SMI 2012: Full Paper

As-conformal-as-possible discrete volumetric mapping

$
Gilles-Philippe Paille
n
, Pierre Poulin
LIGUM, Dept. I.R.O., Universite de Montreal, Canada
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 3 December 2011
Received in revised form
14 March 2012
Accepted 17 March 2012
Available online 30 March 2012
Keywords:
Conformal map
Quasi-conformal map
Volumetric map
Harmonic map
Polycube map
a b s t r a c t
In this paper, we tackle the problem of generalizing conformal maps to volumetric meshes. Current
methods seek for harmonicity but unfortunately, no computational methods optimize conformality in
the volumetric context. As it is proven that conformal maps do not exist for general volume
transformations, we seek to optimize shape preservation with a generalization of the CauchyRiemann
equations. Our algorithm is fast and easily adaptable to existing harmonic mapping methods. Compared
to harmonic maps, results show improvements on both angular and volumetric energy measures at a
cost below 1% of total computations. The method extends well in any dimension and several research
areas could benet from our derivations of volumetric conformal optimization.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Parameterization plays an important role in computer gra-
phics. It is best known for texturing 3D models but it is also used
for shape matching and analysis, remeshing, spline construction,
physical simulation, etc. [1]. While being mostly studied for
surfaces, volumetric parameterization has recently shown an
increased interest, notably in the domain of engineering and
medical imaging [2], where structural evaluations require a good
distribution of internal volume elements.
Most of the current parameterization techniques are based on
harmonic maps that are obtained by solving the Laplace equation.
They offer good deformation properties for the interior of the
object, but the boundary often suffers from higher nonuniform
scaling, as shown in Fig. 1.
This paper revisits the Laplace operator by generalizing the
well known conformal maps to the volumetric context, thus
leading to volumetric as-conformal-as-possible (ACAP) maps
(Fig. 2). Conformality has important qualities such as angle and
local shape preservation, and thus it is natural to ask for similar
properties when extending from surfaces to volumes. As far as we
know, no such attempts to generalize conformal maps to the 3D
context have been made so far.
By generalizing the CauchyRiemann equations, we obtain a
rst-order matricial operator that optimizes conformality in each
of the three canonical orthogonal planes. Minimizing the error in
the least-squares sense leads to a simple second order operator
similar to the Laplace operator. In fact, a family of operators can
be obtained using the same derivations, leading to other forms of
energy minimization, thus showing the generality of the equa-
tions. Indeed, we show that orthogonality and uniform scaling can
be weighted to obtain the desired map constraints.
The mathematical expression being similar to the Laplace
operator, many parameterization methods could benet from
our approach. We also believe that this could have several
applications in areas where the Laplace operator is currently
used, such as in physically based and non-physically based
animations [3].
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the
essential surface and volumetric parameterization methods, and
then introduces the contributions of our method. Section 3
describes the energy minimization technique, starting from the
continuous case to the discrete case, before synthesizing the
whole method in a simple algorithm. Numerical and visual results
are provided in Section 4, and conclusions in Section 5.
2. Related work
Surface parameterization has been extensively studied in the
past. Even though volumetric parameterization is built on top of
surface parameterization, reviewing the latter is beyond the scope
of this paper. For good surveys on these techniques, see [46,1].
In our implementation, we use a simple piecewise-linear para-
meterization approach that optimizes conformality on arbitrary
domains. Other methods could be used as well.
Volumetric parameterization techniques began to appear in
2003. Wang et al. [7] introduce a simple method for computing
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online after the conference. Please see http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.03.
014.
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 343 6111x3513.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G.-P. Paille ).
Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 427433
volumetric harmonic maps by conformally mapping the surface of
a genus zero object to a sphere, and then optimizing for the
interior using methods similar to those used to solve the heat
equation. The technique is also applied to brain mapping [8].
While the method is not strictly restricted to genus zero objects,
the authors do not describe how to extend it to domains of
arbitrary topology.
Many papers have emerged since 2007. The method of funda-
mental solutions (MFS) uses the electric charge metaphor to
compute harmonic maps between shapes sharing the same
topology [9,10]. This method is improved by aligning features
on the codomain shape [11]. The MFS is also used to compute
harmonic maps on star-shaped domains [12,13].
Xia et al. [14] map the object to a polycube [15] decomposed
into a oor, walls, and a ceiling. A harmonic scalar function is
computed on the object and the polycube with boundary values
specied on the oor and the ceiling. The nal map is computed
by following the integral curves of the gradient of the harmonic
