Week 1: Topological spaces

Document prepared by Anna Rozanova-Pierrat1

Notations:
A set A is a subset of a set B:
AB

and A can be equal to B.

In the case when A is a proper subset of B (A 6= B) we use A ( B.

Lecture 1.3: Open sets and topology

1.1

Definition and examples

Definition 1 Let X be a set and T be a family of subsets of X. T is called a topology on X if:

1. The empty set

? and X are elements of T .

2. Arbitrary (finite or infinite) unions U of elements of T belong to T (or equivalently, T is

stable by arbitrary unions).
3. Any finite intersection U of elements of T is in T (or equivalently, T is stable by finite
intersection).
Definition 2 Set X with a given topology defined on it, i.e. the pair (X, T ), is a topological space.
Definition 3 Elements of T are called open sets.
To specify a topological space, it means to define a set X and a topology in X, i.e., to indicate which
subsets of X are considered as open sets. Clearly, we can define on X various different topologies
and therefore obtain different topological spaces constructed on the same set X.
Example 1 If X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then
T1 = {?, {1, 2}, {3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4}, X} and T2 = {?, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {2}, {1, 2, 3}, X}
are different topologies on X, as the three properties in Definition (1) are satisfied and T1 6= T2 .
Any set X can always be considered as a topological space:
Example 2 For any set X it is always possible to define:
the trivial topology Tt = {?, X};
the discrete topology Td = {all subsets of X} (a usual notation for Td is 2X ).
1

MAS, ECP

Week 1: Topological spaces

We notice that in the case of the discrete topology every subset of (X, Td ) is open.
Let us note the procedure for the construction of a topology T on a given family F of sets in X
(while adding the fewest possible sets):
1. Add

? and the whole space X to T .

2. Add to T all finite intersections of elements of F . Thus T is a family of subsets of X stable by

any finite intersection.
3. Add to T all unions of elements of T constructed in the step 2. T is now stable by unions. It
can be proved that the constructed T is stable by finite intersections and consequently, T is a
topology in X.
Remark 1 Points 2 and 3 of the construction of a topology T cannot be permuted: if we take, firstly,
all unions in X, and after it all finite intersections, we obtain a family of sets stable by all finite
intersections, but not by any unions. To remedy this fact, we should take again all unions of elements
in T .
Definition 4 (Usual topology on R ) Let X = R . The usual topology on
T defined by
O T iff x O > 0 : ]x , x + [ O.

R called the topology

Definition 5 Complements of open sets are called closed sets: for any U T , which is open, its
complement F = X \ U is closed.
The elements of a topological space (X, T ), i.e. x X, are called the points of (X, T ).
The elements of a topology T , defined on a set X, are subsets of X.
Let us recall the following de Morgans laws (also sometimes called "duality principle") from set
theory: the complement of a union equals the intersection of the complements, and the complement
of an intersection equals the union of the complements, i.e.
X \ U = (X \ U ),
X \ U = (X \ U ).

(1)
(2)

Problem 1 Prove relations (1) and (2).

According to de Morgans laws, it follows from Definition 1 that:
1. The space (X, T ) itself and the empty set

? are closed;

2. Arbitrary (finite or infinite) intersections F and finite unions F of closed sets of (X, T )
are closed.
We introduce now the concepts of neighborhood, contact point, limit point and closure of a set:
Definition 6
1. The set U is called a neighborhood of a point x of the topological space (X, T )
if there exists an open set V T such that x V and V U. The set of neighborhoods of x
is noted V(x).
2. A point x (X, T ) is called a contact point of a set A (X, T ) if every neighborhood of x
contains at least one point of A;

Week 1: Topological spaces

3. A point x (X, T ) is called a limit point of a set A (X, T ) if every neighborhood of x

contains at least one point of A different of x:
V (A \ {x}) 6= ?

for all neighborhoods V of x;

