Concept Maps: Theory, Methodology, Technology

Proc. of the Fifth Int. Conference on Concept Mapping

Valletta, Malta 2012
CONCEPT MAPPING AND VEE HEURISTICS: A MODEL OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN
HIGHER EDUCATION
Jacqueline Vanhear
Directorate for Standards and Quality in Education, Training and Professional Development Unit, Malta
[email protected]
Abstract. This paper will present a model of teaching and learning in Higher Education through the integrated use of Vee
Heuristics and Concept Mapping. This research will suggest that when using Concept Maps, Vee Heuristics and an awareness of
how students prefer to learn, learners will go through a metacognitive learning process which will eventually lead to meaningful
learning. Using the productions of University students, this study traces the effect of a learners mental operations on the
learners use of Vee Heuristics and Concept Mapping as the learner embeds and retrieves new and scaffolded knowledge. The
data collected reveals the powerful effect which this combination of learning tools yielded on student achievement and
transformation.
1 Introduction
We are living in a world which is changing relentlessly at a breathtaking rate. In order to address these rapid
changes, Malta is at the moment going through a wide-ranging reform in education. It is calling for a paradigm
shift from a situation where teachers are disseminators of information and students are passive recipients to a
scenario where teachers facilitate and empower students to become active lifelong learners by equipping them
with the necessary tools to embark upon a meta-learning journey leading to success. We are, however, facing a
huge dilemma; a dilemma mirrored in Fullan (1993:3) On the one hand, schools are expected to engage in
continuous renewal, and change expectations are constantly swirling around them. On the other hand, the way
teachers are trained, the way schools are organised, the way the educational hierarchy operates, and the way
political decision makers treat educators results in a system that is more likely to retain the status quo.
Prevalent literature (Moon 2010, Fullan 1993) suggests that one way of bringing change within an
educational system is through teacher education. According to UNESCO teacher education institutions serve
as key change agents in transforming education and society. Nonetheless, having pursued the Bachelor of
Education course besides recently mentoring student teachers during their teaching practice, I have observed
that often, after a four year course at University, student teachers end up teaching the way they were taught
therefore reproducing the status quo in our educational system. This situation is apparently not novel or unique
to Malta (Hartman, 2001). One of the reasons for this perpetuation may be because student teachers are adopting
ineffective and inappropriate learning practices during their training and thus, existing misconceptions about
learning are perpetuated through automatic adoption (Gamache 2002:279). Another reason could be that
teachers are not aware of developments in pedagogical tools which now vary from those they encountered while
they themselves were being taught and educators need the tools to engage in change productivity (Fullan, 1993).
However, if the new teachers are not going through a change themselves how shall this change be brought
about in our educational system? If four years of Higher Education are not producing reflective and innovative
teachers, how can we expect teachers to change their vision towards teaching and learning? How can we expect
the change many stake holders are calling for in our educational system to take place? If educators are to be
agents for meaningful change, then this must be initiated in initial teacher education (Senge, 1990).
This study will investigate and present a model of the integrated use of Concept Maps and Vee Heuristics,
paired with an awareness of the students own learning processes, in teaching and learning in Higher Education.
The implication is that students are encouraged to go through a process of reflection and to embark on a journey
of transformative learning. Mezirow & Taylor assert that to promote transformative learning, education should
be a practice predicated on the idea that students are seriously challenged to assess their value system and
worldview and are subsequently changed by the experience (Quinnan, 1997:42 in Mezirow & Taylor 2009:3).
Similarly, Gamache believes that what struggling university students need are practical, specific activities that
will lead them toward an alternative conceptual framework within which they can re-create themselves as
active learners. [My emphasis] Rather than just absorbing theory, students actually engage it through a process
of active self-reflection and self-direction (Gamache, 2002:291).
Gow & Kember suggest that Tertiary education must challenge students enough to develop their powers
of independent reasoning. Teachers[Teacher trainers- my addition] need to develop in their students an
academic approach to their study, that is, an interest in what is learnt for its own sake and an active attempt to
understand what is being studied (Gow & Kember,1990:320). Learning meaningfully is crucial within any
educational sector, let alone in Higher Education. Kinchin (2001) identified dialogue as a fundamental
contributing component to meaningful learning. Similarly, Richards (2007) reveals that student/teacher
interaction is an important factor affecting the level of learning. And not just in primary and secondary
education. Ramsden (2003) suggests that separating learning and teaching within Higher Education is a false
myth: Various authors propose that in order for students to become agents of their own learning they need
metacognitive strategies (Gamache, 2002; Bruer, 1993). Active self-reflection and self-direction are two kinds
of metacognition (Gage & Berliner, 1998).

