenotypic
differences
o When we talk about epigenetics we are talking about the
way the DNA is packaged and the accessibility to it. The
proteins that turn genes on
How DNA is package
Epigenetic modification affects the way genes are expressed. Epigenetic
alters access to be able to modify. DNA are highly condense and the way
its tightly packaged and condensed is by histones. Histones cluster or
grouping away our DNA. If a gene is too tightly bound it is usually turned
off. There is epigenetic modification which unwinds the DNA a little and
gets the proteins to attach some motifs to our DNA to help regulate and
turn on whichever we want.

Epigenetics
Methylation and acetylation modification to histone which is what we are
going to study.
If you have methylation in the genome and it is tightly wound, it is going
to be silent. Proteins will not be able to transcript that site.
Acetylation at the site would be, it is unwound, and loosely bound so
protein will be able to transcript it.

Methylation epigenetic mark
Another type would be cytosine being attached, we term this methylated
cytosine. They tend to be just before the initiation sites of the genes. This
cytosines are impt because if they are methylated it means those genes
are meant to be silent. It also means these factors or proteins cannot be
attached and via methylation patterns its about signals being on or off.

How can a cell maintain memory of epigenetic mark?
From 1 cell division to another cell division through replication and
maintenance of DNA methylation cell maintain memory of the epigenetic
mark.

Epigenetic marks can cause imprinting
Imprinting out of 2 gene 1 gene is expressed. So we get maternal and
paternal, and maternal gene is expressed as the CTCF protein binds to
DNA so the H19 is expressed while the paternal it is methyl so it is
silenced.
This will result in either size differences or behavioral differences

Epigenetics and cancer
Basically its about a whole load of genes which are either not supposed to
be expressed that have been expressed or a whole load of genes that are
suppose to be but arent. and what you end up with is this uncontrolled
proliferation of cells. And these cancer cells start expressing proteins that
are not usually expressed at that point of time. So its a lost of regulation
to suppress proliferation or stop expression of cell growth. What happens
in cancers is you see these epigenetic modification thats due to the
environment. Risk factors as environmental things makes sense in the
context of epigenetic marks because there would be variation that
influences what should be turned on or off. And cancers all about
uncontrolled cell growth. And we have proteins in our body and genes in
our body that usually controls that. If theyre turned off or others turned
on which stimulates that. So cancers associated with the turning on and
off of genes and cell division.
Hypo changes to related genes that shouldnt be expressed but are
expressed (genome instability)
Hyper genes that are associated to cell growth are now silenced
Mutation methyled cpg is now more prone to mutation
UV increased uv induced mutation
Carcinogen carcinogen induced mutation

What about MZ twins?
Thought to have 100% but its now known to be pretty close to 100%
They look similar to each other,
If you look at phenotype that are greatly influenced by early life in utero
and etc, you would fine that the greater the genetic influences the greater
the concordances so one of them have it the other would.
Things that would occur in early on in life like height and etc would have
some heavy gentic influence.
But when it comes to diseases such as arthritis, stroke and cancer, the
concordances rate decreases.
When you get older you would not have the same concordances rate
Their genetic could be the same but their epigenetics not the same.
At 3years old, the environemental differences for a MZ twin would not be
that different, they would be wearing same clothes and eating the same
type of food, but as they reach 50yrs of age, the environmental cues
would be different like food and place they live so the epigenetics would
change making them prone to differences
Their DNA constitution would be different but not epigenetic
Differential DNA methylation in MZ twins At 3yrs of age the epigenetics
tags are of the same place but at 50 years old the tags would be at
different places as they will be producing different proteins at different
levels who have the same genetic consistution


Development and Phenotypic Variation25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Development is required in multicellular organism
Starts out as 1 cell, and to be what we are we have to grow and we
have to develop, we have to increase in size. Increase in our developed
specializations.
Growth is jus an
Increase in size,
tissue differentiation we are very good at what we do because we have
tissues to carry out a particular function
maturation it has to do with maturation of the system not jus the
growth, the nature of the system change over the life course
development is the interaction between the organism (genome) and its
environment you development within the environment. It could be a
large scale environment. The longer the development takes, the more the
environment has an impact on how its development proceeds.
From when we look back at us, in life history perspective, we are an
organism with a very long life span, with a very long developmental
period, we have a very long time in which our development can be
influenced by our immediate environment, both our biological
environment and our social environment.