function on both domains.
A trivariate B-spline can be tted to an object by mapping it
harmonically to the cylinder [2]. The method can be generalized
to other trivariate representations with more complex topologies
by segmenting the volume into trivial parts, ensuring coherence
between volumetric patches [16]. A generalized polycube repre-
sentation can manage non-trivial topologies such as volumetric
M obius bands and identied cube borders [17].
Another method consists in mapping the object to a polycube
by ensuring orthogonality on the rst vertex layer, and then
minimizing an edge-length constraint on interior vertices [18].
It can lead to sheared interior elements in high curvature areas.
The method is used to simulate diffusion of light in heteroge-
neous translucent media.
Yin et al. [19] map a volume with complex topologies to the
periodic hyperbolic space using a discrete curvature ow. This
method generalizes to 3D the fact that high genus surfaces can be
mapped to the hyperbolic plane without singularities.
Hexahedral meshing methods share similar concepts with
volumetric parameterization, and three recent techniques are
worth noticing. A mapping to the polycube is computed using
rotation- and position-driven deformations [20]. The resulting
parameterization is used to map the hexahedra of the polycube
to the original object in order to produce a hexahedral mesh.
The CubeCover method [21] uses a technique similar to Quad-
Cover [22], where each element is optimized to be aligned to a
given vector eld. Using an anisotropic metric, Le vy and Liu [23]
produce a hex-dominant mesh using Centroidal Voronoi
Tesselation.
Thin-shell parameterization considers that the surface of the
mesh is a volumetric shell that needs to be taken into account in
the mapping computation. The shell can be mapped to a polycube
[24] or unfolded to a periodic plane of constant thickness [25].
Both papers use harmonic maps. Li et al. [26] use a harmonic eld
to map a thin shell representation of a standard hexahedral facial
model to a patient-specic facial model while maximizing ortho-
gonality. Although the method shares some properties with
conformality, uniform scaling is not part of the optimization.
Contributions. This paper presents the rst method that intro-
duces a simple and practical denition of conformal optimality for
volumes. The generalization of the CauchyRiemann equations in
conjunction with the generalized Dirichlet energy lead to a fast
discrete least-squares approximation of conformality in 3D. The
result is fundamental, theoretically founded, and can be incorpo-
rated in many existing methods without difculty. The linearity of
the operator plays an important role in making the method fast,
straightforward, and simple.
As shown in Section 4, our method performs better than
harmonic maps for both angle and volume energy measures.
3. As-conformal-as-possible mapping
3.1. Continuous case
In 2D, conformal maps are functions that locally preserve the
shape of the original space, i.e., the Jacobian matrix at each point
of the space is a similarity transformation. For function f : S
2
-R
2
dened over surface S
2
, this constraint is expressed by the
CauchyRiemann equations.
@
x
@
y
@
y
@
x
" #
f
x
f
y
" #
0:
In 3D, the local shape preservation constraint is too strong to
be perfectly respected [27], but it can be as optimal as possible.
For this reason, we propose to apply the CauchyRiemann
equations on each of the three canonical orthogonal planes as a
way to maximize local rigidity. For function f : S
3
-R
3
dened
over volumetric shape S
3
, we dene the new constraint Df 0
where
D
0 @
y
@
z
0 @
z
@
y
@
x
0 @
z
@
z
0 @
x
@
x
@
y
0
@
y
@
x
0
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5
:
The operator D is unfortunately not rotational invariant
because each equation considers that its corresponding plane in
the parametric domain will not change its orientation during the
transformation. We therefore propose to use a technique issued
from mesh deformation, namely Warped Stiffness [28], which
consists in removing the local rotation of the map at each point
before applying the operator. Let R be the local rotation at point x,
the constraint becomes
DR
T
f 0:
In this form, the Jacobian matrix of the map is overconstrained.
That is why we propose to minimize it in the least-squares sense.
Fig. 1. An identical planar cut through a sphere with a small bump that is
parameterized with (a) the Laplace operator, (b) our operator, and (c) the uniform
scale operator o0:6125.
G.-P. Paille, P. Poulin / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 427433 428
To achieve this, we seek to minimize the following energy
functional
E
Z
S
3
JDR
T
fJ
2
dV:
3.2. Discrete case
We rst proceed by discretizing the space and functions dened
on this space. Let M be a tetrahedral mesh with vertices V and
tetrahedra T . A function is dened over M by associating a value to
every vertex and linearly interpolating inside a tetrahedron. Let t AT
be a tetrahedron of volume V
t
with function value f
i
at vertex v
i
. The
barycentric interpolation on tetrahedron t is
fx
1
3V
t
X
4
i 1
x n
i
f
i
, 1
where n
i
is the outside normal of the opposite face of the ith vertex
in the tetrahedron, with normal length equal to the area of the face.
Notations are illustrated in Fig. 3.
The constraints being applied on the values of the Jacobian
matrix, we compute the latter by differentiating Eq. (1). Using the
tensor product [29], we obtain
J
1
3V
t
X
4
i 1
f
i
n
i
:
Having computed all the derivatives, it is now easy to dene
our discrete operator D over the tetrahedron as
Df
1
3V
t
X
4
i 1
D
i
f
i
,
where D
i
is dened as
D
i