With this in mind, Concept Maps and Vee Heuristics will be explored in this study as two tools which a
wide body of theoretical evidence is confirming as being intrinsically metacognitive. (Vanhear, 2008). Concept
Maps and Vee Heuristics will be presented as two entirely innovative tools to our educational system, which,
without any pretensions to being a quick fix, sure tool, can definitely serve as a stepping stone to challenging the
prevailing transmission model of education. Using them in initial teacher training will hopefully lead to the use
of these tools in our school classrooms.
2 Research Question and Methodology
The path that this study pursues is not to seek absolute truths or promote the pedagogical tools as sure quick fix
learning tools but rather to shed light upon a pedagogical process which captures personal structures of
knowledge and their development so as to generate meaningful learning. This study will also explore whether
the use of these tools could lead to enhancing student/teacher interaction which goes on within the context of
Higher Education. The main focus question will therefore revolve around the question In what ways can
teacher-student interaction influence meaningful learning?

Using students productions from the Bachelor of Education course at the University of Malta, this study
traces the effect of learners mental operations on the learners use of Concept Mapping and Vee Heuristics as
the learners embed and retrieve new and scaffolded knowledge. By analysing productions constructed by the
students before and after the learning programme, as explained hereunder heading 4, this study will reveal a
tangible transformation in the ideas held by students about a specific issue which is: What is Education for
Sustainable Development? This question will be the vehicle through which data will be collected so that the
learning development of the students can be observed and recorded.

The nature of this study calls for a qualitative research since qualitative researchers often espouse a
commitment to demonstrating the viability of truly alternative educational approaches (Schulman in J aeger
1997:18). In line with one of Deweys principles about educational research, this research is experimental and
conducted within a natural setting. Furthermore, If we can create and sustain a particular instructional
innovation in a real school, we have demonstrated the possibility that it can exist (Schulman in J aeger
1997:19).

In this scenario, the tradition which best suits this qualitative research is Action Research. Corey argues
that action research is a process in which practitioners study problems scientifically so that they can evaluate,
improve and steer decision-making and practice (Corey, 1953, as cited in Cohen, Manion & Morrison
2000:227). Action research allows educators to systematically and empirically address topics and issues that
affect teaching and learning in the classroom. McNiff regards action research as an approach to education
that encourages teachers to be aware of their own practice, to be critical of it and to be prepared to change it
(McNiff, 1992 in Rearick & Feldman 1999:345).

An in-depth study of specific case studies is one of the overwhelming approaches in Action Research. The
productions of case stories show how researchers improved their own learning and situations for the benefit of
themselves and others. They provide undeniable evidence that Action Research is a form of learning that has
insightful implications for the future society and that it could lead to transformation (Mcniff, Lomax &
Whitehead, 1996).

In this light, Action Research can also be called a form of self-reflective practice. It is also concerned with
praxis the process of reflection and action, with the aim to emancipate; the claim is made that action
research is strongly empowering and emancipatory in that it gives practitioners a voice (Cohen, Manion &
Morrison 2000:30). Moreover, since Action Research is built upon collaboration between the professional
researcher and the local stake holder, it integrates praxis with theory (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005).
3 Merging metacognitive tools for use in Higher Education
Learning is about change and changing oneself (Ramsden, 2003; Zull, 2002). Higher Education must nowadays
highlight the quality of education and not just certification. Learning should be about changing the ways in
which learners understand, or experience, or conceptualise the world around them (Ramsden, 2003:6). This
research is intended to clarify the mechanisms by which Concept Maps and Vee Heuristics support meaningful
learning. It will also raise awareness of how students mental processes work most effectively leading to
conceptual transformation for both the teacher and the student. These two tools merged together present a
process of praxis which is an activity that combines theory and practice, thought and action for emancipatory
ends (Kincheloe, 2005:22).

