DCS-P-51D Flight Manual
DCS-P-51D Flight Manual
DCS-P-51D Flight Manual
DCS: www.digitalcombatsimulator.com
Forum: http://forums.eagle.ru
P-51D Mustang
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AN OLD INDIAN LEGEND .............................................................................................................................11
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................13
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................................18
GENERAL DESCRIPTION ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Specifications ........................................................................................................................................... 18
P-51D MAJOR ASSEMBLY PARTS ......................................................................................................................... 20
FUSELAGE ........................................................................................................................................................ 22
Canopy ..................................................................................................................................................... 22
WING.............................................................................................................................................................. 23
TAIL SECTION .................................................................................................................................................... 26
FLIGHT CONTROLS ............................................................................................................................................. 26
Surface Control Lock ................................................................................................................................. 27
LANDING GEAR ................................................................................................................................................. 27
BRAKE SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................. 28
ENGINE............................................................................................................................................................ 28
Supercharger ............................................................................................................................................ 31
Carburetor ................................................................................................................................................ 32
War Emergency Power ............................................................................................................................. 33
PROPELLER ....................................................................................................................................................... 34
FUEL SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................... 35
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................................... 38
OIL SYSTEM ...................................................................................................................................................... 39
COOLANT SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................. 41
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................................... 43
OXYGEN SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................... 44
Approximate Oxygen Supply .................................................................................................................... 45
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS.................................................................................................................................. 46
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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INTRODUCTION
12
INTRODUCTION
Like the Indian braves of the old southwest whose favorite in battle was the small speedy
Mustang, young fighter pilots of World War II, with their newly won wings, almost without exception
wanted to fly the famous namesake of that sleek and powerful war horse, the P-51.
And no wonder, for the P-51 is truly a pilots aircraft. In mission after mission it had proved that
it could more than hold its own against any opposition. Its speed and range were at the tops. It
operated effectively on the deck and all the way up to 40,000 feet. In maneuverability and loadcarrying capacity, it ranked with any other fighter in the world.
The P-51 was the first aircraft of the war to be built entirely on the basis of combat experience.
Its design was started by North American Aviation (NAA) after the Luftwaffe had begun to overwhelm
Europe and many lessons had already been learned about modern aerial warfare from actual
experience.
The P-51 was initially conceived when NAA was approached by the British in 1940 to license
produce their P-40's on order from Curtiss-Wright Corporation. NAA's president responded that the
company could instead produce its own, better fighter aircraft in the same time it would take to
prepare for the production of the P-40. The first prototype, designated NA-73X, made its maiden
flight on 26 October, 1940 - after an unusually swift design and production schedule.
The first operational Mustangs were delivered to the Royal Air Force (RAF) in October of 1941 as
Mustang Mark-I's. These aircraft saw their initial action in the summer of 1942. Armed with two .50
caliber and four .30 caliber machine guns and limited in high altitude performance, they were used
primarily for reconnaissance and 'rhubarb' missions for zooming in at low altitudes and strafing
trains, troops, and enemy installations.
The P-51s were the first American-built fighters to carry the war back across the English channel
after the battle of Dunkirk. A short time later they would set another record by being the first singleengine planes of any country to penetrate Germany proper from bases in England. So successful
were the powerful little Mustangs that the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) decided to adopt
the aircraft for its own use.
Two improved models were created a P-51A fighter (designated Mustang Mark-II in the RAF)
and an attack version known as the A-36 "Apache". This attack model was equipped with bomb racks
and diving brakes and armed with six .50 caliber machine guns. Thus, as the A-36, the Mustang
became a triple-threat performer fighter, strafer, and dive bomber. In these roles, it helped write
aerial history in the momentous days when the Allies took Sicily and Italy.
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Figure 1: P-51A Mustang during a test flight near the North American Aviation plant in
Inglewood, California, United States, Oct 1942
Up to this point, the Mustang had been powered by the Allison V-1710 series engine, which did
not provide satisfactory high-altitude performance. When the need for the higher altitude, longer
range fighters developed so urgently, it was decided to see what the Mustang could do to meet these
requirements. The Allison engine, with its single-speed supercharger blower, was replaced by the
more powerful Rolls-Royce Merlin engine with a 2-speed supercharger blower. Along with other
improvements, the prop was increased from three to four blades. Thus was developed the P-51B and
C (B if built on the west coast, C if built in Texas they were essentially the same otherwise), or the
Mustang Mark-III as it was known in the RAF.
The new model proved an unquestioned success. The Luftwaffe learned to fear it at any altitude
as high as they wanted to go. As for range, the new Mustang made it possible for the first time for
fighters to escort heavy bombers all the way from Britain to Berlin. Later, Mustangs escorted
bombers all the way to Poland. And when the great triangular shuttle raids connecting England,
Russia, and Italy began, P-51s were the first fighters to operate all around the continent-girdling
circuit. One of the legs of this triangle was some 1600 miles long!
14
INTRODUCTION
Figure 2: P-51B
The P-51D version of the Mustang retained all of the great features of its predecessor, with
important added improvements. Chief among these are the increased visibility for the pilot in a new
"bubble" canopy, more convenient cockpit arrangement, and heavier firepower with six .50-cal
machine guns fitted in the wings. The 'D' also featured a new dorsal fin to improve directional
stability problems encountered when the rear fuselage area of the previous models was reduced to
increase rear visibility from the cockpit.
Figure 3: P-51D
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16
INTRODUCTION
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
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AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
General Description
The North American Aviation P-51D fighter aircraft is a single-seat, low wing monoplane powered by
a 12 cylinder V-1650-7 liquid cooled, Packard built Rolls Royce "Merlin" engine. The engine is
equipped with a two-speed, two-stage supercharger and an automatic manifold pressure regulator.
The engine spins a four blade Hamilton Standard Hydromatic constant speed propeller.
The Packard engine delivers approximately 1490 horse power at sea level. It has a critical altitude of
approximately 14,000 feet in low blower supercharger mode and a critical altitude of approximately
27,000 feet in high blower mode. The maximum altitude is approximately 40,000 feet. The
supercharger ratios are approximately 6 to 1 in low blower mode and 8 to 1 in high blower mode.
The fuselage is a semi-monocoque, all-metal structure. The all-metal wings are built in two halves
which are joined at the aircraft center line and are of full cantilever structure. The airfoil is of laminarflow design, which provides low drag even at high speed. The tail section is metal with fabric-covered
elevator and rudder control surfaces. The aircraft is flush-riveted throughout another factor
contributing to its great speed.
Two fuel tanks with a total capacity of 184 U.S. gallons are located inside the wing and an additional
85 gallon fuselage fuel tank is located aft of the cockpit.
The armament consists of six .50 caliber machine guns mounted in the wings. Streamlined bomb
racks installed beneath each wing panel can accommodate one 100, 300, or 500-lb. bomb each, or a
depth charge or chemical tank. The bomb racks can be easily removed. Bombs may be substituted by
droppable combat fuel tanks with a capacity of 75 or 110 U.S. gallons each for long-range operations.
The wing can also support up to 10 unguided rockets, or up to 6 if bombs are also loaded.
Specifications
Specifications for the P-51D are:
Pitch setting 23 to 65
18
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
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20
1.
Propeller Spinner
6.
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
9.
5.
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
38. Elevator
40. Rudder
42. Fin
51. Canopy
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Fuselage
The fuselage is a semi-monocoque, aluminum alloy structure consisting of three sections: engine
mount, main fuselage, and aft section. The engine mount is a box-beam structure attached to the
firewall at four points and extending forward on each side of and below the engine. The engine
mount structure serves as the sole support for all parts of the aircraft which are forward of the
firewall. The main fuselage is of the four-longeron type incorporating an A-shaped overturn structure
aft of the pilots seat. Armor plating is provided behind the pilots seat and is included as part of the
firewall. The aft section of the fuselage houses the tail wheel assembly and supports the tail section.
Canopy
The P-51D features a teardrop canopy design that allows for an unrestricted view around the aircraft.
The canopy slides back and forth and is operated by a clutch-and-crank handle on the right side of
the cockpit. The canopy is unlocked from the outside by a release button below the canopy on the
right side of the fuselage. The forward flat section of the windshield is armor plate glass.
22
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Wing
The airfoil is a full cantilever, two spar, laminar flow wing. It is filler finished and hand polished. The
upper and lower leading edge surfaces are covered with a surfacer to assure smoothness of the
airfoil sections. The metal-covered ailerons are statically, dynamically, and aerodynamically balanced.
The left aileron is equipped with a trim tab, controllable from the cockpit. Hydraulically operated,
sealed type wing flaps extend from the ailerons to the fuselage.
The efficiency of the wing is adversely affected by nicks, dents, and scratches on the surface.
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Ammunition
door
Gun doors
Cover-remote
compass
Gun doors
Coverremote
compass
Ammunition
door
Upper
surface
Strut
fairing
Lower
surface
Wheel
fairing door
Fuel
tanks
Cover-remote
compass
24
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Strut
fairing
Fuel tank
door
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Tail Section
The tail section consists of a horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, elevators, and rudder. The fabriccovered elevators and rudder are equipped with trim tabs controllable from the cockpit. Lead weights
are attached to the leading edges to balance the elevators and rudder statically and dynamically.
Compared to the earlier B-C model, the P-51D features a dorsal fin section ahead of the vertical
stabilizer for increased lateral control and structural strength.
Flight Controls
The ailerons, elevators, and rudder are controlled by a conventional stick and rudder pedals. The
ailerons are sealed internally so that no air can pass through the opening between the aileron and
wing section. This lightens the pressure on the control stick and at the same time provides more
positive action.
26
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Landing Gear
The landing gear consists of two main gears and a tail gear. All three units are fully retractable
hydraulically and are controlled simultaneously by the Landing Gear Control handle on the left side of
the cockpit. When the landing gear is retracted, the main gear is completely enclosed in the wings
and the tail gear is completely enclosed in the fuselage. The tail wheel is steerable and full swiveling.
When the control stick is in the neutral position of pulled back, the tail wheel is locked; in this
position it is steerable 6 to the right or left through the use of the rudder pedals. With the control
stick positioned forward of neutral, the tail wheel is unlocked for free swiveling action.
Figure 11: P-51 Main Landing Gear Housing, Fairing and Shock Strut
The landing gear takes 10-15 seconds to move into position. In situations where the landing gear
must be raised immediately after lowering it, such as go-around, its important to raise the gear only
after it is fully extended and locked. Raising the gear before it locks risks damaging the gear or the
fairing doors.
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Brake System
The main landing wheel brake system employs hydraulically actuated disc-type brakes. Each brake is
operated by individual master brake cylinders located directly forward of the instrument panel. The
brakes are selectively controlled by means of toe pedals incorporated into the rudder pedal assembly.
The brake system is entirely separate from the general hydraulic system, however the brake master
cylinders receive hydraulic fluid directly from the reservoir of the hydraulic system. A stand-pipe
arrangement in the reservoir ensures a reserve of fluid for brake operation even if the supply of fluid
for normal hydraulic operation is lost.
A parking brake incorporated into the brake system holds the wheels in a locked condition over long
periods of time; the parking brake control handle is just below the center of the instrument panel.
After takeoff, its important to avoid braking the wheels to stop them from turning. If the brakes are
hot from excessive ground use, they are likely to freeze. The design of the gear and the wheel wells
is such that under normal conditions the turning of the wheels has no harmful effect even after they
have been retracted into the wheel wells.