0 n
i,y
n
i,z
0 n
i,z
n
i,y
n
i,x
0 n
i,z
n
i,z
0 n
i,x
n
i,x
n
i,y
0
n
i,y
n
i,x
0
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5
: 2
At this point, we use a technique similar to Wang et al. [7] and
Le vy et al. [30] to derive the least-squares formulation. The goal is
to minimize an energy functional over the whole tetrahedral
mesh. The discretized map being linear by parts, we dene the
energy on each individual element. For tetrahedron t AT with
precomputed local rotation R
t
, the energy functional is
E
t

1
2
Z
t
JDR
T
t
fJ
2
dV
t
:
To obtain a linear system, we differentiate the discrete energy at
vertex v
i
AV with one-ring vertex neighborhood Nv
i
, obtaining
X
j ANv
i
[fig
K
ij
f
j
0, 3
where K
ij
is the matrix dened by
K
ij

X
t AT v
i
,v
j

R
t
D
T
t,i
D
t,j
R
T
t
9V
t
,
where T v
i
,v
j
are the tetrahedra sharing edge fv
i
,v
j
g and T v
i
,v
i

are the tetrahedra sharing vertex v

i
.
3.3. Algorithm
To solve the system dened by Eq. (3) and obtain the
as-conformal-as-possible volumetric map, we use standard solvers
at each step of the technique. Here is a description of each step.
Step 1surface map. The rst step is to map the surface of the
mesh to the surface of the codomain using any method. Note that
the quality of the surface map affects the quality of the volumetric
map, e.g., singularities and triangle inversions could be propa-
gated to a certain distance in the interior. As long as the surface
mapping is appropriate, whatever the mapping used, good results
should be expected.
We chose the codomain to be a cube, a sphere, or a polycube [15].
This choice depends on howwell the surface maps to each codomain.
Except for the simplest objects, we chose polycubes as the preferred
codomains. Fig. 7 shows typical polycubes for some of the objects
tested. The surface map is set to be conformal. We compute the
surface map with a Gradient Descent method with adaptative step
size. The number of iterations is approximately the number of surface
vertices. The threshold is set to 10
5
using the average squared
residual.
n
i
A
i
n
i
v
i
Fig. 3. Tetrahedron notation: A
i
is the area of the face opposite to vertex v
i
, ^ n
i
is
the unit normal of the face, and n
i
is the area-weighted normal.
Harmonic
ACAP
Fig. 2. As-conformal-as-possible volumetric map of (a) the Mudface model to a polycube along with (b) a iso-v cut and (c) a side iso-u cut of the mesh. The iso-u cut shows
differences between harmonic mapping and our mapping. Note the increased uniformity near the surface borders.
G.-P. Paille, P. Poulin / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 427433 429
Step 2volumetric Harmonic map. The second step relies on
work by Wang et al. [7] to compute the rst approximation of
the volumetric part of the map. Using the equations of Section 3.2,
we obtain the linear system for a harmonic map by modifying
the K
i,j
matrices. We dene the new coefcients of Eq. (3) to
~
K
i,j