4. The set of all contact points of a set A (X, T ) is called the closure of A, denoted by A.
Problem 2 Let A (X, T ). Then A = A iff A is closed.
Problem 3 Given a topological space (X, T ), prove that a set A X is open if and only if every
point x A has a open neighborhood contained in A.
From Problem 2 it follows that the closure of A is the minimal closed set containing A.
Definition 7 The largest open set contained in a given set A is called the interior of A.
Example 3 Every closed interval [a, b] on the real line is a closed set for the usual topology on R .
Indeed, all points of [a, b] are limit and, thus, contact points. Therefore, [a, b] = [a, b] and then it is a
closed set. For the open interval, ]a, b[, the points a and b are not in ]a, b[, but they are still contact
and limit points. Consequently, ]a, b[ = [a, b].
Moreover, we have the following theorem:
Theorem 1 Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, T ). Then
1. A A (A is the smallest closed set containing A),
2. A = A,
3. if B A, then B A,
4. for all A, B in X, A B = A B.
Proof. Property 1) holds, since every point of A is a contact point of A.
Lets prove property 2). Thanks to Problem 2, A is a closed set and therefore, A = A.
Property 3) is obvious.
To prove property 4), let x A B and suppose x
/ A B. Then x
/ A and x
/ B. But then there
exist open neighborhoods VA and VB of x such that VA contains no points of A while VB contains no
points of B. It follows that the set V = VA VB is the open neighborhood of x which contains no
points of either A or B, and hence no points of A B, contrary to the assumption that x A B.
Therefore x A B, and consequently
A B A B,
since x is an arbitrary point of A B. On the other hand, since A A B and B A B, using
3) we obtain that
A B A B.
As A B A B A B, we conclude that A B = A B.

Example 4
1. For the discrete topology (X, Td ) introduced in Example 2, every set A (X, Td )
is both open and closed and coincides with its own closure.
2. If the topology on X is trivial, the closure of every nonempty set is the whole space X. Therefore,
(X, Tt ) can be called space of coalesced points".

Week 1: Topological spaces

Example 5 Let X be the set {a, b}, consisting of just two points a and b, and let the open sets in
X be X itself, the empty set and the single-element set {b}:
T = {?, {b}, X}.
Then the three properties in Definition 1 are satisfied, and (X, T ) is a topological space. The closed
sets in this space are X itself, the empty set and the set {a}. Note that the closure of {b} is the whole
space X.

1.2

Comparison of topologies

Definition 8 Let T1 and T2 be two topologies defined in the same set X. Then the topology T1 is
stronger than the topology T2 (or equivalently, T2 is weaker than T1 ) if T2 T1 , i.e., if every set of
the system T2 is a set of the system T1 .
Let be the set of all topologies in X. Then for all T
Tt T Td ,
where Tt is the trivial topology in X and Td is the discrete topology in X. In other words, Td is the
maximal element of (the strongest topology in X) and Tt is the minimal element of (the weakest
topology in X).
Theorem 2 Let {T } be any set of topologies in X. Then the intersection T = T is also a
topology in X.
Proof. We need to verify Definition 1 for T . Clearly T contains X and ?. Moreover, since every
T is stable by the operations of taking arbitrary unions and finite intersections, the same is true for
T . 
Corollary 1 Let A be any system of subsets of a set X. Then there exists a minimal topology in X
containing A, i.e., a topology T (A) containing A and contained in every topology containing A.
Proof. A topology containing A always exists, e.g., the discrete topology in which every subset of
X is open. The intersection of all topologies containing A is the desired minimal topology T (A),
often called the topology generated by the system A. 
Definition 9 Let A be a system of subsets of X and A a fixed subset of X. Then the system AA
consisting of all subsets of X of the form A B, B A is called the trace of the system A on the
set A.
It is easy to see that the trace (on A) of a topology T (defined in X) is a topology TA in A. (Such
a topology is often called a relative or induced topology.) In this sense, every subset A of a given
topological space (X, T ) generates a new topological space (A, TA ), called a subspace of the original
topological space (X, T ).
Example 6 The set ]0, 1] R is not open in the usual topology of
topology when considered as a subset of A = [1, 1].

R , but it is open in the induced

Let us also notice that if T1 and T2 are different topologies in X, they can generate the same relative
topology TA in A.

Week 1: Topological spaces

Definition 10 Let (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) be two topological spaces. The product topology in X Y ,
denoted T = TX TY , is defined by calling U X Y open if
(x, y) U V TX and W TY such that x V, y W and V W U.
Example 7 R 2 = R R is a topological space with the usual product topology constructed on the
two usual topologies in R .

1.3

Dense subsets and connected topological spaces

Note: There will be a video lecture about density next week.

Definition 11 Let A and B be subsets of a topological space (X, T ). Let A B. The set A is
dense in B if A B. Here we take A in topology on X:
x B

open neighborhoods U of x (U T ) U A 6= ?.