More importantly, these two metacognitive tools lay open what is going on in the learners mental
processes so as to empower them to embark upon a meta-learning journey. Consequently, it is anticipated that
they will be better equipped and trained in decision making, reflective and problem solving skills (Ramsden,
2003; Biggs & Tang, 2009 Novak & Gowin, 1984; Gamache, 2002). Furthermore, these two tools do not occur
in a vacuum but they build on the learners prior knowledge (Novak & Gowin, 1984). They take into
consideration the diverse and personal experiences therefore making learning more meaningful. This is
manifested in the following paragraphs which present the students responses in the Vee Heuristics, their
Concept Maps and their written reflection about this reflective educational journey.

The choice of setting the Bachelor of Education course at the University of Malta was dictated by the
fact that this happened to be the only Higher Education Institution in Malta which caters for teacher training.
Lectures took place at the University of Malta and were held once a week for seven consecutive weeks during
the first semester of the academic year. Each lecture had a duration of two hours. The programme was offered as
an optional credit to B.Ed students who were in their second, third or fourth year of the course. As a result, the
group of participants in this pilot study is self-selected since they attended at their own free will. It is also worth
mentioning that in this way the students participating were following different subject specialisations.
4 Data Analysis and discussion
The following paragraph includes the whole process of the Vee Heuristics along with Concept Maps that were
generated throughout the whole credit. This paper shall be presenting a sample of only two different learners.
During the first lecture the students were asked to reflect, answer and write about the three steps found on the
left hand side of the Vee (Figure 1). Their responses were collected at the end of this lecture, analysed and the
learning programme was planned so as to accommodate the learners different learning preferences. All the
lectures were presented through Concept Maps where prior knowledge and new knowledge construction was
negotiated through active discussion and participation. During the last lecture the students were asked to
complete the right hand side of the Vee (Figure 2). Finally, they were asked to organize and compare and
contrast all the steps in the Vee Heuristic by presenting, as an assignment, the left and the right hand side of the
Vee, the first Concept Map depicting their prior knowledge and the second Concept Map illustrating their new
knowledge construction. They were also asked to write a final reflection about their own personal growth during
the programme, if any, and how they thought that this process had helped them to become more effective
teachers, if they considered that it had done so at all.


Figure 1: Vee Heuristic presented before the learning programme.
Figure 2: Vee Heuristic presented after the learning programme.
4.1 Learner 1 Maryanne

Figure 3: Maryannes Vee Heuristic

This Vee Heuristic illustrated in Figure 3 reveals this learners development in her thinking process. A very
clear difference can be observed between the left hand side of the Vee, which was completed during the first
lecture, that is, prior to the learning programme, and the right hand side of the Vee, which was completed during
the last lecture, upon completion of the learning programme. The information given for question No.2 reveals
that this learner had few ideas of what ESD is all about and this is corroborated by the first Concept Map she
constructed before the learning programme, as represented in Figure 4. It is worth noting that this question also
tries to capture the learners feelings about the issue in question and one can deduce from the learners response
that this learner was very much interested in wanting to know more about the focus question. The reply to
question No. 2 reveals Maryannes level of motivation and interest in studying this topic and one can observe
that this learner found this topic interesting and relevant to what she was studying.

The replies given to questions No. 4 and 5 illustrate how this learner planned to learn more and what this
learner actually did to learn more. This learner planned to learn through guidance by someone who is well
versed with the topic and she carried out research on the internet and read the reading pack which was given so
as to have more information and all of this reflects the learners preferred way of learning. However, it is worth
noting that she also planned to learn through reflecting on her experiences. From the responses given on the
right hand side of the Vee one can easily observe how this learner developed her knowledge related to both ESD
and the learning process. This learner gave specific details to answer questions No. 6 and 8 and the new
knowledge constructed is also illustrated in her second Concept Map constructed after the learning programme
as represented in Figure 5.

When observing the first and second Concept Map represented in Figures 4 and 5, one can easily note that
the number of concepts and propositions has increased, revealing that learning has taken place. The first
Concept Map clearly depicts a linear way of thinking and it contrasts with the second Concept Map showing a
change even in the way of thinking. Furthermore, Maryanne not only increased the number of concepts but also
changed and developed the original concepts constructed in the first Concept Map.