Engine
The power plant of the P-51D is a liquid-cooled, 12-cylinder Rolls-Royce Merlin V-1650-7, built in the
U.S. by the Packard Motor Car Company. It is equipped with an injection-type carburetor, a twospeed, two-stage supercharger, and develops over 1400 hp on takeoff.
28
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
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Automatic
Boost
Control
Governor
Mounting
After Cooler
Pump
Magneto
Fuel Pump
30
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Coolant Pump
Supercharger
Carburetor
RPM
MP
HP
Critical
Altitude
With
Ram
Critical
Altitude
No Ram
Blower
Mixture
Control
Position
Fuel Flow
(Gal/Hr/Eng.)
U.S.
Maximum
Duration
(Minutes)
Take-Off
3000
61
1400
S.L.
S.L.
Low
Run/AR
150
War
Emergency
3000
67
1595
1295
17,000
28,800
11,700
23,200
Low
High
Run/AR
Run/AR
166
160
Military
3000
1450
1190
19,800
31,200
13,700
25,600
Low
High
Run/AR
Run/AR
158
144
15
61
Maximum
Continuous
2700
46
1120
940
20,500
34,400
17,500
29,500
Low
High
Run/AR
Run/AR
111
106
Cont.
Maximum
Cruise
2400
2400
36
35
790
640
19,500
30,200
17,000
28,200
Low
High
Run/AL
Run/AL
70
70
Cont.
Supercharger
The supercharger installed on the Packard Merlin engine includes two compressor stages that deliver
air from the carburetor intake to the pistons under much greater pressure than would be possible
through direct aspiration, allowing a greater fuel-air mixture to be burned and increasing power
output.
The supercharger works in either low or high blower mode, selection of which can be automatic or
manually set by the pilot. In normal operations, high blower mode starts automatically from 14,500
to 19,500 feet, depending on the amount of ram air being delivered through the carburetor. The
supercharger increases the blower-to-engine compression ratio from a low of 5.8 to 1 to a high of
7.35 to 1.
The supercharger can be controlled manually by a switch on the instrument panel. The switch has
three positions AUTOMATIC, LOW, and HIGH.
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Carburetor
The carburetor provides automatic control of the fuel-air mixture passed from the air intake to the
supercharger and onto the engine manifold for combustion in the cylinders.
The Packard Merlin engine has an injection-type carburetor and an automatic manifold pressure
regulator. The manifold pressure regulator is effective only at pressures in excess of 41 in. The
automatic pressure regulator alleviates the pilot from having to jockey the throttle to maintain a
constant manifold pressure in the high-speed range during a climb or descent. The pilot is only
required to set the desired pressure by setting the throttle lever and the pressure regulator does the
32
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
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GATE STOP
GATE STOP
Propeller
The P-51D propeller is a Hamilton Standard four-blade, hydraulic, constant-speed propeller with a
diameter of 11 ft, 2 in and a blade pitch range of 42, set at 23 at low pitch and 65 at high pitch.
The propeller RPM is controlled by the Propeller Control lever on the throttle quadrant in the cockpit.
The propeller governor automatically controls propeller pitch to maintain a constant speed between
1800 and 3000 RPM, depending on the Propeller Control setting. The propeller cannot be feathered.
34
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Fuel System
The Mustang features two main fuel tanks, one in each wing. The main tanks have a capacity of 92
gallons in each or a total of 184 gallons. An auxiliary 85 gallon tank is installed in the fuselage aft of
the cockpit. There is also provision for carrying two droppable combat tanks on the wing bomb racks.
These are available in 75-gallon and 110-gallon capacities. The total fuel capacity of the aircraft,
including two 110-gallon droppable tanks, is 489 U.S. gallons.
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Main
Auxiliary
Electrical wiring
Carburetor vapor
return
Vacuum pressure
5
4
Left tank
Right tank
1
1
36
1.
Booster Pump
2.
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Aux.
fuse.
tank
85 US
Gals.
4.
Fuel Strainer
5.
Engine-Driven Pump
6.
Carburetor
7.
Vacuum Pump
8.
The tanks are not interconnected and it is necessary to switch from one tank to the other to maintain
balance. The three booster pumps are controlled by a single switch on the front switch panel.
Selection between the tanks is performed by turning the booster pump switch to ON, then turning
the fuel selector valve to the desired tank.
Fuel capacity is monitored using the Fuel Gauges for the main and fuselage tanks. No gauges for
drop tanks are available.
Left Wing
Main Tank
Fuselage
Tank
Right Wing
Main Tank
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Hydraulic System
The P-51D is equipped with two separate hydraulic systems. One is the main power system for the
operation of the landing gear and wing flaps. The other system is the foot pedal-operated brake
system. The only connection between the two systems is that they receive their supply of fluid from
the same reservoir in which a 3 cubic in. capacity cup is arranged so that in the event all the
hydraulic fluid from the main power system might be lost, the brakes may still be operated.
1
13
11
12
14
Brake System
Up Pressure
Down Pressure
38
Reservoir
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
10
3.
4.
Pressure Accumulator
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Oil System
The oil system includes a tank just forward of the firewall and a radiator in the air scoop under the
fuselage. The full capacity of the oil system is 21 U.S gallons. The tank is a hopper type - that is, it is
designed with hoppers or compartments which facilitate quick warm-up and also make it possible to
fly the aircraft in adverse attitudes or with little oil in the system.
With this tank, the P-51 can be flown in any attitude when the tank is full. The aircraft can also be
put into a vertical climb or dive when the tank is only 1/4 full and it will continue to provide proper
lubrication. However, when the aircraft is in inverted flight, the oil pressure falls off, because no oil
reaches the scavenger pump. For this reason, inverted flight must be limited to 10 seconds.
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Actuating
Unit
Actuating Unit
Air intake
Oil Radiator
Controllable Outlet
Doors
40
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Pressure
Minimum
40
60 lbs/sq.in.
Desired
70-80C
70-80 lbs/sq.in.
Maximum
90C
90 lbs/sq.in.
Coolant System
With the radiators located in the big air scoop aft of the cockpit under the fuselage, the cooling of the
P-51 engine is quite different from that of most other fighters of the era. The engine is cooled by
liquid in two separate cooling systems. The first system cools the engine proper, the second (called
the after-cooling system) cools the supercharger fuel-air mixture. Each performs a separate function
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Header
Engine Tank
Air Scoop
Aftercooler and
Coolant
Radiator
Oil Radiator
Engine Coolant
System Pump
Aftercooler
System Pump
42
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Electrical System
The electrical system is a 24-volt, direct-current (DC) system which provides power for operating the
various aircraft systems, controls, and lighting equipment. The system employs the aircraft's metallic
structure as a common ground return.
The electrical system runs off the battery until the engine reaches 1500-1700 RPM, when the
generator is cut in by the voltage regulator. The battery charge and power for the electrical system is
then supplied by the generator. An external battery receptacle is mounted on the right side of the
fuselage at the trailing edge flap.
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Oxygen System
The oxygen system of the P-51D is a low-pressure, demand-type system. A regulator automatically
provides the correct amount of oxygen required at any altitude. Controls and gauges for the oxygen
system are located in the right front section of the cockpit and include an automatic mixture
regulator, a pressure gauge, and a blinker indicator which opens when the pilot inhales and closes
when the pilot exhales.
The oxygen supply is carried in four tanks installed just aft of the fuselage fuel tank. Two D-2 and
two F-2 tanks are supplied for a total capacity of 3000 cubic in. Normal full pressure of the system is
400 PSI.
Oxygen is flammable! Take every precaution to keep oil, grease, and all such readily
combustible materials well away from any oxygen equipment, including the breathing
mask.
44
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
Supply Lines
Filler Lines
2.
3.
Filler Valve
4.
Oxygen Regulator
5.
Pressure Gage
6.
7.
Normal Oxygen
100% Oxygen
Emergency
40,000
11.4 Hrs.
11.4 Hrs.
12.6 Min.
35,000
8.1
8.1
12.6
30,000
6.0
6.0
12.6
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45
6.0
4.9
12.6
20,000
7.1
3.3
9.0
15,000
8.1
2.7
9.0
10,000
10.2
2.1
9.0
As an aircraft ascends to high altitudes where the temperature is normally quite low, the oxygen
cylinders become chilled. As the cylinders become colder, the oxygen gauge pressure is reduced,
sometimes rather rapidly. With a 100F decrease in temperature in the cylinders, the gauge pressure
can be expected to drop by 20%. This rapid fall in pressure is not a cause for alarm. All of the
oxygen remain in place and as the aircraft descends to lower altitude, the pressure will tend to rise
again. A rapid fall in oxygen pressure while the aircraft is in level flight, or while it is descending, is
not normal and should be considered an indication of a leakage or loss of oxygen.
Environmental Systems
Warm air for heating the cockpit and for defrosting the windshield is conducted from a port in the
dome aft of the coolant radiator through a flexible duct to a point behind the pilot's seat. The air then
passes to the cockpit hot air outlet valve at the left side in front of the pilot's seat. From the defroster
valve, warm air is conducted to a distributor fitting, to which windshield defroster tubes are attached.
The two valves are of the gate type. A pointer attached to the valve handle indicates the position of
the gate.
Air for cooling and venting the cockpit is diverted by a scoop above the forward part of the radiator
scoop and conducted through a flexible tube to a valve behind the pilot's seat. Two smaller flexible
tubes attached to the valve conduct the cool air to the outlets located behind and on each side of the
pilot's seat just below the canopy line. The valve is controlled by a handle on the floor in front of the
right side of the pilot's seat.
Radio Equipment
The radio equipment of the P-51D consists of a SCR-522 VHF (Very High Frequency) radio for voice
communication and radio homing, a Detrola LF (Low Frequency) radio receiver, an AN/APS-13 rearwarning radar, and an SCR-695A IFF (Identification Friend or Foe) radio.
All radio equipment is stored in the fuselage aft of the cockpit. Controls are grouped on the right side
of the cockpit. Each set has a dedicated antenna arrangement: the VHF antenna mast extends
vertically above the fuselage aft of the cockpit, the Detrola wire antenna runs from the back armor
plate to the top of the fin, the AN/APS-13 antenna rods extend horizontally from the sides of the fin,
and the IFF antennae project from the undersides of the wings.
46
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
10
11
12
14
13
2.
Microphone Button
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
SCR-522-A Dynamotor
9.
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47
Armor
Armor plating is provided at three points: back of the pilots seat, at the firewall in the opening
between the engine and the fuselage, and behind the spinner, in front of the coolant tank. Further,
protection is provided by the bulletproof glass windshield and the engine itself, which protects the
pilot from head-on fire.
Armament
The P-51D is equipped with six free-firing .50 caliber machine guns, three in each wing. The guns are
manually charged on the ground and fire simultaneously when the Gun Trigger switch is pressed on
the front of the control stick grip. The maximum ammunition capacity is 400 rounds for each of the
inboard guns and 270 rounds for the center and outboard guns for a total ammunition load of 1880
rounds. The guns can be adjusted on the ground for different convergence points based on the
tactical needs of the mission. Normally the convergence point is set to 250 - 300 yards. The amount
of ammunition remaining is not indicated in the cockpit.
48
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
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49
Bomb-Rocket Release
Switch
50
AIRCRAFT OVERVIEW
COCKPIT
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51
COCKPIT
The cockpit instruments and controls of the P-51D are grouped to provide the greatest possible
efficiency in the limited space available. The cockpit can be both heated and ventilated. The pilots
seat is designed to accommodate either a seat-type or a back-pack parachute. The back cushion is
kapok-filled and can be used as a life preserver. The seat is adjustable vertically, but not forward-aft.