Remark 2 We can also say for A B that the set A is dense in B if A = B for the induced topology
on B (we have = , because, in this case by definition of the induced topology A cannot be bigger than
B.) I.e.
x B open neighborhoods U B of x (U T ) (U B) A 6= ?.
Definition 12 Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, T ). The set A is said to be dense in X
if A = X. A set A is said to be nowhere dense if it is dense in no (open) set at all.
Example 8 The set of all rational numbers

is dense in

R.

Given any topological space (X, T ), the empty set ? and the space X itself are both open and closed,
by definition.
Definition 13 A topological space (X, T ) is said to be connected if it has no subsets other than
and X which are both open and closed.
Example 9 The real line
point x0 .

2
2.1

is connected, but not the set

R \ {x0 } obtained from R

by deleting the

Lecture 1.4: Convergence and continuity

Continuous mappings. Homeomorphism

Definition 14 Let f be a mapping of one topological space (X, TX ) into another topological space
(Y, TY ), so that f associates an element y = f (x) Y with each element x X. Then f is said to
be continuous at the point x0 X if, given any neighborhood Wy0 of the point y0 = f (x0 ), there
is a neighborhood Ux0 of the point x0 such that f (Ux0 ) Wy0 .
Definition 15 The mapping f : (X, TX ) (Y, TY ) is said to be continuous on X if it is continuous at every point of X.

Week 1: Topological spaces

In particular, a continuous mapping of a topological space (X, TX ) into the real line (R , TR ) is called
a continuous real mapping on X. Here by TR we denote the usual topology on R (see Definition 4).
The notion of continuity of a mapping f of one topological space into another is easily stated in
terms of open sets, i.e., in terms of the topologies of the two spaces:
Theorem 3 A mapping f of a topological space (X, TX ) into a topological space (Y, TY ) is continuous
if and only if the inverse image f 1 (W ) of every open set W TY is open, i.e. f 1 (W ) TX .
Proof. Suppose f is continuous on (X, TX ), and let W be any open subset of TY . Choose any point
x f 1 (W ), and let y = f (x) (see Fig. 1). Then W is an open neighborhood of the point y. Hence,
f
f (Ux )

x
Ux
f 1 (W )

y
f 1

Figure 1 Illustration of the proof of Theorem 3: for any open W in Y , any point x f 1 (W ) is associated
with y = f (x); UX is a neighborhood of x such that f (UX ) W .

by the continuity of f , there is a neighborhood UX of x such that f (UX ) W , i.e., UX f 1 (W ).

In other words, every point x f 1 (W ) has a neighborhood contained in f 1 (W ). Consequently
f 1 (W ) is open.
Conversely, suppose f 1 (W ) is open whenever W Y is open. Given any point x X, let UY be
any open neighborhood of the point y = f (x).
Then clearly x f 1 (UY ), and moreover f 1 (UY ) is open, by hypothesis. Therefore UX = f 1 (UY )
is a neighborhood of x such that f (UX ) UY . In other words, f is continuous at x and hence on X,
since x is an arbitrary point of X. 
Let us recall the following Lemma:
Lemma 1
1. The inverse image of a union (or intersection) of sets equals the union (or intersection) of the inverse images of the sets:
f 1 (A B) = f 1 (A) f 1 (B),

f 1 (A B) = f 1 (A) f 1 (B) A, B Y.

2. The inverse image of the complement of a set is the complement of the inverse image of the
set:
U Y f 1 (Y \ U) = X \ f 1 (U).
Remark 3 Suppose f : (X, TX ) (Y, TY ) is a mapping of a topological space (X, TX ) into a
topological space (Y, TY ). Let f 1 (TY ) be the inverse image of the topology TY :
f 1 (TY ) = { system of all sets f 1 (U) | U TY }.
Thanks to the point 1 of Lemma 1, we obtain that f 1 (TY ) is a topology in X.
Problem 4 Prove the following theorem:

Week 1: Topological spaces

Theorem 4 Let f : (X, TX ) (Y, TY ) be a mapping of a topological space (X, TX ) into a topological
space (Y, TY ). The mapping f is continuous if and only if the topology TX is stronger than the topology
f 1 (TY ).
Thanks to point 2 of Lemma 1, we obtain the dual form of Theorem 3:
Theorem 5 A mapping f of a topological space (X, TX ) into a topological space (Y, TY ) is continuous
if and only if the inverse image f 1 (W ) of every closed set W Y is closed in X.
It is important to notice that the image (as opposed to the inverse image) of an open set under
a continuous mapping need not be open. Similarly, the image of a closed set under a continuous
mapping need not be closed.
Problem 5 Give an example of a continuous mapping f : X Y which maps a closed set of X in
an open set of Y .
As a direct Corollary of Theorem 3, we have the theorem on continuity of composite mapping:
Theorem 6 Given topological spaces (X, TX ), (Y, TY ) and (Z, TZ ), suppose f is a continuous mapping of (X, TX ) into (Y, TY ) and g is a continuous mapping of (Y, TY ) into (Z, TZ ). Then the mapping
g f : x X 7 g(f (x)) Z is continuous.
Definition 16 Given two topological spaces (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ), let f be a bijection of (X, TX ) onto
(Y, TY ), and suppose f and f 1 are both continuous. Then f is called a homeomorphic mapping
or simply a homeomorphism (between X and Y ). Two spaces (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) are said to be
homeomorphic if there exists a homeomorphism between them. We note the homeomorphic spaces by
(X, TX ) (Y, TY ).
Homeomorphic spaces have the same topological properties, and from the topological point of view
are merely two representatives of one and the same space. In fact, if f is a homeomorphic mapping
of (X, TX ) onto (Y, TY ), then TX = f 1 (TY ) and TY = f (TX ).
Example 10 The interval ] 2 , 2 [ equipped with the usual topology on R is homeomorphic to R also
equipped with the usual topology, as f (x) = tan(x) is a homeomorphic mapping of ] 2 , 2 [ into R .
Remark 4 The relation of being homeomorphic is reflexive, i.e. for any topological space
(X, TX ),
(X, TX ) (X, TX ),
symmetric, i.e. for all topological spaces (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ),
(X, TX ) (Y, TY ) (Y, TY ) (X, TX ),
and transitive, i.e. for all topological spaces (X, TX ), (Y, TY ) and (Z, TZ ),
(X, TX ) (Y, TY ) and (Y, TY ) (Z, TZ ) (X, TX ) (Z, TZ ),
and hence is called an equivalence relation. Therefore any given family of topological spaces can
be partitioned into disjoint classes of homeomorphic spaces.

2.2

Converging sequences in (X, T )

Let V(x) denote the set of all neighborhoods of x X and O(x) denote the set of all open neighborhoods of x X.

Week 1: Topological spaces

Definition 17 Let (X, T ) be a topological space and (xn ) be a sequence of elements of X. We say
that (xn ) converges to l, if
U V(l), N N such that n N xn U.

We note that
(xn ) may converge to several elements of X;
If the topology on X is stronger (larger/finer), it is harder for (xn ) to converge;
If X is equipped with the discrete topology, only sequences that become constant converge.
Remark 5 Thanks to the definition of the neighborhood U, as any set containing an open set V
such that x V (and thus V is an open neighborhood of x!), we can consider the equivalent form of
Definition 17 choosing only open neighborhoods of l:
Definition 18 Let (X, T ) be a topological space and (xn ) be a sequence of elements of X. We say
that (xn ) converges to l if
V O(l), N N such that n N xn V.

For the sake of clarity, in what follows we will use Definition 18.
Proposition 1 Let (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ) be two topological spaces. Let f : X Y be a continuous
mapping and (xn ) be a sequence in X converging to l. Define yn = f (xn ). Then (yn ) converges to
f (l) in Y .
Proof. Let U be any open neighborhood of f (l). Since f is continuous, f 1 (U) is open (thanks to
the definition of continuity). Since f (l) U, we have l f 1 (U) and consequently f 1 (U) is a open
neighborhood of l. Since (xn ) converges to l in X,
N N such that n N xn f 1 (U),

implies yn = f (xn ) U for all n N. As U is an arbitrary chosen open neighborhood of f (l), we

find that
U O(f (l)), N N such that n N yn U.
So (yn ) converges to f (l).

Example 11 Let us consider the topological space (X, T1 ) from Example 1. We denote by [x] the
integer part of x. The sequence (xn )n1 is defined as
xn =
from where we find

4
(1)n + 3
+
,
n
2

 

x1 = 5, x2 = 4, x3 = 2, x4 = 3, x5 = 1, x6 = 2, x7 = 1, x8 = 2, . . .
We notice that for n 2 x2n+1 = 1 and for n 3 x2n = 2. It means that for n 5 xn {1, 2}. The
set {1, 2} is the smallest open neighborhood containing 1 or 2 in (X, T1 ):
1, 2 {1, 2} ( {1, 2, 3, 4} ( X.