The fact that this learner was eager to expand her knowledge reflects that she enjoys having more detailed
information about what she is learning. This is present not only in her Vee but also in her four page detailed
reflection where clear references to related literature were made. In this reflection she discusses how she looked
at herself as being a product of a system of education which promotes transmission of knowledge regardless of
the process of learning and how she changed and developed herself throughout this credit: This has opened
my eyes and mind to a way of teaching and learning which are new to me and which I have found to provide a
better teaching and learning as compared to other traditional methods of teaching which feed students with
information rather than allowing them to go through a process of learning.
She also refers to the bigger picture when discussing teaching
and learning: I will make use of Concept Maps in my teaching. This
is because they give learners the opportunity to be active participants
in the learning process. She also suggests that the Vee Heuristics
helped her to give a true picture of who the students really are as
learners. This will help me to cater for the needs of the students in
my classroom, appreciate them more with their diversity and help
them to develop to their fullest potential. The Vee Heuristics and the
Concept Maps build on the students prior knowledge. As proposed
by the constructivist theory, students learn best when information is
based on what they already know.

She also indicated how she could eventually implement all that
she had learnt in her own classroom and finally she described the
relevance of this credit to her experiences as a University student and
as a future educator: My experience during this unit was a very
positive one. I feel that this unit was helpful to me beyond my
expectations when I chose it as an optional credit. I have found it to
be one which touches my present life as a student and my future
career as a teacher. I feel that I have been challenged and encouraged at the same time.


Figure 5: Maryannes second Concept Map constructed after the learning programme
4.2 Learner 2 Stefan
From this learners Vee Heuristic, presented in Figure 6, one can easily observe a significant difference between
the left hand side of the Vee which was constructed during the first lecture before the learning programme and
the right hand side of the Vee which was compiled after the learning programme. It is also worth noting the
response given to question No. 2 in the Vee. This response is quite vague and surely reveals the low level of
motivation which the student had for this credit. Actually, during discussions with this learner, he confessed that
he had registered for this credit simply because it was the only one which did not clash with his time-table. This
is also manifested in response No.4 where we see this learners uncertainty in going through this programme.
This learner was not at all planning to learn from the lectures. However, it is important to note that he planned to
do his learning only through real life experiences. Nowhere did he mention that he planned to read or do
research to find more information.
Figure 4: Maryannes first Cmap,
constructed before the learningprogramme

Figure 6: Stefans Vee Heuristic

The information gathered from Stefans Vee was very important to me as the teacher: I took it into
consideration when planning the credit and I ensured that the students preference for learning from real life
experiences, as well as his avoidance of detailed information, was taken into account. This analysis of the Vee is
critical if the teacher expects meaningful learning to take place. Coffield (2004:17) states that teachers who
understand their own styles and those of their learners can reduce the harm they may otherwise do and
consequently they will develop more effective skills to interact with and respond to students.

The reply to question No. 5 The lectures helped me a lot and were more than enough suggests a few
things. First, that this learner found the lectures helpful and interesting but on the other hand the latter part of the
comment indicates that I must have overdone it with information from this learners point of view. It also tells
me that this learner did not feel the need to go and look up more information because what I delivered in the
lecture was more than enough. This contrasts sharply with the Vee Heuristic as presented by Maryanne since
that learner thoroughly enjoyed the extra information I provided.

The responses given on the right hand side of the Vee clearly contrast with the responses given on the left
hand side. This reveals that through the learning programme this learners motivation to learn increased, he also
found this unit quite meaningful as his answer to No.8 reveals: This information is important to me and should
be important to every teacher. As we can observe from the first Concept Map represented in Figure 7, this
learner did not have a clue of what ESD meant, however, the response given to question No.6 reveals that he has
grasped the meaning behind ESD and this is also corroborated in his second Concept Map illustrated in Figure
8. In the response given to question No.8 one can note a sense of determination and commitment in this
learners tone revealing once again that this programme left its mark on this learner who initially found himself
doing this credit just by chance. It is worth noting that this learners preferred way of learning through real life
experiences is also mirrored in question No. 8 where he suggests a change of attitude towards sustainable
development by leading through example and explain over and over again. Actually, one finds more
information in the Vee Heuristic and Concept Maps than in the ten line short paragraph presented as the written
reflection. Although all the information given in these ten lines was correct, the sentences were very short and
straight forward.