A small, folding arm rest is provided on the left side of the cockpit for increased comfort during long
flights. A standard safety belt and shoulder harness is provided. A lever on the left side of the seat
allows the pilot to relax the harness tension to allow for leaning forward.
Front Dash
Throttle Quadrant
Left side
Gunsight
Control Stick
Right side
52
COCKPIT
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
10
25
11
26
12
27
13
28
14
29
15
30
Clock
Radio Indicator Compass
Directional Gyro
Gunsight Selector-Dimmer Panel
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5.
6.
7.
8.
Airspeed Indicator
Bank and Turn Indicator
Altimeter
Landing Gear Warning Lights
53
54
COCKPIT
21. Tachometer
22. Rate of Climb Indicator
23. Oil Temperature, Fuel, and Oil Pressure
Gauge
24. Accelerometer
25. Oxygen Pressure Gauge
26. Oxygen Flow Indicator
27. Cockpit Light Control
28. Parking Brake Handle
29. Horn Silence Button
30. Landing Gear Fairing Door Emergency
Release Handle
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
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9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
55
10
11
4
5
56
Oxygen Regulator
Emergency Canopy Release
Canopy Handcrank
Recognition Lights Keying Switch
Circuit Breakers (under) Bump Plate
Right Fluorescent Light Switch
COCKPIT
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
12
K-14 Gunsight
Fixed Reticle
Mask Lever
Gyro Motor
Reflector Plate
Wingspan Dial
Span Knob
Range Dial
Crash Pad
Lamp Cover
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57
Fixed sight
58
COCKPIT
Instrument Panel
Most of the primary instruments are mounted on the instrument panel, flight instruments being
grouped together and to the left, engine instruments to the right. Exceptions are the Hydraulic
Pressure Gauge, which is below the Front Switch Panel; the Fuel Gauges, located on the floor and aft
of the cockpit, and the Ammeter on the Electrical Switch and Circuit Breaker Panel.
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Flight Indicator
The AN5736 Flight Indicator (Gyro Horizon Indicator) indicates a miniature plane and a gyro-actuated
horizon bar. This instrument is used during instrument flying to indicate the longitudinal and lateral
attitude of the aircraft. The horizon bar will indicate pitch up to 60 and bank up to 100. The top
needle of the instrument indicates the angle of bank on the bank scale, graduated from 0 to 90
and scaled to 30. The cage knob is used to cage the instrument. To operate the cage knob, left-click
on it to pull the knob out and roll the mouse wheel to turn it clockwise to the caged position. To
uncage the instrument, roll the mouse wheel over the knob to turn it counter-clockwise. The horizon
knob is used to adjust the horizon level. To operate the horizon knob, place the mouse over the knob
and roll the mouse wheel to set the horizon higher or lower.
Aircraft symbol
Bank scale
Artificial horizon
Angle of bank
indicator
Horizon knob
Cage knob
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COCKPIT
Turn Indicator
Directional Gyro
The AN5735 Directional Gyro Indicator is used to supplement the magnetic compass in maintaining
the aircraft on a straight course. The indicator is nonmagnetic. Relative movement of the aircraft
from right to left shows on the circular card which is graduated in degrees the same as a compass
card. This instrument is provided with a caging knob. The Gyro Indicator is uncaged for normal
operation. The instrument can be caged to manually rotate the heading card. To cage the
instrument, click on the caging knob to push it in and rotate the mouse wheel to adjust the heading.
Cage knob
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Airspeed Indicator
The Type F-2 Airspeed Indicator is a sensitive differential pressure gauge that measures the
difference between pitot tube impact air pressure and static air pressure. The indicator displays
Indicated Airspeed (IAS) and is graduated from 0 to 700 mph. The scale is to 10 mph from 50 to 300
mph and to 50 mph thereafter. The Red Line indicates the maximum permissible IAS of 505 mph at
an altitude of 5,000 ft and less.
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COCKPIT
Altimeter
The AN5760-2 altimeter determines the altitude at which the aircraft is flying by measuring
atmospheric pressure. The instrument consists of 3 needles; the shortest needle indicates altitude in
tens of thousands of feet, the medium needle indicates altitude in thousands of feet, and the long
needle indicates altitude in hundreds of feet. For example, the image below indicates 29,500 ft.
The instrument includes a Kollsman window on the right side of the face to indicate the sea level
reference pressure in inches of mercury (inHg). The reference pressure can be adjusted by turning
the reference pressure knob.
Reference
pressure (inHg)
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COCKPIT
Engine Instruments
The engine instruments include the Manifold Pressure Indicator, Tachometer, Carburetor Air
Temperature Indicator, Coolant Temperature Indicator, and the Engine Gauge.
Tachometer
The Tachometer provides remote indication of engine speed. The instrument is graduated from 0 to
4500 and indicates engine speed as Revolutions Per Minute (RPM) in hundreds of RPM. The face is
scaled to 100 RPM throughout. The green range indicates normal operating RPM of 1600 - 2400. The
Red Line indicates maximum normal RPM of 3000.
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66
COCKPIT
Oil pressure
gauge
Fuel pressure
gauge
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67
Miscellaneous Instruments
Miscellaneous instruments include the Remote Indicator Compass, Clock, Oxygen Flow Indicator,
Oxygen Pressure Gauge, Hydraulic Pressure Gauge, Fuel Gauges, Ammeter, and Accelerometer.
Desired Magnetic
Heading
Current Magnetic
Heading
Desired Magnetic
Heading knob
Clock
The clock is installed in the upper left section of the instrument panel. The winding knob is used to
set the time. To operate the knob, pull the knob out with a left mouse button click and roll the
68
COCKPIT
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70
COCKPIT
Fuel Gauges
A fuel gauge is connected to each main tank and the fuselage tank. The fuel gauges for the main
(wing) tanks are located on the cockpit floor on either side of the seat. The fuel gauge for the
fuselage tank is located behind the seat on the pilot's left side.
Left Wing
Main Tank
Fuselage
Tank
Right Wing
Main Tank
Accelerometer
The AN-5745 accelerometer indicates the load factor (G forces) acting on the airframe. The gauge is
graduated from -5 to 12G and is scaled to 1G throughout. The instrument includes three needles to
indicate current G, and maximum and minimum G readings recorded since the last reset. The Reset
knob is used to reset the maximum and minimum needles. To operate the Reset knob, perform a left
mouse button click over it. Two Red Lines indicate maximum permissible loads of -4G and +8G.
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Reset knob
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COCKPIT
AUTO. In AUTO mode, the supercharger operates automatically, switching from Low to High
blower at an altitude of 14,500 to 19,500 feet, depending on the amount of ram air. The
supercharger switches from High to Low blower at an altitude approximately 1,500 feet below
that at which High blower engages to prevent repeated activation of High and Low blower
modes at borderline altitudes. AUTO mode is the normal setting for the supercharger.
LOW. Setting the switch to LOW sets the supercharger to Low blower mode manually.
Operating the supercharger in Low blower mode may be desirable for maximum fuel efficiency
when conducting long-range flights.
HIGH. Setting the switch to HIGH sets the supercharger to High blower mode manually. The
switch must be held in the High position to maintain High blower mode. Releasing the switch
will revert the supercharger to Low blower mode.
An amber jewel indicator light next to the switch turns on when the supercharger is in high blower.
The indicator can be tested by pressing inward.
For a more detailed description of the supercharger system, see the Supercharger section of the
aircraft overview.
2. FUEL BOOSTER SWITCH. Setting the Fuel Booster switch to the ON (up) position provides
electrical power to the booster pumps in the two main and one fuselage tanks. Each booster pump is
engaged by selecting the corresponding tank using the Fuel Selector Valve at the bottom of the front
dash.
For a more detailed description of the fuel system, see the Fuel System section of the aircraft
overview.
3. OIL DILUTE SWITCH. Setting the Oil Dilute switch to the ON (up) position thins the oil with
gasoline, which may be necessary when starting the engine at temperature of 40F and lower.
For a more detailed description of the oil system, see the Oil System section of the aircraft overview.
4. STARTER SWITCH. The Starter switch is used to start the engine. The switch is spring-loaded
and needs to be held in the ON (up) position to execute a start.
Do not operate the starter for over 15 seconds continuously.
5. PRIMER SWITCH. The Primer switch is used to prime the engine with fuel. The switch is springloaded and needs to be held in the ON (up) position to execute a prime. When the primer switch is
held ON, fuel passes to the primer lines and into the induction manifold. Usually 3 or 4 seconds are
sufficient to prime a cold engine. One second is usually sufficient for a warm engine. The engine
should be primed only when it is turning over.
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COCKPIT
ROCKETS. When set to rockets, rockets are fired according to the release settings set on the
Rocket Control Panel.
BOMBS BOTH. When set to BOMBS BOTH, both bombs or drop tanks are dropped
simultaneously with a single press of the Bomb-Rocket Release button.
BOMBS TRAIN. When set to BOMBS TRAIN, the left bomb or drop tank is released with the
first press of the Bomb-Rocket Release button and the right bomb or drop tank is released with
the second press of the Bomb-Rocket Release button.
3. BOMB ARMING SWITCHES. The Bomb Arming switches control the arming of the left and right
bombs, as well as initiate release of chemicals or smoke from the left and right external chemical
tanks. The switches have three possible positions: OFF, ARM, and CHEM RELEASE.
OFF. Bombs are not armed. This position can be used to jettison bombs in unarmed state.
ARM. Bombs are armed for detonation. This position must not be set for chemical tanks.
CHEM RELEASE. When carrying external chemical or smoke tanks, setting the left or right
switch to CHEM RELEASE will initiate chemical or smoke release from the selected canister.
Once chemical or smoke release is confirmed visually, the switch can be returned to OFF.
Chemical or smoke release will continue until the tank is depleted.
4. COCKPIT LIGHT SWITCH. The cockpit light switch controls the state and intensity of the two
cockpit lights.
5. GUN SAFETY SWITCH. The gun safety switch controls the arming of the guns and operation of
the gun camera. The switch has three possible positions: OFF, GUNS & CAMERA SIGHT, and CAMERA
SIGHT.
OFF. The guns are not fired and the gun camera is not operated.
GUNS & CAMERA SIGHT. In this position, pressing the gun trigger all the way down will fire
the guns and operate the gun camera simultaneously.
CAMERA SIGHT. In this position, pressing the gun trigger all the way down will operate the
gun camera, but not fire the guns.
6. ROCKET RELEASE CONTROL SWITCH. The Rocket Release Control switch controls the rocket
release mode and has three possible positions: OFF, SINGLE, and AUTO.
SINGLE. A single rocket is fired with each press of the Bomb-Rocket Release switch. The
specific rocket to be fired can be set using the Rocket Counter Control knob.
AUTO. In Auto mode, rockets are fired in train (ripple) as long as the Bomb-Rocket Release
switch is held down. All ten rockets are fired within approximately one second.
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Fuel
Shutoff
Valve
Fuel Selector
Valve
76
COCKPIT
The fuel gauges for the two main (wing) tanks are located on the cockpit floor on either side of the
pilot's seat. The fuel gauge for the fuselage tank is located aft of the seat, behind the pilot's left
shoulder.