Therefore, (xn ) converge to 1 and to 2 (the limit l is not unique) in (X, T1 ).

Example 12 Let us consider R with the usual topology. The sequence ( n1 )n1 converge to 0 in R :
for any open neighborhood of zero ] m1 , m1 [ with m R \ {0} there exists n0 N such that for all
n > n0 we have n1 ] m1 , m1 [.

Week 1: Topological spaces

Lecture 1.5: Initial topology

We can equip a set X with a topology that makes every mapping fi on X continuous. If all else fails,
the discrete topology will work!
Definition 19 Let fi : X Yi be given mappings defined on a set X (i I). We call initial
topology, noted (X, {fi , i I}), the coarsest topology in X that makes every fi continuous, as
mappings from the topological space (X, (X, {fi , i I})) to the topological space (Yi, TYi ).
Example 13 Let X = R , Y = R and f be defined by
f (x) =

0
1

if x 0
.
if x > 0

Equip Y with the usual topology. The initial topology on X for f is

(R , {f }) = {?, ] , 0], ]0, +[,

R }.

Lemma 2 Let fi : X Yi be given mappings defined on a set X (i I finite or not) with

image in sets Yi equipped with topologies TYi . Then for any open set U 6= ? of the initial topology
(X, {fi , i I}) there exists a finite number of open sets Vi in TYi such that
iG fi1 (Vi ) U,
where G is a finite part of I.
Proof. Since U is open, then U (X, {fi , i I}) and consequently, by definition of the initial
topology, U can be presented as a finite intersection or a union of the inverse images of open sets in
Yi . In other words, for all U (X, {fi , i I}) there exist open sets Vi in TYi such that
U = iG fi1 (Vi ) or U = iJ fi1 (Vi ),
where by G is denoted a finite part of I and by J is denoted any subset finite or not of I. Since
iJ fi1 (Vi ) iG fi1 (Vi )

for a finite index set G ( J,

then we can always say that for all open U there exists a finite number of open sets Vi in TYi such
that
U iG fi1 (Vi ).

Remark 6 Let fi : X Yi. We notice that the initial topology (X, {fi , i I}) is constructed on the
family of sets fi1 (Vi ) for open Vi in Yi (see Section 1.1). Moreover, the family of sets f inite fi1 (Vi )
is a base of the initial topology (see H. Brezis Functional Analysis, Sobolev Spaces and Partial
Differential Equations or A.N. Kolmogorov, S.V. Fomin Introductory Real Analysis p.80).
Proposition 2 Let fi : X Yi be given mappings defined on a set X (i I finite or not) with
image in sets Yi equipped with topologies TYi and let (xn ) be a sequence of X. In the topological space
(X, (X, {fi , i I})), equipped with the initial topology, for n
xn x

if and only if

i I, fi (xn ) fi (x)

[in the topological spaces (Yi , TYi )].

10

Week 1: Topological spaces

Proof. The direct statement follows from Proposition 1 as all functions fi are continuous for the
initial topology (X, {fi , i I}).
Let us prove the converse. Let U be an open neighborhood of x in (X, (X, {fi , i I})) and Vi be
open neighborhoods of fi (x) in (Yi , TYi ). As mappings fi are continuous for all i I, the inverse
images fi1 (Vi ) are open thanks to Theorem 3. In addition, x fi1 (Vi ) for all i I, thus the inverse
images fi1 (Vi ) and also any finite intersection of them are open neighborhoods of x. Therefore,
using Lemma 2, there exists a finit subset G of I such that the finite intersection of iG fi1 (Vi ) is
contained in U.
As fi (xn ) fi (x) for all i, then
there exists Ni N such that n Ni

fi (xn ) Vi .

Let N be the largest Ni for all i G. Then n N implies xn iG fi1 (Vi ) U, which completes
the proof. 

Lecture 1.6: What a topology sees and does not see.

Separation of topological spaces

Let (X, TX ) be a topological space. We would like to address these questions:

If x is a limit point of A X. Is there a sequence (xn ) of points of A converging to x?
Let xn x in (X, TX ). IS the limit unique?
Let x and y be two different points of (X, TX ). Can we separate them?
To do so, we need to specify the separation properties of the topological space (X, TX ).

y
Oy

Ox
Figure 2 First axiom of separation.