From the first Concept Map generated during the first lecture as presented in Figure 7, one can easily
observe a Concept Map presented as a chain revealing little or no knowledge about ESD. This kind of Concept
Map also reinforces the answers given to question No.2 and No.3 in the Vee illustrated in Figure 6. In the
second Concept Map constructed after the learning programme one can observe a change from a linear train of
thought to a net of thoughts and ideas. Although this Concept Map may have a few flaws in Concept Mapping
skills, what is more important is that it reveals how this learners knowledge has developed. There is a marked
increase in concepts and propositions and therefore learning has taken place.
Figure 7: Stefans First Concept Map
created before the learning programme.
Stefans Concept Maps differ from the other Concept Maps
presented in this study because they lack details and this could be
related to the fact that the dominant learning schema of this learner is
typical to this learner who avoids details and likes to go straight to
the point. However, the most salient points relating to what ESD is
all about are present: the differences between Stefans two Concept
Maps reveal that this learner has learned meaningfully although he
started off on this programme with a lack of interest and motivation.
It also stands to be said that although this learner purportedly avoids
details, his second Concept Map exhibits more details than the
paragraph he presented as a reflection. It is also worth noting the way
in which the first Concept Map (Fig. 7) was constructed and the way
in which the second Concept Map (Fig.8) was created. There is a
difference in colours and even in the arrowed lines showing that this
learner enjoyed constructing the second Cmap more than the first one
and put more time and effort into the process. The way in which this
learning programme was presented and experienced may have helped
in increasing this learners interest and motivation.



5 Concept Maps
One of the main focuses of this research revolves around the learning process as an interaction of thinking,
feeling and acting. Although Concept Maps in themselves do not reveal the affective side of learning, the actual
process of constructing a Cmap does involve these three mental processes. In contrast with traditional
teaching and learning where the students are asked to represent their knowledge through ways which rely
mainly on memory, in order to regurgitate chunks of information (surface learning), when students are asked to
represent their knowledge by constructing Concept Maps, they are be going through a process of metacognition
(deep learning). Metacognition entails mulling, connecting, rehearsing, expressing, assessing, reflecting,
revising and learning. Actually, when one is constructing a Concept Map, one goes through these processes and
this is the reason why Concept Maps facilitate meaningful learning and challenge rote learning. Furthermore,
when one is constructing a Concept Map one is not simply reproducing chunks of information which are totally
irrelevant to one's own experience (because it would have been studied by heart). When the learner is
constructing a Cmap, since he/she is presenting knowledge according to his/her own cognitive structure, the
learner is creating knowledge according to his/her own perspective and this will automatically be related to the
individuals own personal experience. This is why learning becomes more meaningful.
Figure 8: Stefans second Concept Map constructed after the learning programme.
6 Vee Heuristics
Novak (1998) reveals that the shape of a Vee was chosen above other shapes because by using this format, one
can clearly recognize and differentiate that both thinking (concepts and theories) and doing (methodology) are
implicated in the process of constructing knowledge. The right hand side of the Vee, reports the action part of
knowledge construction taking place. One can, in fact, visually see what the learner is doing to develop his/her
own knowledge. In addition, the learner can reflect and observe the development of the new knowledge taking
place as opposed to his/her prior knowledge on the left hand side of the Vee. In this way, prior knowledge has
been developed; misconceptions have been altered while new knowledge has been constructed. It is in this way
that the transmission model of education is being challenged, since the learner is learning on autonomously,
with the teacher only facilitating this process by providing the necessary tools. If rote learning does not impart
meaningful learning, the way forward must lie in the use of metacognitive learning. Research in this study and
elsewhere prove that Vee Heuristics promote metacognitive skills. Similarly, Novak argues that giving
learners the correct information does not displace their faulty conceptions! It takes a lot of negotiation of
meanings, a lot of shared experience to help learners reconstruct their internal concept Maps to be congruent
with the experts knowledge (Novak, 1998:118). Therefore, this process facilitates more teacher/student
interaction. An added value is that this whole process makes the teacher stop and reflect on his/her own practice.
In order to bring about transformation one must be ready to transform oneself first and foremost and the starting
point should be to reflect critically for If we want pupils to learn meaningfully and reflectively, then their
teachers ought to first learn how to learn meaningfully and reflectively (hlberg in Caas et al 2004:39).
7 Conclusion
The integrated use of Vee Heuristics and Concept Maps along with an awareness of how students prefer to learn
may promote the reflection and action that is required to stimulate change in education, in this case Higher
Education. Implementation of these teaching and learning tools will hopefully lead to the development of
creative and reflective practitioners in our society, empowered to become agents of transformation.
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