Retarded
Closed
Up and locked or down and unlocked
Signal
UNSAFE
Throttle
Doors
Gear
Any position
Open
Down and unlocked or up and locked
Signal
UNSAFE
Throttle
Doors
Gear
Any position
Any position
Down and locked
Signal
SAFE
Throttle
Doors
Gear
Advanced
Closed
Up and locked
Signal
NONE
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SAFE/UNSAFE LIGHT
77
Parking Brake
The Parking Brake handle is located just to the right of the Landing Gear Warning Lights at the
bottom center of the instrument panel.
78
COCKPIT
Throttle Quadrant
The throttle quadrant includes the Throttle Control handle with the radio push-to-talk button,
Propeller Control lever, Mixture Control lever, and friction locks.
Throttle Control
handle
Push-to-Talk
Mic button
Prop Control
lever
Prop. and
Mixture Control
levers lock
Throttle Control
handle lock
Mixture Control
lever (3
positions)
Figure 63: Throttle Quadrant with the Three Position Mixture Control Lever
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79
Throttle Control
handle
Push-to-Talk
Mic button
Prop Control
lever
Prop. and
Mixture Control
levers lock
Throttle Control
handle lock
Mixture Control
lever (4
positions)
Figure 64: Throttle Quadrant with the Four Position Mixture Control Lever
THROTTLE CONTROL HANDLE. The Throttle Control handle is used to set the desired manifold
pressure by opening and closing the throttle butterfly of the engine. A throttle stop assembly on the
upper longeron allows full travel of the throttle control lever to obtain 67 inHg manifold pressure.
However, a throttle gate on the longeron stops the lever at the 61 inHg manifold pressure position the full military power setting. A safety wire is installed across the gate at this position and as the
gate is passed to obtain War Emergency Power (up to 67 inHg manifold pressure), the wire will be
broken, indicating that 61 inHg manifold pressure has been exceeded.
The throttle handle features a twist grip, which is used to adjust the range setting for the K-14
gunsight.
RADIO PUSH-TO-TALK BUTTON. The throttle handle includes the radio push-to-talk button, which
activates the VHF transmitter when pressed.
THROTTLE CONTROL HANDLE LOCK. The Throttle Control handle lock is used to adjust the
amount of friction on the Throttle Control handle.
PROP. AND MIXTURE CONTROL LEVERS LOCK. The Prop. and Mixture Control levers lock is
used to adjust the friction of the Propeller Control lever and the Mixture Control lever.
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COCKPIT
IDLE CUTOFF. The IDLE CUTOFF position is used when starting and stopping the engine. This
position should be set after the engine is stopped to ensure that no fuel is allowed to enter the
carburetor while the engine is not running.
AUTO LEAN/RUN. The AUTO LEAN position is best used for cruise engine settings to maximize
fuel economy and flight range. On later model aircraft, the AUTO LEAN position is replaced with
the RUN position.
AUTO RICH/RUN. The AUTO RICH position is the standard operating setting for the engine
and is normally used for takeoff, climb, landing, and combat. On later model aircraft, the AUTO
RICH position is replaced with the RUN position.
FULL RICH. The FULL RICH position is an emergency setting to be used only in case of
carburetor failure to ensure a sufficient fuel supply to the engine.
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81
AUTOMATIC. This is the standard position of the switch and should be set for all normal
operations. The switch is held in this position by a spring-loaded guard. With the switch set to
AUTOMATIC, the temperature of the coolant governs the amount the coolant flap will be opened
or closed.
OPEN. The OPEN position of the switch is spring-loaded and must be held in this position
manually in order to further open the coolant flap. Releasing the switch from the OPEN position
will automatically set it to the OFF position. The OPEN position can be used for ground
operations or if manual adjustment of the coolant flap is necessary in flight.
CLOSE. The CLOSE position of the switch is spring-loaded and must be held in this position in
order to further close the coolant flap. Releasing the switch from the CLOSE position will
automatically set it to the OFF position. The CLOSE position can be used for ground operations
or if manual adjustment of the coolant flap is necessary in flight.
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COCKPIT
AUTOMATIC. This is the standard position of the switch and should be set for all normal
operations. When set to AUTOMATIC, a thermostat automatically starts and stops the actuator
to move the oil radiator air outlet flap, depending on oil temperature.
OPEN. The oil radiator air outlet flap can be opened manually by setting the switch to the OPEN
position in case automatic control of the flap fails, resulting in an abnormal oil temperature
reading on the Engine Gauge.
CLOSE. The oil radiator air outlet flap can be closed manually by setting the switch to the
CLOSE position in case automatic control of the flap fails, resulting in an abnormal oil
temperature reading on the Engine Gauge.
3. LANDING LIGHT SWITCH. The Landing Light switch is used to turn the landing light on and off
by setting the switch to the corresponding position. Retraction and extension of the landing light is
controlled automatically by mechanical means when the gear is operated. A safety switch is
incorporated into the landing light circuit to cut off current to the light when it is retracted.
Keep ground operation of the landing light to a minimum to prevent overheating and
damaging the unit.
4. LEFT-HAND FLUORESCENT LIGHT RHEOSTAT. This switch controls the left fluorescent
instrument panel light. To turn the light on, first set the switch to the START position, then adjust
intensity between the ON and DIM settings. Note, the right fluorescent light is controlled by the
Right-hand Fluorescent Light rheostat located on the Electrical Control panel.
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84
COCKPIT
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85
Flaps Control
The Wing Flaps handle is located on the left side of the cockpit, aft of the console. The handle has six
positions: UP, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50. A detent is constructed for each position. Note, normal
takeoff is performed with the flaps up. Flaps can be set to 15 - 20 down for a minimum-run takeoff.
86
COCKPIT
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87
88
COCKPIT
Canopy Controls
The cockpit canopy controls include the Canopy Handcrank and the Canopy Emergency Release
handle.
Canopy Handcrank
Oxygen Regulator
The AN6004 oxygen regulator is installed on the right side of the cockpit, just aft of the instrument
panel. The oxygen regulator has a diaphragm which actuates a valve, permitting oxygen to flow
through the regulator, where it mixes with free air in varying amount in accordance with barometric
pressure. A control valve allows the pilot to close the air intake, thus causing pure oxygen to flow to
the mask. The regulator also has an emergency valve, which causes oxygen to by-pass the regulator
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89
Diluter lever
Recognition Lights
The P-51D is equipped with three recognition lights - red, green, and amber, installed underneath the
right wing. Each light is provided a switch on the Electrical Control panel and can be set to burn
continuously or be flashed on and off by means of a keying switch mounted in a box just above the
Electrical Control panel.
90
COCKPIT
Recognition Lights
Keying switch
Amber Recognition
Light switch
Green Recognition
Light switch
Red Recognition
Light switch
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91
5
1
6
1
8
1
92
COCKPIT
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93
Selected Channel
lights
OFF button
Channel Selector
buttons
Mode switch
94
"A" channel is usually used for all normal plane-to-plane communication or for plane-toground communication with a Controller.
"B" channel is common to all VHF-equipped control towers. It is normally used to contact
the control tower for takeoff and landing instructions.
"D" channel is normally used for plane-to-ground contact with D/F stations, and as a
special frequency which is automatically selected at regular intervals by the action of a
contactor unit.
COCKPIT
Code Selector
switch
TIME ON-OFF
switch
Emergency
switch
ON-OFF switch
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95
Mode switch
96
COCKPIT
ON-OFF/Volume
knob
Tuning knob
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97
98
COCKPIT
FLIGHT
CHARACTERISTICS
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99
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
General Characteristics
The P-51D is generally a very well-handling aircraft. It is very light on all of the controls and stable at
all normal loadings. Light, steady pressure on the controls is sufficient to execute any routine
maneuver. At various speeds in level flight or in climbing or diving, the control pressures required are
slight and can be stabilized by adjustments on the trim tabs. However, the trim control tabs
themselves are sensitive and require careful adjustments. The rudder and the elevator trim change
slightly as the speed or the power output of the engine changes.
The aircraft has a redline speed of 505 knots Indicated Airspeed (IAS), with a maximum diving
engine RPM of 3240. Extra caution should be used not to attempt steep dives at low altitudes as the
aircraft accelerates very rapidly.
The aircraft is susceptible to high speed stalls, but not any more so than any other high speed
aircraft. A buffeting of the tail section occurs about 5 to 10 MPH above the stall. All that is necessary
to recover from a high speed stall is to release the back pressure on the stick and then recovery is
almost instantaneous.
Recovery from a normal stall is the same. The buffeting, however, occurs at about 3 to 5 miles per
hour above the stall.
The aircraft is generally normal in its flying characteristics. When trimmed for normal cruising speed,
the aircraft will become nose-heavy when the nose is raised and the airspeed drops. Under the same
cruising conditions, if the nose is lowered and the airspeed increases, the aircraft will become tail
heavy in direct proportion to the airspeed.
When you lower the flaps, the airplane becomes nose heavy.
When you raise the flaps, the airplane becomes tail heavy.
When you retract the landing gear, the airplane becomes tail heavy.
100
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
When you lower the landing gear, the airplane becomes nose heavy.
Similarly, normal flight attitude changes can be expected when raising or lowering the flaps and
landing gear. Increased drag causes the aircraft to lower the nose, while decreased drag results in
raising the nose.
The P-51 does not hold a sustained side-slip. The aileron control is not sufficient to hold the aircraft
in a side-slipping angle. However, side-slip can be maintained for a short duration of time in an effort
to evade enemy fire. When any side-slipping is attempted, complete recovery should be achieved
above 200 feet to avoid ground collision.
As new equipment was added to the aircraft over the course of its development, in particular the
radio equipment and the fuselage tank installed aft of the cockpit, the center of gravity (CG) has
been moved back. This has resulted in decreased back pressure required to move the control stick.
Instead of a force of 6 lbs. per G of acceleration, the required force in the P-51D is only 1 lbs.
Additionally, the stick forces begin to reverse as acceleration exceeds 4G. Great care must be taken
not to black out or over-stress the airframe in sharp pulls and turns.
Operating Limits
Load Factor Limitations
The P-51D structural load limit is +8G and -4G (plus a standard safety factor of 1.5). The below chart
illustrates the maximum load factor limitations for different indicated airspeeds and three altitude
bands at a gross weight (GW) of 9,000 lbs.
To calculate the maximum G load for a different GW, take the maximum load for the desired airspeed
and altitude band provided in the chart, multiply by 9,000 and divide by the desired GW. For
example, to calculate the maximum G load for a GW of 11,000 lbs (i.e. a P-51D with payload) at 225
IAS and altitudes below 10,000 feet, perform the following steps:
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101
Take the maximum G load provided by the chart for 225 IAS at altitudes below 10,000 feet
(4G)
Multiply the chart reading by 9,000 (4 x 9,000 = 36,000)
Divide the result by desired GW (36,000/11,000 = 3.27G)
Engine Limitations
The maximum diving engine overspeed is 3240 RPM. Avoid operation below 1600 RPM in low blower
supercharger mode. Avoid operation below 2000 RPM in high blower supercharger mode.
Airspeed Limitations
The Red Line index on the Airspeed Indicator marks the maximum permissible airspeed (505 mph)
up to 5,000 feet in altitude. At altitudes above 5,000 feet, the maximum permissible indicated
airspeed must be adjusted for altitude as indicated in the Maximum Indicated Airspeed illustration.