X
t AT v
i
,v
j

n
t,i
n
t,j
9V
t
:
We then obtain a symmetric linear system that can be solved
with a Conjugate Gradient method with a Jacobi preconditioner,
keeping surface vertices constant. The number of iterations is
usually around 150 for each mesh with a threshold of 10
8
.
Step 3local rotations and coefcients. Using the harmonic map
as a rst approximation, we can compute the local rotation of each
vertex. Using those rotations, we compute the K
ij
coefcients.
Step 4as-conformal-as-possible map. The last step is to com-
pute the volumetric map with our operator by solving Eq. (3)
using a Conjugate Gradient method with a Jacobi preconditioner.
The number of iterations is also usually around 150 for each mesh
with a threshold of 10
8
.
We found that iteratively updating local rotations and the
mapping only leads to epsilon improvements, which is why we
only evaluate local rotations once.
4. Results
This section presents the results of the volumetric maps
obtained using our metric. We also compare with alternative
metrics and discuss the main differences between these metrics.
Note that our aim is to introduce a fast and simple metric that
optimizes conformality. For this reason, we focus our attention on
the behavior of each metric instead of the nal map as a whole.
The method is implemented in Cin the Graphite software [31]
and all tests were conducted on an Intel Xenon E5520 processor
without any GPU acceleration technique. Computation times of the
interior (i.e., without surface map) are shown in Table 1.
The volumetric parameterization times are approximately
multiplied by a factor between three and four using our operator
compared to the Laplace operator alone. It is important to note
that in general, most of the complete parameterization process
is completely absorbed by the surface parameterization as it
uses a Gradient Descent method, which is known to be slow.
A multi-grid method could be used for this part, but this is left for
future work. In fact, the volumetric parameterization times
represent generally much less than 1% of that of the surface,
which thus far outweighs the increase in time of performing as-
conformal-as-possible mapping. Considering the minimal cost
and the fact that results are always at least somewhat better, it
is worth taking the extra step toward conformality.
Table 1
Quantitative results for different meshes. Timings are in seconds and the optimal minimal value for both energy measures is 2.
Mesh 9V9 9T 9 Codomain Harmonic ACAP
Time E
angle
E
volume
Time E
angle
E
volume
Sphere 10k 53k Box 0.18 2.246 2.096 0.89 2.226 2.060
Torus 15k 59k Polycube 0.12 2.424 2.392 0.58 2.400 2.331
Squirrel 18k 73k Polycube 0.15 3.118 3.453 0.84 2.638 3.113
Bust 18k 77k Polycube 0.19 2.829 3.526 0.87 2.660 3.447
Foot 20k 89k Polycube 0.19 2.441 2.455 0.98 2.372 2.384
Pensatore 30k 150k Box 0.47 2.554 2.488 2.03 2.441 2.288
Lion Vase 40k 163k Polycube 0.44 3.324 3.229 2.09 2.869 3.216
Grog 46k 197k Polycube 0.51 3.521 3.600 2.30 3.174 3.461
Bumpy Sphere 66k 307k Sphere 2.08 2.003 2.011 5.45 2.003 2.007
Box 2.01 2.283 2.126 6.53 2.252 2.077
Alien Shark 185k 850k Polycube 5.16 2.697 2.783 17.48 2.538 2.568
Human Elder 188k 877k Polycube 5.68 2.598 2.417 30.59 2.524 2.298
Bimba Con Nastrino 203k 969k Polycube 6.36 2.825 5.912 23.14 2.486 5.443
Chinese Lion 273k 1203k Polycube 9.37 2.964 3.105 34.71 2.636 3.079
Kitten 342k 1968k Polycube 23.72 2.668 4.073 74.57 2.530 3.655
Human Torso 389k 1863k Polycube 16.33 3.056 3.910 53.91 2.571 3.569
Mudface 1183k 5569k Polycube 48.12 2.634 3.178 154.52 2.469 2.802
.
Fig. 4. Results of (left) harmonic maps and (right) as-conformal-as-possible maps.
G.-P. Paille, P. Poulin / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 427433 430
From a qualitative point of view, we can note some visual
indicators that show improvements. While harmonic maps have
very good behavior in the center of the object, quality at the
borders is often poor. It is shown in the bumpy sphere of Fig. 1
and it is also noticeable in Fig. 4. As a compromise, improvements
at the borders come at the price of slightly reducing the quality of
the interior, but nonetheless the overall quality is improved and
the interior has still a good behavior.
To quantitatively measure improvements of the mapping, we
use an angle and a volume energy measure based on equations
found in the book by Botsch et al. [3] and summarized by
Solomon et al. [32]. Adapted to volumes, we obtain
E
angle