We know that the period of development when most of the growth occurs,
is subsides particularly in humans by living in family groups to help
provide resources this thus allows the organism to allocate more energy
into growth and development instead of providing itself most of its
resources.

Period of epigenetic response to actual environment there is this long
period than, and the interplay between the environment and organism
that can affect literally the expression of its genes. From the genetic level
to a lot of the larger scale of behavioural level we have an interaction
between an organism and its environment that changes its projectory of
its development.

Where does development happens?
1
st
environment is utero constraints of the mothers uterus
influences your development if for some instance you didnt
get a certain nutrient your development would be different to if
you had received it. Like for example lack of iodine this would
cause a abnormal development for the rest of your life. Changing
genetic expressions as well.
2
nd
environment is family (family in which you grow up with)
family buffers the consequences that happens in the outside
world. Good family takes care of their children. We are buffering
the interaction with the rest of the world. The ways family buffer
the interaction of the world with their children has its own
effects. If the family, at early childhood , produces a negative
environment like violent and death it would effect the
development of the child into adolescence and also into adult.
This interaction with the family is impt as it would effect the
childs interaction with the social world and all the way through
their life. Early childhood, would give the phenotype some clue
on what the world would look like. happens in social behavior
and physically. And in terms of some health risk it face.

Proportional variation in gross allocation: shifts in allocation can occur
without changes in overall energy availability
Energy that goes into 1 thing cannot go into another
Basic useage of energy is in reproduction, maintenance and
growth.
What we were talking about in terms of growth and development
is about the compartment of growth and maintenances as energy
is first used in growth and maintenance till the organism is fully
finished in those compartment that it would next move on into
reproduction.
If an individual is growing in an environment that doesnt have
much resources, and than the cost and benefits in the allocation
of energy is going to be different. And it is gg to be different for
the rest of the life. If you have lower food availability you would
end up with a smaller body size. Smaller body size can have
cost, you can be more susceptible to predation, less competitive
compared to others when fighting for resoruces you need. But
small body size does have its advantageous, it would need lesser
energy compared to that of a larger body,

Evolution and phenotypic plasticity
Growth and development is linked with evolution cant have adaptation
without developing. We need to know development to be able to
understand how humans have reached this adaptive outcomes.
Phenotypic plasticity: The ability of an organism to change its
phenotype in response to changes in the environment. this
can be seen as natural selection in evolutionary. Ecological time,
in a lifetime, it is called phenotypic plasticity as its about the
ability of a genotype to express differently in different
environments.
Epigenetics: The study of inherited changes in phenotype or
gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in
the underlying DNA sequence.

Life course and think about development in a life course.
We start off as a single cell through fertilization.
And than that long process of cell replication to tissue
specialization like 22 years.
The longer the process of growth and development the more the
environment will change. If the growth and development is short
the impact of the environment is going to be less compared to
that of a longer period organism
That adult and reproduction and the process goes on again
How population deals with environmental change either by
having an early reproduction and less development, delayed
development compared to that of parent generation due to
environmental differences this might result the children being
different from parents due to environmental differences.
o Selection for phenotypic plasticity: the capacity to be
affected by environment during development (to learn
from it, to track it ) Facilitating reproduction despite
potential changes since conception

Developmental patterns through life
We are fully developed only wen we are in our 30s.
Prolonged immaturity = longer growth
Growth & development occur in mosaic pattern

Growth and maturation
Distance curves in height for age
We are looking at a distance curve and how tall a person as
become at a certain age
Female end up shorter than males
There is a period of time female grows taller but than pactod
Human growth velocity curve
Patterns of growth over time
Our body system growns at different time and it peaks at the
different times.
Dont jus look at size, as size might stop growing but maturation
would still be developing. Brains would be pruning till 22yrs old.