Do not exceed the following wing flap setting airspeed restrictions:
102
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
Maximum IAS
(mph)
10
400
20
275
30
225
40
180
50
165
When droppable 75-gallon combat fuel tanks are installed, do not exceed 400 mph indicated
airspeed. Do not allow airspeed to fall below 110 mph indicated airspeed during a sideslip.
Instrument Markings
Flight and engine operating limits for normal flight are included on the cockpit on a special placard
and consist of the following limits:
Operational range
Max. takeoff
manifold pressure
Figure 82: Max. takeoff manifold pressure 61 in. HG (155 cm HG) (red mark). Operating
range 2636 in. HG (66.04 - 91.44 cm HG) (green zone).
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103
Operational oil
temperature
Max. permissible oil
temperature
Operational fuel
pressure range
Operational oil
pressure range
Min. permissible oil
pressure
Figure 83:
Max permissible oil temperature 90C (194F), operating oil temperature 7080C
(158176F).
Max permissible oil pressure 90 lbs./sq. in. Min permissible oil pressure 50 lbs./sq. in.
Operating oil pressure range 7080 lbs./sq. in.
Max fuel pressure 19 lbs./sq. in. Min permissible fuel pressure 12 lbs./sq. in. Operating
fuel pressure range 1216 lbs./sq. in.
104
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
Operational Range
RPM
Max. permissible
IAS
Figure 85: Max. permissible IAS 505 mph (808 km/h, 440 knots)
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105
Figure 86: Max. coolant temperature 121C (250F), operating range 100110C
(212230F)
Figure 87: Desirable carburetor air temperature range 1530C (5986F), maximum
40C (104F)
106
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
Reversibility
With the fuselage tank full, the CG of the aircraft moves back so far that it is nearly impossible to
trim for hands-off level flight. Also, as soon as a sharp pull or turn is attempted, the stick forces
reverse due to the effects of high G on an aft-positioned CG airframe. For example, once the G is
loaded into a turn, the aircraft will naturally tighten the pull and may require pushing forward on the
stick to balance. Similarly, when recovering from a dive with an aft-positioned CG, the aircraft tends
to recover too sharply and may require changing from pulling the stick back to pushing it forward to
maintain a desirable pullout rate.
The tendency for the CG to affect stick forces to the point of reversing them is called Reversibility. In
the P-51, this effect can be expected when the fuselage tank is loaded with a significant quantity of
fuel. Reversibility is reduced rapidly as the fuel quantity in the fuselage tank drops to half and below.
Additionally, the P-51D features a bobweight added to the elevator control system bellcrank. This
weight reduces the amount of forward pressure required to overcome reversibility tendencies.
Drop Tanks
When equipped with drop tanks, only normal flight attitudes are permitted. Only normal climbing
turns and descents should be performed when carrying drop tanks.
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108
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
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109
Compressibility
Compressibility effects result in a loss of control over the aircraft as it approaches the speed of sound
and is the reason maximum IAS is reduced as altitude increases. The lift characteristics of the aircraft
are largely destroyed and intense drag develops. The stability, control, and trim characteristics of the
aircraft are affected. The tail buffets or the controls stiffen, or the aircraft develops uncontrollable
pitching and porpoising, or uncontrollable rolling and yawing, or any combination of these effects. If
the speed of the aircraft is allowed to increase out of control in a dive, either the terrific vibrations of
the sound barrier shockwaves cause structural failure or the aircraft crashes while still in the
compressibility dive.
In the P-51, the first effect of compressibility is a nibbling of the control stick, where it occasionally
jumps slightly in the pilots hand. If the airspeed is allowed to climb, this movement will increase into
a walking stick, where it moves uncontrollably forward and back, resulting in the characteristic
porpoising pitching moments of the aircraft. As the airspeed builds, this effect will become
increasingly violent.
110
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
AIRSPEED [mph]
Figure 90: Maximum Allowable Diving Speeds
Glides
The P-51 can be glided safely at speeds down to 25% above stalling speed. With average loads, this
will be around 125 mph IAS at any level this speed increasing with the weight of the aircraft. The
optimum power-off gliding speed is 175 mph.
With the landing gear and flap retracted, the glide flight path is fairly flat. In this condition, however,
the nose is held high and forward visibility is poor. Lowering either the flaps or the landing gear
reduces the safe gliding speed and greatly steepens the gliding angle and increases the rate of
descent.
The table below demonstrates the horizontal glide distances obtained with a power-off glide at 175
mph IAS from various altitudes:
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111
Alt. (ft)
Dist. (mi)
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
115
101
87
72
58
43
29
14
Stalls
A stall occurs when the aircraft is unable to generate sufficient lift for controlled flight, usually on one
of both wings. This results in a loss of control to various degrees, leading to a possible wing-over or
an uncontrolled spin in the worst case. The P-51 stalling characteristics are generally mild and
recoverable. In general, a stall is preceded by airframe buffeting. Stalling speeds vary greatly
depending on the gross weight and the external loading of the aircraft. Lowering the flaps and
landing gear reduces stall speeds considerably.
Recovery from a stall on the P-51 is normal. In early onset, simply releasing the stick and rudder to
drop the nose will recover control. If a wing-drop condition occurs, applying opposite rudder and
releasing the stick will recover control.
The below chart illustrates the approximate indicated power-off stall speeds in mph for various flight
conditions:
Gross
weight (lbs)
With Wing
Racks
Only
With Bombs,
Drop Tanks,
or Rockets
112
Gear up
Flaps up
Gear down
Flaps 45 down
Level
30
bank
45
bank
Level
30
bank
45
bank
10,000
106
115
128
101
110
123
9,000
101
109
121
94
103
116
8,000
94
102
114
87
98
108
12,000
119
128
143
113
123
136
11,000
113
122
137
107
117
131
10,000
108
116
130
102
111
124
9,000
102
110
123
95
105
117
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
Spins
Power-off Spins
In general, spins in the P-51D are uncomfortable, because of heavy oscillations. Occasionally, the left
spin oscillations will dampen out after approximately three turns, but the right spin oscillations will
not. When controls are applied to start a spin, the aircraft snaps one-half turn in the direction of the
spin, with the nose dropping to near vertical. At the end of one turn, the nose rises to or above the
horizon and the spin slows down, occasionally coming almost to a complete stop. The aircraft then
snaps one-half turn with the nose dropping to 50-60 degrees below the horizon and continues as
during the first turn. The force required to hold the controls in the spinning position is quite heavy,
and some rudder buffet becomes noticeable. When controls are applied for recovery, the nose drops
to a near vertical position and the spin speeds up and then stops in one to 1 and 1/4 turns.
Stick neutral after the aircraft responds to rudder (as rotation stops)
Power-on Spins
Power-on spins should never be intentionally performed in the P-51. In a power-on spin, the nose of
the aircraft remains 10 to 20 degrees above the horizon, and recovery control has no effect upon the
aircraft until the throttle is completely retarded.
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Instrument Flying
Altitude Control
The rate of climb or descent, at a given airspeed and power setting, is determined by the degree of
pitch, or nose attitude change. At high speeds, a very slight change in pitch will immediately result in
a high rate of climb or descent, with a rapid gain or loss of altitude. Therefore, when maneuvering at
low altitude under instrument conditions, as during an instrument approach, the primary rule of
safety is: keep the airspeed down.
Bank Control
The turn needle is gyro-actuated and indicates rate of turn only, regardless of speed. Therefore, at a
given rate of turn, the angle of bank in a coordinated turn depends upon true airspeed. A standardrate turn at an altitude of 1,000 ft and an IAS of 200 MPH will require approximately 27 of bank. But
at 25,000 ft, an IAS of 200 MPH will require about 37 of bank to accomplish a standard-rate turn,
because the TAS at that altitude is in excess of 300 MPH.
Control pressure on the elevators changes rapidly during the entry into a steeply banked turn, and
its very easy at this time to make inadvertent changes in your pitch. As explained above, these slight
changes in nose attitude, at high speeds, will result in large altitude variations; these can be critically
dangerous when flying on instruments and close to the ground. This hazard can also be avoided by
keeping the airspeed low. When airspeed is low, the angle of bank required for a given rate of turn is
greatly lessened and the problem of control is proportionally reduced.
Control Sensitivity
Given the sensitivity of the P-51 controls, it is essential to remain mentally attentive to the
instruments at all times. Accurate trim control is extremely important; it will contribute greatly to
physical relaxation and make it easier to concentrate on the numerous unrelated details of instrument
flight. Trimming should be done carefully and as often as required.
Instrument Approach
Shortly before reaching the station on the initial approach, airspeed is reduced to 150 mph Indicated
and flaps are lowered to 10. Keeping the airspeed low simplifies radio procedures and increases
control of the aircraft.
After completion of the initial approach, final approach is performed at 130 mph Indicated, with
landing gear down and flaps set to 15.
114
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
EAGLE DYNAMICS
115
NORMAL PROCEDURES
116
NORMAL PROCEDURES
External Check
The external check starts at the cockpit and moves clockwise around the left wing, engine, right wing
and finally the tail section. In walking to the aircraft and going around it, check the entire airframe
for wrinkles, loose rivets, dents, and loose access doors. Pay special attention to the following points:
Check the tires. See that they are properly inflated, especially that they are not too low and not
worn deeply in spots.
Check the clearance of the landing gear struts. The clearance should be about 3
equal on both struts.
Make sure the covers on the gun hatches are securely fastened.
Check the caps on the gas tanks, making sure they are properly closed.
In looking over the aircraft, check all of Dzus fasteners, especially those around the nose
section. Also, be sure to check the screws in the fairings, especially those between the wing and
fuselage.
inches and
Pre-start
As soon as you enter the cockpit, make sure that the ignition switch is OFF and the mixture control is
at IDLE CUT-OFF. Request ground assistance to rotate the propeller at least 12 blades. After, perform
the following check around the cockpit, working from left to right:
Fuselage fuel check the gauge on top of the fuselage tank (behind the pilots seat, left side).
Carburetor ram air control forward in RAM AIR position (unless FILTERED AIR required).
Carburetor hot air control forward to NORMAL position (unless HOT AIR required).
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117
Flap Handle UP
Trim tabs
o
Aileron trim: 0.
Elevator trim: 2 nose heavy for full fuel and no drop tanks; 4 nose heavy for full fuel
with drop tanks.
Aileron - 0
Rudder - 6 right
No combat tanks,
fuselage tank full 2
nose heavy.
Combat tanks full,
fuselage tank full 4
nose heavy.
118
NORMAL PROCEDURES
EAGLE DYNAMICS
119
Armament switches
120
NORMAL PROCEDURES
Gyro instruments uncage directional gyro and flight indicator (uncaged by default).
Controls adjust the rudder pedals to comfortable position, then unlock the controls and check
to see that they operate without binding. Watch the control surfaces for correct response.
Parking brakes set. Dont try to hold the aircraft with foot brakes.
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Fuel booster ON
122
NORMAL PROCEDURES
Ignition to BOTH
Generator ON
Coolant and oil radiator flap control switches operate manually from CLOSE to OPEN several
times, and check by listening to determine whether the doors are operating.
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123
Coolant radiator
flap control
switch
Prime and start having completed this left to right check, youre now ready to start the engine
in accordance with the procedure provided below. Prior to doing so, the following items need to
be checked, depending on the mission:
o
Before any flight, check the landing gear warning lights by pushing on the lamp
housings.
If you expect to use oxygen, check the gauge for a pressure of 400 PSI.
If night flying is anticipated, check all essential lights instrument fluorescent lights,
cockpit swivel lights, position and recognition lights, and landing lights.