1
V
X
t AT
V
t
s
t,min
s
t,max

s
t,max
s
t,min

,
E
volume

1
V
X
t AT
V
t
s
t,1
s
t,2
s
t,3

1
s
t,1
s
t,2
s
t,3

,
where V is the total volume of the mesh, s
t,i
are the singular
values of the Jacobian matrix of the tetrahedra transformation,
and s
t,min
and s
t,max
are respectively the minimum and maximum
singular values.
These measures can be numerically unstable near singulari-
ties. For this reason, we decided that energy values higher than a
xed threshold should be ignored, due to the bias that they
introduce. Even though ignoring values also introduces a bias, the
result is still much more representative of the total energy than
incorporating unstable data. These extremal values represent
generally less than 0.3% of the total volume, which renders the
bias negligible when computing global map energies.
From these measures, we can see an improvement on both
angle and volume global energies for all tested meshes, as
summarized in Table 1. Although not shown in the table, energy
variance is also signicantly decreased on both measures. Fig. 5
shows a color-coded energy distribution of a planar cut through
the Chinese Lion model along with a histogram of this distribu-
tion for the entire tetrahedral mesh.
Note that bijectivity is not guaranteed for large deformations. In
fact, linear constraints do not generally lead to barrier metrics,
which means that applying enough force on an element will
eventually invert it. For this reason, codomains should be chosen
carefully. While polycubes in this paper are built manually, Gregson
et al. [20] provide an automatic geometry-friendly polycube con-
struction method that could be used to minimize element inversion.
4.1. Alternative metrics
Other metrics can also optimize conformality in higher dimen-
sions. Because the Jacobian matrix of a conformal map should be a
scaled rotation, the following energy functional could be used
E
t

1
2
Z
t
JJsRJ
2
dV
t
,
where s 9J9
1=3
.
2
E
angle
6
Fig. 5. Angle energy measure for the Chinese Lion mapped to a polycube. A planar cut with color-coded energy and the associated deformation distribution for (left)
the harmonic map and (right) the as-conformal-as-possible map. Note that 86% of the volume has an energy value below 3 for our map compared to 76% for the harmonic
map. (c) Harmonic, (d) ACAP. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
G.-P. Paille, P. Poulin / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 427433 431
We found that the results with this metric are better than
harmonic maps, but not better than ACAP maps, as shown in
Table 2. An average of four iterations is needed to converge for
tested meshes.
The metric developed by Gregson et al. [20] could also be
considered
~ v
i