Definition 20 A topological space (X, TX ) said to satisfy the First axiom of separation (or to
be T1 space) if for all two distinct points x and y in (X, TX ) there exists an open neighborhood Ox
of the point x such that y
/ Ox and there exists a open neighborhood Oy of the point y such that
x
/ Oy . (see Fig.2)
Example 14 The topological space (X, TX ) constructed in Example 5 is not a T1 -space.
In a T1 -space singleton point is a closed set. Indeed, if x 6= y, then there exists an open neighborhood
Oy of the point y such that x
/ Oy , i.e. y
/ x. Thus, x = x. Consequently, in a T1 -space any finite
union of points is a closed set.

Week 1: Topological spaces

11

In the topological spaces which are not T1 -spaces, even sets composed only of a finite number of
points can possess limit points. In the topological space (X, TX ) constructed in Example 5, the point
{a} is the limit point for the set W = {b}.
But in a T1 -space, it holds
Lemma 3 Point x is a limit point of the set W in a T1 -space if and only if all open neighborhoods
U of x contains infinite number of points of W .
Proof. If any open neighborhood U of x contains an infinite number of points from W it is obvious
(see Definition 6) that in this case x is a limit point of W . Let us prove the converse. Let x be a limit
point of W . Suppose that there exists an open neighborhood U of x such that U contains only a finite
number of points {x1 , . . . , xn } of W (where xi 6= x for all i in the case when x W ). As in a T1 -space
any finite union of points is a closed set, {x1 , . . . , xn } is closed. Therefore, O = U \ {x1 , . . . , xn } is
open and, thus, O is an open neighborhood of x such that O (W \ {x}) = ?, which contradicts the
definition of a limit point. 
Let us introduce Hausdorff spaces.
Definition 21 A topological space (X, TX ) is a Hausdorff space (or a T2 -space or a separated
space) if all two distinct points in X have two disjoint neighborhoods. (see Fig.3)

Oy

Ox
Figure 3 Hausdorff space.

The main advantage of a Hausdorff space is that the limit of a sequence is unique.
All Hausdorff spaces are T1 -space, but not converse.
Example 15 (T1 -space, but not T2 -space) Let us consider the interval [0, 1] and all sets
Am,a1 ,...,am = [0, 1] \ (m
i=1 {ai }),
If X = [0, 1] with the topology T composed by
not a Hausdorff space.

where ai [0, 1] and 0 m +.

? and all sets Am,a ,...,a

, then (X, T ) is T1 -space, but

M
OM

Ox
Figure 4 Third axiom of separation

Definition 22 A topological space (X, TX ) is said to satisfy the Third axiom of separation (or
to be T3 space) if for all points x and closed sets M in (X, TX ) not containing x, there exist two
disjoint neighborhoods Ox of the point x and OM of the set M. (see Fig.4)

12

Week 1: Topological spaces

We note that the open neighborhood of a set M in the topological space (X, T ) is called any open
set U containing M.
Problem 6 Show that third axiom of separation can be also formulated in the following equivalent
form:
All open neighborhood U of a point x (X, T ) contains the closure of a smaller neighborhood O of
x: x O U.
Definition 23 Topological spaces which satisfy the axioms T1 and T3 are called regular.
Obviously, each regular space is a Hausdorff space. But not converse:
Example 16 (Hausdorff spaces which are not regular) Let X = [0, 1]. Let all points of X
different to 0 have the usual neighborhoods of the usual topology. Define the neighborhoods of zero as
all semi-intervals [0, [ without points n1 , n N . This is a Hausdorff space, but the point 0 and the
closed set { n1 }nN are not separated by disjoint neighborhoods, i.e. axiom T3 is false.
Definition 24 A topological T1 -space (X, TX ) is said to satisfy the Fourth axiom of separation
(or to be a T4 space or a normal space) if for all two disjoint closed sets M and P in (X, TX ),
there exist two disjoint neighborhoods. (see Fig.5)

P
OP

OM
Figure 5 Normal space.