Start-Up
After completing the Pre-start check, proceed with engine start-up as follows:
Starter switch
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NORMAL PROCEDURES
As the engine starts, move the mixture control to RUN (AUTO RICH on earlier aircraft). If the
engine fails to take hold after several revolutions, give it one seconds more prime.
If the engine cuts out after starting, return the mixture control immediately to IDLE CUTOFF.
Check that oil pressure reaches at least 50 PSI within 30 seconds. If it doesnt, stop the engine.
Idle at about 1200-1300 RPM until the oil temperature reaches 40C and the oil pressure is
steady.
Check all the engine instruments. Make sure they dont exceed or fall below their limits.
After the engine is warmed up, idle at 1000 RPM or slightly less. This keeps the engine clean but
not too hot.
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125
Suction gauge
RPM gauge
If for any reason you anticipate pulling more than 40 of manifold during the engine ground run, be
sure that the airplane is anchored.
Set the propeller control full forward. This makes the engine easier to start next time.
Move the mixture control to IDLE CUT-OFF, opening the throttle as the RPM drops below 700
RPM. Do not open the throttle above 700 RPM as any sudden opening of the throttle at this
point discharges fuel into the carburetor and causes after-firing the engine sputters and
attempts to fire again.
Turn off all electrical switches. Dont forget the battery switch.
Lock the controls, and move the carburetor air lever to UNRAMMED FILTERED AIR.
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NORMAL PROCEDURES
If the parking brakes are to be used, give them plenty of time to cool or they may freeze in
place. Avoid using the parking brakes unless dictated by conditions or tying the aircraft down
overnight.
Consult the table below for a chart of manifold pressure and engine RPM limits for flight, as well as
engine instrument limits.
Table of Manifold Pressure and RPM Limits for Flight
Takeoff
Maximum
War
Emergency
Military
Power
Maximum
Continuous
Maximum
Cruise
Manifold
Pressure (in.)
61
67
61
46
42
RPM
3000
3000
3000
2700
2400
Oil
Temperature
Oil Pressure
Fuel Pressure
Minimum
50 PSI
14 PSI
Desired
100-110C
70-80C
70-80 PSI
16-18 PSI
Maximum
121C
105C
19 PSI
Taxiing
When the aircraft is in a 3-point attitude, the nose restricts forward visibility. This means that in
taxiing, you must keep zig-zagging (or "S-ing") continually.
Taxi with the canopy open. This not only aids visibility, but keeps the cockpit cooler on the ground. In
ordinary taxiing, keep the stick aft of neutral. This locks the tail wheel and makes it steerable through
6 right or left with the rudder. To make sharp turns or to go around corners, unlock the tail wheel
by pushing the stick full forward. In this position the tail wheel is full swiveling. Be careful not to start
a sharp turn before unlocking the tail wheel it tends to bind.
Throttle back when taxiing and use the brakes as little as possible. There is no point in wasting a lot
of gasoline and burning up your brakes on the taxi strip.
Preflight Check
Prior to initiating takeoff, perform the following final checks:
Primary controls:
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127
Altimeter set.
Fuel system:
o
Check fuel tank selector handle on MAIN TANK L.H. Be sure selector is in detent.
Flaps:
o
Flaps set for takeoff (UP for normal takeoff, 15- 20 down for minimum run takeoff).
Trim:
o
Aileron trim: 0.
Elevator trim: 2 nose heavy for full fuel and no drop tanks; 4 nose heavy for full fuel
with drop tanks.
Power check - advance throttle to obtain 2300 RPM. At this RPM, the manifold
pressure should read 1/2 in.Hg less than field barometric pressure within +/- 1/2
in.Hg.
Manifold pressure in excess of field barometric pressure indicates that the engine is not
producing maximum power and should be checked.
At 2300 RPM, with the propeller in full INCREASE, move ignition switches from BOTH
to L, back to BOTH, then to R, and back to BOTH. Allow engine speed to stabilize at
BOTH between checks. A maximum drop of 100 RPM is allowable for the right
magneto and 130 RPM drop for the left magneto. If RPM drop is more than allowable,
spark plugs will have to be deleaded.
Idle speed check - idle engine at 650 to 700 RPM with throttle against idle stop.
128
NORMAL PROCEDURES
Acceleration and deceleration check - with mixture set to RUN, advance throttle from idle to
2300 RPM. Engine should accelerate and decelerate smoothly with no tendency to backfire.
Carburetor ram-air control lever set to RAM AIR (UNRAMMED FILTERED AIR or carburetor HOT
AIR control lever set to HOT AIR only if required).
Do not exceed 40 in.Hg during ground run-up without having the tail tied down, because
of the possibility of the aircraft nosing over.
Takeoff
Normal Takeoff
Follow the below procedure to perform a normal takeoff:
Be sure takeoff area is clear and check final approach for inbound aircraft.
Advance throttle smoothly and steadily to Takeoff Power (61 in.Hg MP at 3000 RPM).
Do not attempt to lift the tail too soon, as this increases torque action. Pushing the stick forward
unlocks the tail wheel, thereby making steering difficult. The best takeoff procedure is to hold
the tail down until sufficient speed for rudder control is attained and then to raise the tail slowly.
Slight rudder input may be necessary to control P-factor effects as the tail is lifted and stabilized
for a takeoff attitude.
Note, it is recommended that 61 in.Hg and 3000 RPM be used for all takeoffs and that this power
setting be reached as quickly as possible after the takeoff run is started. However, advance the
throttle smoothly and never jam it forward, as torque effects appearing from a sudden onset of
power will cause a loss of control of the aircraft.
When a formation takeoff is performed, a lower power setting of about 55 in.Hg may be used to
allow the wingmen room for increased power over the leader in order to maintain their position.
If rough engine occurs during the takeoff run, immediately throttle back 4 or 5 in.Hg manifold
pressure to complete takeoff if conditions permit. Throttling back tends to decrease the intensity of
detonation or preignition and minimizes the chances of engine failure. If this condition occurs on
takeoff, the spark plugs must be changed before the next flight.
Avoid sudden bursts of power during takeoff! Make it smooth and steady.
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129
Minimum-Run Takeoff
To accomplish a minimum-run takeoff, lower flaps 15 - 20. Keep the aircraft in a three-point attitude
and allow it to fly itself off the ground in this position. As soon as airborne, allow airspeed to build up
and climb out when speed exceeds 100 mph. Retract landing gear when airspeed reaches a safe
value. Raise flaps above 200 feet altitude.
Crosswind Takeoff
The following procedure is recommended for a crosswind takeoff:
Hold the tail down until sufficient speed is attained to ensure positive rudder control. Speed
should be slightly greater than for normal takeoff.
Apply sufficient aileron control to keep wings level or even to effect a slightly wing-low attitude
into the wind.
Keep the aircraft firmly on the runway until speed is sufficient to make a smooth, clean break.
After becoming airborne, crab into the wind enough to counteract drift.
After Takeoff
Perform the following steps once a safe takeoff is accomplished:
Raise the landing gear by pulling the landing gear lever inward and up. Be sure the lever
catches in the up position. In a minimum-run takeoff, raise the flaps when altitude is at least
200 feet, a sufficient airspeed has been attained and all obstacles have been cleared.
Do not apply brakes after takeoff to stop rotation of the wheels, as brake disks may
seize.
After reaching an altitude of 500 feet, throttle back to 46 of manifold at 2700 RPM.
Check all of your instruments for proper function within normal parameters. In doing so, be sure
to check the ammeter indicator showing proper charging form the generator. Immediately after
takeoff, the rate of charge should not exceed 100 amps, dropping back to the normal 50 amps
or less after 5 minutes of operation. If the charge does not reduce, turn the generator
disconnect switch to OFF and return to the airfield. Also check the hydraulic pressure to read
approximately 1000 PSI after the landing gear has been retracted.
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NORMAL PROCEDURES
Landing
Descent
Before descent, turn the windshield defroster control knob ON. Descent may be carried out at any
safe speed down to the recommended margin of about 25 percent above stalling speed. With the
landing gear and flaps up, the glide is fairly flat with the nose very high. Forward visibility is poor in
this condition, and in traffic areas, a series of "S" turns should be employed to prevent a possible
collision. Lower either the flaps or landing gear, or both, greatly increases the gliding angle and the
rate of descent.
Approach Check
When approaching the field for a landing, perform an approach check, which includes the following
steps:
Clean out the engine at 3000 RPM and 61 in.Hg for 1 minute.
Landing gear move lever to DOWN. Check indicator to see that the gear is down and
locked. Note, the gear should be lowered at 170 mph or less.
Flaps full down. Note, flaps are usually lowered for the turn to final approach.
Shoulder harness lock harness and check by leaning forward against it.
The traffic pattern used may vary depending on the airfield and local conditions. Regardless of the
traffic used, keep the pattern in close enough to the field and at sufficient altitude so you can bring
the aircraft in safely even with the power off, if necessary.
In preparing to peel off, control your airspeed. The greater the speed, the longer it takes to slow
down. Peel off should be performed at speeds no greater than 200-225 mph.
Landing Procedure
Perform the following steps when preparing to land:
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131
When lowering the landing gear, make sure the control handle is DOWN and locked. Check the
landing gear indicator lights. Be sure the hydraulic pressure returns to 100 PSI. Be prepared for
the aircraft to feel nose-heavy when the gear is down. Adjust the pitch trim to compensate.
Lower the flaps when turning on final approach and the airspeed is below 165 IAS.
Once lined up on final and with the flaps lowered, maintain approximately 112-120 IAS.
Just before getting to the runway, break the glide with a controlled flare and approach so as to
land within the first third of the runway, in a 3-point attitude.
Hold the aircraft in the 3-point attitude just above the runway until flying speed is lost and the
plane sets down at approximately 90 mph.
The tail wheel is locked when the stick is neutral or aft, so steering is limited after touchdown. Keep
the stick held back until enough speed is lost and you are ready to turn off the runway and taxi.
Never attempt to push the stick forward and unlock the tail wheel in a turn when taxiing. Release the
tail wheel before starting the turn.
The illustration below demonstrates the landing procedure:
Landing gear handle down below
170 MPH IAS
WARNING
Do not change gear position until
cycle is completed as gear may get
out of proper sequence
Check gear position by use of warning
lights, horn and hydraulic pressure
Flaps down 15 to give steeper
approach if desired
Recheck gear and flaps
Throttle closed when landing assured
Flaps full down at altitude of at least
400 feet (below 165 MPH IAS)
120 MPH IAS at edge of field
Flare out
Touch down 90 MPH IAS
132
NORMAL PROCEDURES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
After Landing
After landing, clear the runway as soon as possible and perform the following steps:
Open canopy.
Set oil coolant and radiator air control switches to OPEN. Release switches to OFF when flaps
are fully open.
Drop the wing into the wind slightly to counteract the drift, and keep the plane straight with the
runway.
Be sure to keep the stick back after touch down, so that the tail wheel will remain locked.
Make a wheel landing if the crosswind is excessive, gusty, strong, or otherwise doubtful. Use
approximately half flaps for any appreciable crosswind.
If crabbing is required during the approach, be sure to straighten out before landing. Never land in a
crab as it is very stressful on the landing gear.
Gusty Landings
In a gusty wind condition, maintain speeds slightly faster than normal to minimize the likelihood of a
sudden loss of lift between wind gusts. Watch for the effect of gust on the aircraft. The gust tends to
have a ballooning effect. Then, when the gust quits, the aircraft may drop as lift is reduced, resulting
in an impact with the ground.