Relating the graph on uncertain futures problem to Ossu
Putting on fat wen resources are available so that wen they
arent able to make use of the over consumed nutrition
When the environment is unpredictable, you will get a longer
insult
The longer the development is the longer the bad events
Longer developmental time -> greater potential environmental
change -> more selection for ability to respond developmentally
(to track environment)

Variation in timing of shift from growth to reproduction

Tall women vs short women
Tall body need more energy for maintenance compared to a small body
Total intake for tall woman is 2000 a day. Wen reduced resources they
are given 1600 calories both for tall and short. The taller women would
need 1000 calories for maintenance of her body while the shorter women
would only need 800 calories. This would allow the shorter women to
distribute more calories to her activity and reproduction while the taller
women would have lesser amt of energy allocated to her acitivity(420)
and reproduction(180).
Where resources are little u find small body women and at high alitidue as
well as not much resources will be found there.

Reaction norm: The pattern of phenotypic expression of a single
genotype across a range of environments.
The variation u can find in a phenotype that is not related to genotype.
For example wen u look at age and weight with the same genotype,
weight increased rapidly wen they are healthy and nourished compared to
when they are sick.
The range of expression of growth depending on the environment. In
contrast to heritability

Malnourishment and/or disease (energy imbalance) delays
menarche because of the weight, the way they grow, because
the energy is not there, its either being used to fight illness or
energy is not there to begin with. So it takes a longer time for the
body to reach the size for reproduction. so that would lead them
to have a later age of reproduction such as having their periods
which is the beginning of reproductive maturity.

Local environmental effects on developmental
Age of girls reaching menarche,
Comparing a girl from small town to rural farm
Girls in rural farm, its got to do with the work the girls got to do
on the farm and the family composition and environment there is
more variation than for those who live in the small town.
What could affect the menarch age of a girl living in urban society
compared to those in rural
So girls in urban society would reach puberty earlier compared to
those who live in a rural area. This would be because they would
have reached the required weight for reproduction. having the
appropriate amount of body fat that is needed to reproduce.
Their body would have matured more earlier than those in the
rural area.
All this is because of their socioeconomic status, altitude ( more
food resource), exercise, genetics, family composition (whereby
the parents care for the child more by buffering the world to
them), health and nutrition (better health faster menarche),
psychosocial stress(more stress faster reach of menarche), BMI.
Dispersal 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Dispersal
The movement the animal makes from its point of origin to the place
where it reproduces or would have reproduced if it had survived and
found a mate natal site(site where u were born)

Measurable life history trait natal dispersal moving from natal social to
own breeding social group
Staying at home is philopatry
Does it occur (stay home or leave)
Who disperse (which sex)?
At what age?
How far do they leave home?
All this will bring about to the distribution of individuals in space and their
genetic composition of groups

To disperse or not to disperse
Occurs in all species
Moving away would reduce resource competition, mating
competition and avoids inbreeding
These reasons are not mutually exclusive, could just be a
contributing factor

At population level
Dispersal behavior of individuals that determins the Distribution
of individuals in space has a flow on effect the Social
organisation of population(so if indidivuals dont move out, the
population will jus get bigger and bigger) and this has an impace
on the Mating system of population which also feeds back on the
Dispersal behaviour of individuals
There is also another factor that effects distribution of individuals
in space and thats resources which is the the type of ecology
they are in.

Dispersal behavior across species
3 types of resources that results to either dispersal or philopatry
resources spread out in space/time (think of the prey as deer
which is spread out at different area and predator as tiger, so
space would be deer spreading out, time would be time to
replenish back its population) with a group size being
constrained (constrained because if the tiger grp size gets bigger
and bigger, the deer population would be wiped out) thus leading
to a dispersal which makes them live in solitary.
Defendable resource patch/cooperation needed living in grps
to be able to cooperate for food, more individuals for defending.
Group size being constrain depends on the patch, so bad patch
would be constrained leading to dispersal and pair living
organization defending territory (pair with offsprings like
gibbons). If patch is good than it would be philopatry living in a
nuclear family. focused on this type of social organization
you get and type of dispersal you get depends on the
environment. you can get variation of population depending
on the social grp composition and dispersal. Able to predict
behavioural plasticity
Large indefensible resource patch (like a grass) if u r relying on
grass, hard to defend it compared to a small patch, group size is
less constrained so u can support more individuals there.
Philopatry is more adaptive, because u can stay in that social
group leads to breeding group. 1 sex dispersing and it will
depend on the species