Compactness

5.1

Compact topological spaces

Definition 25
1. A cover of a set A in a topological space (X, T ) is a family of sets {U } such
that A U .
2. A cover {U } of A in a topological space (X, T ) is called open if all U are open in (X, T ).
3. A family of sets {V } is called a subcover of A in (X, T ) if
(a) {V } is a subset of the cover {U } of A
(b) {V } is a cover of A.
Definition 26 A topological space (X, T ) is said to be compact if every open cover of (X, T ) has
a finite subcover.
Example 17 Any closed bounded subset of R n is compact (it will be proved later). On the other hand,
Rn itself (e.g., the real line, a two-dimensional plane or three-dimensional space) is not compact.

Week 1: Topological spaces

13

Definition 27 A system of subsets {U } of a set A is said to be centered or to have the finite

intersection property, if every finite intersection nk=1 Uk is nonempty.
Theorem 7 A topological space (X, T ) is compact if and only if every centered system of closed
subsets of (X, T ) has a non empty intersection.
Proof. Suppose (X, T ) is compact, and let {F } be any centered system of closed subsets of (X, T ).
Then the sets U = X \ F are open.
Since any finite intersection ni=1 Fi is not empty, de Morgans law (2) implies
ni=1 Ui = ni=1 X \ Fi = X \ ni=1 Fi X
that there is no finite system of sets Ui = X \ Fi which covers X. But X is compact, thus the whole
system of {U } cannot cover X (see Definition 26), and hence F 6= ?.
Conversely, suppose every centered system of closed subsets of (X, T ) has a non-empty intersection,
and let {U } be any open cover of X. Setting F = X \ U , we find using de Morgans law (2) that
F = (X \ U ) = X \ ( U ) = X \ X = ?.
By the hypothesis, this implies that the system {F } is not centered, i.e., that there are sets F1 , . . . , Fn
such that ni=1 Fi = ?. But then the corresponding open sets Ui = X \ Fi form a finite subcover of
the cover {U }. Consequently, (X, T ) is compact. 
Theorem 8 Every closed subset F of a compact topological space (X, T ) is itself compact.
Proof. The subset F is considered as a topological space with the induced topology TF = T F .
Therefore, since F is closed in T , every set W closed in the induced topology TF , is also closed in
the initial topology T .
Let {F } be any centered system of closed subsets of the subspace F X by the induced topology.
Then every F is closed in (X, T ) as well, i.e., {F } is a centered system of closed subsets of (X, T ).
Therefore F 6= ?, by Theorem 7. But then F is compact, by Theorem 7 again. 
Corollary 2 Every closed subset of a compact Hausdorff space is itself a compact Hausdorff space.
Proof. The proof follows from Theorem 8 and the fact that every subset of a Hausdorff space is
itself a Hausdorff space. 
Theorem 9 Let (K, TK ) be a compact Hausdorff space and (X, TX ) be any Hausdorff space containing (K, TK ), i.e. TK is the induced topology by TX . Then (K, TK ) is closed in (X, TX ).
Proof.
Suppose y
/ K, so that y X \ K. Let us show that X \ K is open in (X, TX ). Given any point
x K, there is an open neighborhood Ux of x and an open neighborhood Vx of y (see Fig. 6) such
that
Ux Vx = ?.
The neighborhoods {Ux }xK form an open (in TX ) cover of K. Let us recall that if a set W is closed
(or open) in the initial topology TX , it is also closed (open) in the induced topology TK . Hence, by
the compactness of K, the cover {Ux K}xK , open in TK , has a finite subcover Ux1 K, . . . , Uxn K.
Let
V = Vx 1 . . . Vx n .

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Week 1: Topological spaces

Then V is an open neighborhood of the point y which does not intersect the set Ux1 . . . Uxn
and hence y
/ K. It means that

) K,

y X \ K open neighborhood V X \ K,
which proves that X \ K is open in (X, TX ).


Ux

y
Vx

Figure 6 Compact K with y

/ K, x K and the open neighborhoods Ux of x and Vx of y such that
Ux Vx = ?.

Theorem 10 Every compact Hausdorff space (K, TK ) is a normal space.