Use about half flaps when performing a landing in gusty conditions.
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133
Wet Landings
Wet landing requite special attention in using the brakes. Avoid jamming the brakes, which could
result in skidding out of control. If visibility out of the front wind shield is poor, use the front panels
on each side of the windshield.
Landing Go-Around
Dont hesitate to go around if there is any possibility of a problem occurring while landing. The
recommended go-around procedure is as follows:
Advance the throttle quickly, but smoothly to a manifold pressure of 46 at 2700 RPM. Avoid a
sudden rush of power to prevent a possible loss of control due to increasing torque effects.
As power is increased, counteract left torque by using right rudder and right trim tab.
After your IAS reaches 120 mph and altitude reaches 500 feet, raise the flaps. Bring them up
gradually, about 10 at a time. Monitor the change in attitude as the flaps are raised.
Set oil and coolant radiator flaps as necessary for continued flight.
Do not make sudden and large throttle movements. Use all of the controls smoothly to
avoid a loss of control.
If the aircraft has been trimmed for landing, it may take considerable stick-forward pressure to
maintain the nose down until the elevator is re-trimmed.
Its critical to maintain a straight course until enough airspeed is gained to raise the flaps and begin
maneuvering.
134
EMERGENCY
PROCEDURES
EAGLE DYNAMICS
135
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Engine Emergencies
Engine Overheating
Engine overheating can be recognized by one or more of the following effects: coolant relief valve
pop-off, maximum coolant temperature being exceeded, or white smoke coming from the exhaust
stacks. An engine overheating in flight is likely caused by one of the following:
You have been climbing at high power and below recommended airspeed. In other words, the
air blast in the air scoop is insufficient. To remedy this problem, level out, reduce power and
increase airspeed.
The automatic shutter controls not functioning properly. In this case, operate the shutters
manually by means of the toggle switch control, and watch the instruments to see if the
condition has been remedied.
The oil supply is depleted. This situation may be discovered by reading the oil pressure gauge.
The engine will continue to overheat even after the shutters are opened all the way. There is no
fix for this problem, so maintain the RPM and power as low as possible and land as soon as
possible.
The coolant supply is depleted. The engine will continue to overheat even after the shutters are
opened all the way. There is no fix for this problem, so maintain the RPM and power as low as
possible and land as soon as possible. You may only have about 10 minutes before the engine
fails.
The engines operating limits have been exceeded. Make sure the carburetor air control is set to
RAM AIR, depending on the type of equipment. Check the mixture control to see that is set to
RUN or AUTO RICH.
If conditions are favorable for a dead-stick landing and overheating persists, consider the possibility
of shutting down the engine prior to landing.
Engine Failure
Engine failures fall into two main categories: those occuring instantly and those giving ample
warning. The instant failure is rare and usually occurs only if ignition or fuel flow completely fails.
Most engine failures are gradual and afford the alert pilot ample indication that a failure may be
approaching. An extremely rough-running engine, loss of oil pressure, excessive coolant temperature
under normal flight conditions, loss of manifold pressure, and fluctuating RPM are indications that a
failure may occur. When indications point to an engine failure, the pilot should land immediately.
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
If doubt exists as to whether the aircraft can be brought to a safe stop on runway, ignition
switch should be set to OFF and fuel shutoff valve lever to OFF.
If insufficient runway remains for a safe stop of obstacles cannot be avoided, jettison external
load and move landing gear handle UP.
After stopping, get out of the aircraft as soon as possible, and remain outside.
Move Mixture control to FULL RICH (or EMERGENCY RICH) if the engine begins to fail.
Pull the Bomb Salvo handles to release external bombs or tanks, if loaded.
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137
Lower the nose immediately so that airspeed does not drop below stall speed. Keep IAS well
above stall speed.
If external tanks or bombs are installed, release them over an uncongested area by pulling the
Bomb Salvo release handles.
Set the battery disconnect switch to OFF, unless electrical power is desired for operating the
lights or radio.
Choose an area for landing. If near a landing field, notify the tower. Judge turns carefully and
plan to land into the wind.
Duck your head, lower the seat, and release the sliding canopy by pulling the Canopy
Emergency Release Handle.
If a long runway is available and time and altitude are sufficient to properly plan an approach,
set the landing gear handle to DN. If landing under any other condition, keep the gear up.
Set wing flaps to 30, leaving another 20 for compensation of possible mistakes in the final
approach. Lower the flaps fully when a safe landing in not in doubt.
Runaway Propellers
Failure of the propeller governor is quite rare, and the chances are that you will never encounter it.
When it does happen, the prop runs away, that is, the blades go to full low pitch, resulting in engine
speeds as high as 3600 RPM or more. Obviously, this speed must be reduced immediately or the
engine will be completely ruined, necessitating a forced landing or a bailout.
If a runaway propeller situation is encountered, perform the following procedure:
Pull the throttle back to obtain 3240 RPM, the maximum allowed diving overspeed of the engine.
Raise the nose of the aircraft to lose speed, and youre flying high, return gradually to a
moderate altitude. Keep the speed at approximately 140 IAS.
When you reach a landing field, lower the gear and make a normal landing.
138
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Fire
In the event of a fire, keep the canopy entirely closed. Opening the canopy will result in it quickly
filling with smoke. Similarly, do not lower the landing gear as this may also blast the fire into the
cockpit.
If an engine fire develops, attempt to control the fire by performing the following steps:
Throttle CLOSED.
Battery disconnect switch to OFF, unless power is desired to operate the radio or lights.
While remaining in the cockpit during a fire, cover all the exposed parts of your body, including your
eyes. If the fire situation requires bailing out, only open the canopy when you are ready to leave the
aircraft. Dont release the canopy until after you have unlocked the safety harness, trimmed the
aircraft, and are crouched with your feet in the seat ready to spring out. Then pull the canopy
emergency release handle and lunge upward to the right, pushing the canopy off with head.
Landing Emergencies
Forced Landing Over Doubtful Terrain
If a forced landing over doubtful terrain is unavoidable, dont hesitate to attempt a belly landing.
Forced landing with wheels down should be made only when absolutely certain that such a procedure
is safe.
Belly Landing
When a belly landing is unavoidable, its best to perform the landing on a hard surface. On soft or
loose ground, the air scoop tends to dig in, not only stopping the aircraft suddenly, but also causing
more damage to the airframe than a hard-surface belly landing.
Lower the seat, duck your head, and jettison the canopy.
Make sure your shoulder hardness and safety belt are locked.
Use about 30 of flaps until just before landing. Lower the flaps fully once sure of the
landing area.
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139
As soon as the aircraft stops, get out and move to a safe distance as quickly as possible.
Unless assistance is available nearby, stay close to the aircraft to assist a searching party in
locating your position. Consider using oil or gasoline to start a signal fire if conditions allow.
Brake Failure
Remember that the break system is not operated by the hydraulic system of the aircraft and the each
brake is operated by its own individual pressure cylinder, which is activated by using the brake
pedals. It is extremely unlikely, therefore, that both brakes will fail at the same time. When one
brake fails, it is almost always possible to use the other in stopping the aircraft.
If one brake goes out while taxiing, use the other (good) brake and also the lockable tail wheel.
Immediately chop the throttle and cut the switch. If youre going too fast to stop the aircraft in this
matter, lock the good brake, and groundloop until the aircraft stops.
If a brake goes out while checking the magnetos, immediately cut the throttle back and hold the
plane in a groundloop with the good brake.
If, when coming in for a landing, you know that your brakes are inoperative or even if you suspect
such a condition approach the field and land as slow as safety permits. Use full flaps and use your
best technique in making a 3-point landing. Stop the engine completely by cutting the mixture control
as soon as your plane is on the ground. The dead prop creates additional braking action to help make
your landing as short as possible.
If the brakes are locked, never attempt a wheel-type (tail high) landing. If you do, your will either hit
the prop or nose over altogether.
Put the landing control handle in the DOWN position. This released the mechanical locks which
hold the gear in place.
140
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Pull the red emergency knob. This releases the hydraulic pressure in the lines and allows the
gear to drop of its own weight.
Its possible that the gear may not fall with sufficient force to lock itself in place. To avoid this
problem, rock the aircraft side to side while continuing to pull the red emergency handle until
the gear catches in the locked position.
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141
Tire Failure
If a tire is low or blown out during a landing approach, perform a 3-point landing. Dont use the
brakes until necessary, then use the opposite brake, but only slightly, and enough opposite rudder to
keep the aircraft straight.
Land on the left side of the runway if the right tire is flat and on the right side if the left tire is flat.
If a tire is completely lost, do not attempt to land on a rim. Perform a belly landing.
Ditching
Never attempt to ditch a P-51 except as a last resort. Fighter aircraft are not designed to float on
water, and the P-51 has an even greater tendency to dive because of the air scoop position under
the fuselage. It will go down in 1 to 2 seconds.
It is possible to ditch the P-51 successfully and it has been done on several occasions. However, it is
a hazardous situation. If a problem arises over water and if reaching land is impossible, bailing out is
preferred to ditching. In most situations, it should be possible to pull up to at least 500 feet to make
a safe jump. In such a case, perform as steep of a climb as possible to exit the aircraft at the highest
possible altitude. When bailing out, it is recommended to use the right side of the aircraft due to the
slip stream helping to clear the tail section safely.
Radio Procedure
Refer to the section below on bailing over water for the correct radio procedure prior to ditching the
aircraft. Accomplish as much of the procedure as circumstances permit. Chances of a successful
rescue depend heavily on whether an Air/Sea Rescue Unit can get an accurate fix on the location of
the incident.
142
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Lower the seat, duck your head, and jettison the canopy.
Make sure that your shoulder harness and safety belt are locked and tight.
Deceleration following impact will be very violent. Once the aircraft stops, you will not have
more than 2 seconds to exit the cockpit, so be prepared to quickly perform the following steps:
Jump out and pull the life raft loose from the parachute.
Inflate the Mae West life vest immediately after discarding the parachute harness.
Always keep the life vest on, even in shallow water. Also, attempt to salvage the parachute, if
possible, as it may be a useful resource.
Bailing Out
There are several methods of bailing out of the P-51D, when the aircraft is under control. However,
the following bailout procedure is recommended, because it remains essentially the same whether
the aircraft is under control, on fire, or in a spin.
Slow the aircraft to the lower speed that is reasonably safe usually about 150 mph. The lower
the speed during a bailout, the less risky it is. Avoid slowing down to a stall, particularly if there
is no power.
Lower the seat, duck your head, and jettison the canopy.
Disconnect the headset and oxygen hose, and release the safety belt and shoulder harness.
Pull yourself up onto the seat, so that you are in a crouching position with your feet on the seat.
Dive with head down toward the training edge of the right wing, unless a fire or some other
condition makes it advisable to go out the left side.
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143
Bailout in a Spin
When bailing out during a spin, it is recommended to jump on the side inside the spin, as opposed to
the outside. This helps avoid hitting the airframe during the jump.
Transmit Mayday three times, followed by the call sign of your aircraft three times.
Your first transmission with be on the assigned air-ground frequency. If communication cannot
be established on this frequency, use any other available frequency to establish contact with a
ground station.
Altitude.
Just before bailing out, break the safety wire on the VHF control switch and throw the switch to
TR.
In case the situation normalizes and bailing out is no longer necessary, be sure to cancel the
distress call on the same frequency.