Variable dispersal within population
Able to see individual who are dispersers and non dispersers
Later and nondispersers can have fitness consequences as they are
fully muture y not reproducing causes missing reproduction opp and
time to reproduce
Cant breed in natal group Resource competition &
inbreeding avoidance
So why delay why forgo reproduction? too much
competition so not wanna breed at that time, trading off current
for future, delay repro happens in long live and low mortality
environment.
Why wait at home though? as you can investigate other areas
or forge relationship
o Home have relatives, so the cost on individual repro
success is offset by indirect fitness (relatives who share
same genes with you that contributes to your fitness)
helping parents and sibling in their reproduction so u will
contribute to ur fitness
Depending on feeding competition so help by
providing food, cooperative foraging and hunting and
sibling care form of rental.
o Temporarily avoding the cost of dispersal evokes
aggression from unfamiliar conspecifics, loss alliance with
families and relative, increase time and energy to establish
new relationships and also due to young age might not
have enough knowledge of new area so end up with poor
diet and become vulnerable to predators. no no where
to hide or where to get food
Context dependent dispersal cost of staying vs cost leaving
o If you stay with ur parents, u wont be able to reproduce
directly, have to defend and maintain territory and have to
care for sibling
o If you leave, need to learn the new environment but could
still be dangerous due to predation and end up with poor
diet and have to form a new social bond.
When to leave? when benefit of leaving is greater to staying
than have to leave. its on environmental cue suggests so
Proximate incentives look at silde
Tolerant parents provide incentive to stay percentage of
suborinates that dispersed within a yr when both parents
survived and stayed in the territory is higher compared to that
when the mother, father of both parents were replaced by
stepparents.
o High quality natal territory = tolerant parents = wait it out
o Really good natal territory - parents bud-off part of
territory or expand into neighbouring territory
o Flexible meerkats and woodpeckers they do short term
dispersal whereby they go out during the day and return in
the night for safety
o Long term dispersal observed in gibbons where after a
forest fire the parents allowed the child and mate to come
and stay in their territory, also seen in bee eater birds
depends on parents tolerances
o Both sexes who dont leave, like they mate and go back to
their homes philopatry, with outbreeding
o Mosuo
Human foragers
Nuclear family living within a larger social bands
o Kin network within bands brothers family and aunt and
uncle family
o Have a cooperative network so that able to have food
provided
o Can have dispersal occurring between the 2 bands and
what happens is the Bride service, male will go to his wife
band, live with the wife and her family, provides food and
lives there till he is allowed to leave. servie is done.
Loads of the couple moves to the grooms family after the
service is done.
What happens here is that there is multi-local
residence both sexes disperse. so married couples
can move btw both kin groups
Establish ties with both the kin groups so as to be
able to gain resources.
Horticulture, pastoralism, agriculture
o Once we get into horticulture pastoralism and agriculture
as much as we have nuclear families we have polygynous
families too we can start to accumulate and defend
resources. instead of those cooperative family network
we have more barriers, as we are trying to keep them
within the family
If you have male inheritance you get patrilocal
residence. male stay home to keep resources
Get dispersal of female to those social groups
possibly into those polygynous families.
o Summary
Dispersal can be a plastic life-history trait
Individual dispersal behaviour = context dependent
Optimum time to disperse depends on current
conditions

o
Plasticity of Development Trajectories
Age at Menarche Adult Disease 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Looking at the phenotypic plasticity from the growth stage to the adult
stage it is registered on the data. Its not impt about being rural or urban,
its impt to consider the resources and workload of the people living in
those ecological circumstances.