1
N
X
N
j 1
~ v
j

1
N
X
N
j 1
R
i
R
j
2

v
i
v
j
,
where N 9Nv
i
9 and ~ v
i
is the mapped vertex position.
Unfortunately, this operator is highly dependent on the local
topology of the vertex and less on the geometry of the volume, in
the same vein as massspring systems.
Li et al. [26] developed a metric trying to improve orthogon-
ality, but it has a preferred direction. While it is appropriate for
their application, it is an unwanted behavior for general volu-
metric mappings.
Cage-based deformations could also be considered as potential
mapping metrics. The surface map acting as the cage deformation,
interior points are moved accordingly to the formulation of the
method. Green coordinates [27], being not interpolatory, lead to
highly distorted elements near boundaries since vertices can
stand outside the cage after deformation. Harmonic maps being
uniquely dened by their boundary values, Harmonic coordinates
[33] were not considered here. Finally, mean value coordinates
(MVC) [34] gave slightly better results than harmonic maps
regarding energy measures on the tested meshes, as shown in
Table 2. However, the computation time is prohibitive for large
meshes and the negative value property of MVC can lead to high
distortion in concave parts.
4.2. Uniform scaling
We can also introduce a parameter to operator D to add a degree
of freedom to the results. A logical parameterization would be to
separate the uniform scaling constraint from the orthogonality
constraint using a weighting factor oA0; 1, noting o 1o.
Explaining only for the discrete case, we redene the matrix of Eq.
(2) to be
D
i,o
2
0 on
i,y
on
i,z
0 on
i,z
on
i,y
on
i,x
0 on
i,z
on
i,z
0 on
i,x
on
i,x
on
i,y
0
on
i,y
on
i,x
0
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
5
,
while all other equations remain the same.
From experiments, we found that oA0:3,0:7 gives best
results, o0:5 being the original operator. Extremal values of
o must be avoided because singularities of the surface map may
cause degeneracies in the volumetric map. Fig. 6 shows mappings
computed for different values of o.
5. Conclusion and future work
We introduced an operator that minimizes a 3D conformal
energy similar to the CauchyRiemann equations in 2D. We
showed that this operator can be parameterized such that uni-
form scaling and orthogonality constraints can be weighted as
desired. In fact, any system of constraints using only rst-order
derivatives can be used with the same derivations. The general-
ization in any dimension is also trivial.
The derivations are based on a mathematically sound
approach. Although the results might not always visually appear
signicantly improved, they are consistently better than not using
our metric, and at a cost of less than 1% of the total computations.
Like most other methods, we rely on a conformal surface map.
Our polycube map helps to obtain better results, but as shown in
Fig. 7, simple polycubes prove sufcient to achieve reasonable
surface map.
Several methods could benet from our work. Indeed, most
papers that use volumetric harmonic maps as a central technique
can be adapted without much difculty to our maps. This is due
to the fact that the core concepts of the mapping remain
unchanged, while adding more generality and exibility to these
methods.
Our operator shares the same limitations than the Laplace
operator, i.e., that the one-to-one mapping and the convergence
are not guaranteed for meshes that lead to ill-conditioned linear
systems.
In the future, we will look for a rotational-invariant operator,
hopefully linear, thus eliminating the need for harmonic map
Table 2
Angle energy measures of alternative metrics for three meshes. Similar results
were obtained with all tested meshes and the volume measure E
volume
. Compared
metrics are the scaled rotated Jacobian matrix (SRJ), the metric fromGregson et al. [20],
the metric from Li et al. [26], and mean value coordinates [34].
Mesh SRJ [GSZ11] [LLT11] MVC
Sphere 2.242 2.258 2.234 2.245
Pensatore 2.493 2.560 2.638 2.442
Alien Shark 2.637 2.584 2.746 2.585
Fig. 6. Uniform scale optimization for the sphere parameterized to a box:
(a) o0:3; (b) o0:45; (c) o0:6; and o0:7.
Fig. 7. As-conformal-as-possible maps of (a) Foot, (b) Bust, (c) Pensatore, and (d) Human Torso. (e) Codomains of each object.
G.-P. Paille, P. Poulin / Computers & Graphics 36 (2012) 427433 432
pre-processing. We also aim at letting the boundary evolve on the
codomain surface as the interior is optimized. Such method
would give more room for optimization and could lead to a much
better energy minimization. However, this generalization is not
straightforward and would need nonlinear optimization.
As parameterization can be seen as a deformation of a shape,
we believe that the presented method can have several applica-
tions in animation, notably for cage-based, skeleton-based, and
point-based deformations.
Acknowledgments
The models are courtesy of Nick Zuccarello (Alien Shark,
Human Elder, Mudface) and Aim@Shape shape repository. This
work was supported in parts by grants from FQRNT and NSERC.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in
the online version of http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cag.2012.03.014.
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