Proof. Let X and Y be any two disjoint closed subsets of K. Let us construct open sets V X
and U Y such that the normality condition holds:
V U = ?.
Repeating the argument given in the proof of Theorem 9, we easily see that, given any point y Y ,
there exists an open neighborhood Uy containing y and an open set Vy X such that Uy Vy = ?.
Since Y is compact, by Theorem 8, the cover {Uy }yY of the set Y has a finite subcover Uy1 , . . . , Uyn .
Thus we take

V = Vy1 . . . Vyn , U = Uy1 . . . Uyn .
Theorem 11 If (X, T ) is a compact space, then any infinite subset of X has at least one limit point.
Proof. Suppose X contains an infinite set J with no limit point. Then in J there exists a countable
subset
J1 = {x1 , x2 , . . .}
(we remind that a set S is called countable if there exists an injective mapping from S to the set of
natural numbers N ). Therefore, J1 has no limit point. Let us show that J1 is closed.
Let us consider x X \ J1 . Since J1 has no limit point, there exists a neighborhood U of x which
does not contain any point of J1 :
y J1 : y U.
Then for all x X \J1 there exists a neighborhood U X \J1 , and thus X \J1 is open. Consequently,
we conclude that J1 is closed.

Week 1: Topological spaces

But then the sets

15

Jn = {xn , xn+1 , . . .} n N

form a centered system of closed sets in (X, T ) with an empty intersection

nN Jn = ?,
i.e., (X, T ) is not compact.
Remark 7 The following assertions are not equivalent in topological spaces:
1. any infinite subset of X has at least one limit point;
2. any sequence in X has a convergent subsequence.
Definition 28 A subset K X of a topological space (X, T ) is called countably compact if every
infinite subset of K has at least one limit point (in K).
Thus Theorem 11 says that every compact set is countably compact. The converse, however, is not
true. For the relation between the concepts of compactness and sequentially compactness see A.N.
Kolmogorov, S.V. Fomin Introductory Real Analysis. We just formulate the following Theorem
(see Kolmogorov, Fomin p.95 for the proof):
Theorem 12 A topological space (X, T ) is countably compact
1. if and only if every countable open cover of X has a finite subcover.
2. if and only if every countable centered system of closed subsets of X has a nonempty intersection.
Definition 29 A subset K X of a topological space (X, T ) is called sequentially compact if
every sequence in K has a convergent subsequence.

5.2

Continuous mappings of compact spaces

Next we show that the "continuous image" of a compact space is itself a compact space:
Theorem 13 Let (X, TX ) be a compact space and f a continuous mapping of (X, TX ) in a topological
space (Y, TY ). Then f (X) endowed with the induced topology Ty f (X) is itself compact.
Proof. Let {V } be any open (by Ty f (X)) cover of f (X):
V = f (X),
and let U = f 1 (V ). As f is continuous, U are open in (X, TX ). Moreover {U } covers the space
X:
X = f 1 ( V ) = f 1 (V ) = U .
Since (X, TX ) is compact, {U } has a finite subcover U1 , . . . , Un :
X = ni=1 Ui .
Then the sets V1 , . . . , Vn , where Vi = f (Ui ), cover the entire image f (X). It follows that (f (X), TY
f (X)) is compact. 

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Week 1: Topological spaces

Theorem 14 If f be a continuous bijection of a compact Hausdorff space (X, TX ) onto a compact

Hausdorff space (Y, TY ), then f is a homeomorphism.
Proof. Let f be a continuous bijection between two compact Hausdorff spaces (X, TX ) and (Y, TY ).
We need to show that the inverse mapping f 1 is itself continuous:
(f 1 )1 (V ) is closed for all closed V X.
We notice that f = (f 1 )1 which means that we need to prove
f (V ) is closed for all closed V X.
Let V be a closed set in (X, TX ) and P = f (V ) its image in (Y, TY ). Then P is a compact Hausdorff
space, by Theorem 13. Hence, by Theorem 9, P is closed in (Y, TY ). Therefore, we conclude that
for any closed set P Y the inverse image f 1 (P ) = V is closed in (X, TX ). Consequently, from
Theorem 5 it follows that f 1 is continuous. 

5.3

Relatively compact subsets

Among the subsets of a topological space, those whose closures are compact are of special interest:
Definition 30 A subset M of a topological space (X, T ) is said to be relatively compact in (X, T )
if its closure M in (X, T ) is compact.
Example 18 According to Theorem 8, every subset of a compact topological space is relatively compact.
Example 19 As we will see in Week 2, every bounded subset of the real line

R is relatively compact.

Problem 7 A topological space (X, T ) is said to be locally compact if every point x X has at least
one relatively compact neighborhood. Show that a compact space is automatically locally compact, but
not conversely. Prove that every closed subspace of a locally compact subspace is locally compact.