Example on Nunez 2007 on Bangladeshi residents and child and adult
Bangladeshi migrants to uk

Tested sliva, progesterone, able to test reproductive variable
tested on women who lived all their live in uk, child migrants, 2
nd
gen
migrants
found that: older they migrated the older they reach age of menarche
small sample used but strong results.
the women who migrated btw 0 8yrs were taller, better progesterone
meaning better reproduction, earlier menarche. Women who migrated
after 9yrs wont. Migrants after menarche, no influene on luteal
progesterone.
Better resources reach menarche earlier
Indian girls adopted into Sweden vs privileged indian urban so
they migrated at earlier age, and had even better resources.
Not always about resources but also psychosocial stress, girls
who experience psychosocial stress earlier in life, in their family
environment will mature faster in life. But they cant mature
faster than the resources allow them too. Do you have the
resources to grow? How is the environment? Is about the safety,
potential of mortality. Higher the weight at age 9, family conflict
and father absence reach menarche earlier. family
composition and psychosocial environment of that family unit will
set in the rate of development, how soon they will reach age to
reproduce.
o If you are in a high risk environment, where you are more
likely to die, so you will mature faster. Its a plascity for
them to respond to their live hood
o Psychosocial mode: age at menarche and family type
mother absent maturity is later, but cant really take into
consideration as the sample size, this is because its quite
hard to find samples with the absences of mother. Father
absences, increase maturity and both parent absence goes
way up.
Socioecnomic status and low birthweight low birth rate is
related to the economic status, because poverty, would lead to
being unable to provide resources for the pregnant women, thus
child born underweight. Low birth weight itself is a risk factor as
a lot of bad factor are related to it. low birth weight is related
to heart diseases and
o Fetal programming associated btw lower birth weight
and increased risk of adult disease.
o 357, lbw, developed chd, they continued to do poorly after
birth and than did rapidly wt gain after. They started off at
-.2 SD of the population mean and went all the way up to
the population mean. Put on weight really rapidly, their
height stayed the same (impairment of height), body mass
is increasing rapidly. Infant at uterus, couldnt do much, if
resources were limited, so it was pushed into a slow
projectory giving energy to its other organs to develop but
not its body so it small but now when the child is out of the
uterus, its environment is its family, able to get resources
so the signal is different. Metabolism
the other side of the resource question
its the signals that would match so it would view the cues of whether the
environment is healthy or
a long life speices that would face different environment, its a selecting
pressure that would shifting the metabolism, shifting the behavior,
shifting the development to fit into environment that the individual would
find themselves in. r they living in the artic, are they living in a high
resource environment or low resource environment. Thats good if the
signal fits the environment. Is the signal really fits, that meants the
individual will be healthy. able to do the a living and reproduce in that
environment. if it doesnt match, a negative, longterm outcome, late
life diseases. How strong is the selective pressure if its a late life disease?
we havent have selection that allows the physiology to response in a
way that would react to such an environmental stimulus. No selective
preesure towards such thing.
The brain & the evolution of a capacity
For culture 25/02/2014 9:31:00 PM
Brains used as a tool for culture if brain didnt evolve we wont have
culture
An expensive organ, takes in a lot of glucose for it to run diet
had to be better to help it run or it needed some sort of a trade
off
Time to develop mass increased, putting on connection till
5yrs
Evolution associated with environment
o Cooling brain size increases when at cooling places
o Change changing environment
o Type of food resources takes a high quality food for
brains to run, difficulty to reach for high quality food (takes
more understanding of the environment on where to get
those type of good food, so animals who eat fruits
compared to those who eat leaves are more smarter, as
they know when and where to locate the fruit and how to
access it.)
Longer life tissue longer develop, which is more expensive,
more advantageous as longer periods of life to use it, and
catalogue experiences.
Learning learning from others social learning to defend and
where to locate food, able to learn through other peoples
experience without having to go through our own
discovery(someone falling down and injuring themselves). Loads
of learning on it own as while through experiences.

Body weight vs brain weight based on jerison 1973 graph old style
way of looking social animal have large brain has to do with
negotiation, its a selective pressure so as to be able to live in a group

Primate has a larger brain size compared to other mammals. as they
live in social groups, already selected from brain size shown in lifehistory

human organ size compared with primate expectation for body size
whats the trade off human have smaller gut for primate of our size, so
thats the trade off for a larger brain. brains are expensive to run and
gut tissues are expensive to replace most rapidly, can get dna from the
fickle sample as we keep losing cells from our gut. Feces carry cells from
the gut and we can get dna from the samples there. change in diet,
allows them to run a smaller gut to let them run a more expensive tissue
which is a larger brain. animals that eat a lot of leaves would have a
larger gut thus having a smaller brain size, so thats the trade off.

Correlates of enlarged brain size
Clades groups of ancestry having a common ancestry (like primates)
increases in brain size in 4/7 clades occurs during or just post major
climate cooling (decrease in oceanic surface temperature)
Primates brain size correlated with
diet: fruit and animal eaters >> leaf eaters
both brain and gut tissue are expensive tissues
group size: larger groups >> larger brain for body size

hominid lineages
we were bipedal creature of little brain for a couple million yrs
until we started evolving into have a bigger body size did that
our brain started getting bigger as well and that was 3million
years ago but not larger to body size.
Less than 2millionyrs later a rapid increase in relative brain size.
Primates have large brain relative to mammals, fruit eating
primates have larger brains relative to primates in general,
hominids have larger brains compared to all those groups.
Temperature change
Its in the past 1.8million and 2million years ago when there is a relative
increase and decrease in temperature where you can see a relative
increase in brain growth.
Rapid temperature change, doesnt allow nautral selection to keep up
Long life creates with rapid changing temperature, hard for natural
selection make genetic variation
So what does the organism do or happens to the organism
If the organism has a method to address the environmental
variation than it can survive.
Limited to being able to cope with the environment than it will
extinct.

Cooling and warming bottlenecks and population explaination
Glaciations: compress habitat and rapid change presents bottleneck for
population (strong selection and then small surviving populations)
Warming: habitat expansions and adaptive radiation (geographic
dispersal and adaptation to local environs)


Cost and benefits Change in bipedal pelvis constrains in utero growth
of brain
Due to our huge brains, most of our brains get developed only
after birth. Why? Because of our pelvis opening and the size of
the babys head, the constraint is that the babys head has to get
through the aperture, if it doesnt both dies, really strong
selection pressure, to move through the aperture, the babies
head have to rotate at a certain point, its a difficult process,
humans have the most difficulites in child birth compared to
other primates though it still needs evidences to back it up but
humans need assistances during childbirth, thats one of another
reason for living in social groups. we have a pelvic symphosis
that softens out to let the head out. The cost of this is that we
are distinctive in walking.
Pelvis made in a way to enable walking and giving birth, trade
off, not so good in walking
Selection pressure having a larger outlet to enable baby with
large brain to pass through. We have an adaptation of have a
softer pubic and also childs brain not fully developed inutero
fully develops after birth. brain matures btw 25 to 30 still have
a long developmental periods with loads of pruning. Still have
able to learn and lots of processing and cognitive

Limits of bipedal locomotion brain grows post natal
Slow down reproductive rate of mother
o and/ or => Shift diet so higher quality
o and/ or => Subsidize young by other than mother =>
allows mother to reproduce again

o
Life history
Continued sociality
Continued trend of increasing body size
Continued trend of increasing brain size initially slow rate
Changes in environment (climate and vegetation)
Shift to bipedal in more open environment
o Food shift (more cryptic, more patchy, quality?)
o Tool use
Increasing brain size
o Shift to post natal brain growth
o Increased length of immaturity / delayed reproduction
o Longer adult life span (absolute and relative)
o Reduced sexual dimorphism
o Social subsidization of energy to immatures



2/25/2014 9:31:00 PM

2/25/2014 9:31:00 PM
Lecture 13
heterozygote advantage graph lecture 13
HardyWeinberg lecture 14
How migration occurs lecture 15
Cancer and epigenetic, imprinting and monozygotic twin differences
lecture 16
Reaction norm in contrast to hertibability lecture 19 suggested exam
qn
2/25/2014 9:31:00 PM