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
COMBAT EMPLOYMENT
EAGLE DYNAMICS
145
COMBAT EMPLOYMENT
In this section, we will overview weapons employment procedures for the P-51D.
Guns
Aiming with the K-14 Gunsight
The K-14 gunsight contains two aiming sights: the compensating (gyro) sight and the fixed sight. In
the fixed sight, a crosshair represents the aiming pipper. The two sights can be used simultaneously
or selectively. Using both sights simultaneously can provide a helpful indication of the amount of
lead the gyro sight is generating from the boresight position. In this case, it's best to mask to the
fixed sight ring in order to declutter the aiming line of sight.
Gyro sight
Fixed sight
146
COMBAT EMPLOYMENT
Dot
Diamonds
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147
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COMBAT EMPLOYMENT
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149
Gyro Selector switch set to FIXED & GYRO. Both reticle images should appear on the reflector
glass.
Pick a point on the horizon; make sure gyro reticle image dot is superimposed on fixed-reticle
cross.
Rotate throttle twist grip to check operation of gyro reticle image circle from minimum to
maximum range.
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COMBAT EMPLOYMENT
Identify target; then set span adjustment lever to correspond with span of target aircraft.
Fly the aircraft so that the target appears within the gyro reticle circle and rotate the throttle
twist grip until the diameter of the gyro reticle circle corresponds to the target size.
Continue to frame the target with the gyro reticle circle by rotating the twist grip as range
changes. Track the target smoothly for one second; then fire.
Bombs
Releasing Bombs
The following is a standard procedure for releasing bombs:
Set the Bomb-Rocket Selector switch to BOTH for simultaneous release or TRAIN for individual
release.
Press the Bomb-Rocket Release button on the control stick grip momentarily to release bombs.
If the Bomb-Rocket Selector switch is set to TRAIN, the Bomb-Rocket Release button will
release only the left bomb. Pressing the Bomb-Rocket Release button again will release the
bomb on the right rack.
Note, bombs may be released when the aircraft is in any pitch attitude from a 30-degree climb to a
vertical dive.
Do not release bombs when you are sideslipping more than 5 degrees in a vertical dive.
Doing so may collide a bomb and the propeller.
Rockets
When firing rockets, the gunsight Gyro Selector switch should be set to FIXED.
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Firing Rockets
To fire rockets, perform the following steps:
To nose-arm the rockets for delay upon impact, set the delay switch to DELAY.
To fire rockets singly, set the Rocket Release Control switch to SINGLE and press the BombRocket Release button on the control stick once for each rocket.
To fire all rockets in train (ripple), set the Rocket Release Control switch to AUTO and the BombRocket Release button depressed for approximately one second while the rockets are fired.
152
COMBAT EMPLOYMENT
RADIO
COMMUNICATIONS
EAGLE DYNAMICS
153
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
There are two optional modes of using the radio that depend on the "EASY COMMUNICATION"
OPTION under the GAMEPLAY tab.
The radio communications window is accessed by separate keys depend of difficulty radio settings.
Upon doing so, the list of radio command recipients is displayed along with the function (Fx) key
required to view its sub-command window.
154
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
F1 Wingman
Upon selecting F1 Wingman from the main radio communications window, you have the option to
select the basic type of message you wish to send to your number 2 wingman. These are:
F1. Navigation...
F2. Engage...
F3. Engage with...
F4. Maneuvers...
F5. Rejoin Formation
F11. Previous Menu
F12. Exit
F1 Navigation...
The Navigation options allow you to direct where your wingman will fly to.
F1 Anchor Here. Your wingman will orbit at its current location until you issue a Rejoin command.
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F2 Engage...
The Engage options allow you to direct your wingman to attack a specific type of target. After issuing
the order, the wingman will attempt to locate the specified target type and attack it.
F1 Engage Ground Target. Wingman will attack any enemy ground unit it can locate.
F2 Engage Armor. Wingman will attack any tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, and armored
personnel carriers it can locate.
F3 Engage Artillery. Wingman will attack any tube artillery or multiple rocket launchers
that it can locate.
F4 Engage Air Defenses. Wingman will attack any enemy anti-aircraft artillery and
surface to air missile units that it can locate.
F5 Engage Utility Vehicles. Wingman will attack all supply, transport, fuel, power
generation, command and control, and engineering units it can locate.
F6 Engage Infantry. Wingman will attack hostile infantry units. Note that the infantry
units are very difficult to detect unless they are moving or firing weapons.
F7 Engage Ships. Wingman will engage enemy surface combatants. Note that most
surface combatants are heavily armed and that the P-51 is not well-suited to attacking
such targets.
F8 Engage Bandits. Wingman will engage enemy any fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft
it can locate.
F11 Previous Menu
F12 Exit
F3 Engage With...
Whereas the F2 Engage command allows you to give basic orders for your wingman to attack a
target type, the F3 Engage With set of commands not only allows you to determine target type, but
also the direction of attack and what weapon type to use. This is done in a tiered manner by first
selecting target type, then weapon type, and finally the attack heading. The wingman will then
attempt to locate targets of the specified type and attack them according to your specified weapon
and attacking heading. While the F2 Engage options are fast to issue, the F3 Engage With options
provides much greater control.
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RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
F4 Maneuvers...
Although your wingman will generally do a good job of knowing when and how to maneuver, there
may be times when you want to give him/her a very specific maneuvering order. This could be in
response to a threat or to better set up an attack.
F1 Break Right. This command will order your wingman to make a maximum-G break to the right.
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157
F5 Rejoin Formation
Issuing this command will instruct your wingman to cease its current task and rejoin formation with
you.
F2 Flight
Upon selecting F2 Flight from the main radio communications window, you have the option to select
the basic type of message you wish to send. These are:
F1 Navigation...
F2 Engage...
F3 Engage with...
F4 Maneuvers...
F5 Formation
F6 Rejoin Formation
F11 Previous Menu
F12 Exit
F1 Navigation...
The Navigation options allow you to direct your flight where to fly to.
F1 Anchor Here
F2 Return to base
F4 Fly to My steerpoint
F11 Previous Menu
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RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
F2 Engage...
The Engage options allow you to direct your flight to attack a specific type of target. After issuing the
order, the flight will attempt to locate the specified target type and attack it.
F1 Engage Ground Target
F2 Engage Armor
F3 Engage Artillery
F4 Engage Air Defenses
F5 Engage Utility Vehicles
F6 Engage Infantry
F7 Engage Ships
F8 Engage Bandits
F11 Previous Menu
F12 Exit
These commands mirror those of the Wingman Engage commands but apply to all flight
members.
F3 Engage With...
These commands mirror those of the Wingman Engage With commands but apply to all flight
members. These commands work the same as the Wingman Engage With Commands described
above.
F4 Maneuvers...
F1 Break Right
F2 Break Left
F3 Break High
F4 Break Low
F7 Clear Right
F8 Clear Left
F9 Pump
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159
F5 Formation
From the Formation menu, you can select the formation that the flight will fly in relation to you as
the flight leader.
F1 Go Line Abreast
F2 Go Trail
F3 Go Wedge
F4 Go Echelon Right
F5 Go Echelon Left
F6 Go Finger Four
F7 Go Spread Four
F8 Float Formation
F9 Tighten Formation
F11 Previous Menu
F12 Exit
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RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
EAGLE DYNAMICS
161
162
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
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163
164
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
F6 Rejoin Formation
Issuing this command will instruct your flight to cease their current task and rejoin formation with
you.
F3 Second Element
Upon selecting F3 Second Element from the main radio communications window, you have the option
to select the basic type of message you wish to send to the second element of your flight. The
second element consists of flight members 3 and 4 with number 3 being the element lead. When
EAGLE DYNAMICS
165
F1 Navigation...
The Navigation options allow you to direct your second element where to fly to.
F1 Anchor Here
F2 Return to base
F4 Fly to My steerpoint
F11 Previous Menu
F12 Exit
These commands mirror those of the Wingman Navigation commands but apply to the
second element.
F2 Engage...
The Engage options allow you to direct your second element to attack a specific type of target. After
issuing the order, the wingman will attempt to locate the specified target type and attack it.
F1 Engage Ground Target
F2 Engage Armor
F3 Engage Artillery
F4 Engage Air Defenses
F5 Engage Utility Vehicles
F6 Engage Infantry
F7 Engage Ships
F8 Engage Bandits
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RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
F3 Engage with...
These commands mirror those of the Wingman Maneuvers commands but apply to the second
element.
F4 Maneuvers...
Although your second element will generally do a good job of knowing when and how to maneuver,
there may be times when you want to give him/her a very specific maneuvering order. This could be
in response to a threat like an incoming SAM, or to better set up an attack.
F1 Break Right
F2 Break Left
F3 Break High
F4 Break Low
F7 Clear Right
F8 Clear Left
F9 Pump
F11 Previous Menu
F12 Exit
These commands mirror those of the Wingman Maneuvers commands but apply to the second
element.
F5 Rejoin Formation
Issuing this command will instruct your second element to cease its current task and rejoin formation
with you.
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167
F4 JTAC
Depending on the battlefield situation, the level of JTAC control of the attack may vary. There are
three types of terminal attack control:
Type 1: JTACs use Type 1 control when the risk assessment requires them to visually acquire the
attacking aircraft and the target under attack. This is the most common and restrictive of the three
types. Type 1 is most often used when friendly forces are "danger close".
Type 2: Type 2 control will be used when the JTAC desires control of individual attacks but assesses
that either visual acquisition of the attacking aircraft or target at weapons release is not possible or
when attacking aircraft are not in a position to acquire the mark/target prior to weapons
release/launch.
Type 3: Type 3 control may be used when the tactical risk assessment indicates that CAS attack
imposes low risk of fratricide. This is the least restricted control type.
In order to communicate with a JTAC, there must be at least one in the mission. Any unit can be
assigned as a JTAC. JTACs are assigned a radio frequency that they need to be contacted on. For P51 this must be VHF AM radio.
168
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
EAGLE DYNAMICS
169
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RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
F5 ATC
The Air Traffic Control (ATC) system of this simulation is context sensitive to the location of your
aircraft: on the parking ramp or runway/airborne.
ATC VHF FM Contact Frequencies:
Anapa-Vityazevo: 121.0 MHz
Batumi: 131.0 MHz
Gelendzhik: 126.0 MHz
Gudauta: 130.0 MHz
Kobuleti: 133.0 MHz
Kopitnari: 134.0 MHz
Krasnodar Center: 122.0 MHz
Krasnodar-Pashkovsky: 128.0 MHz
Krymsk: 124.0 MHz
Maykop-Khanskaya: 125.0 MHz
Mineralnye Vody: 135.0 MHz
Mozdok: 137.0 MHz
Nalchik: 136.0 MHz
Novorossiysk: 123.0 MHz
Senaki-Kolkhi: 132.0 MHz
Sochi-Adler: 127.0 MHz
Soganlug: 139.0 MHz
Sukhumi-Babushara: 129.0 MHz
Tbilisi-Lochini: 138.0 MHz
Vaziani: 140.0 MHz
Beslan: 141.0 MHz
Tip: You can also find the ATC frequencies of the nearest airfields to you by selecting the DIVERT
page from the CDU. If the airfield supports it, it will also list ILS and TACAN data.
Parking Ramp Start
Before you can communicate with ATC/Ground Control to get permission to start your engine, you
first need to have your VHF AM radio up and running.
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RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
F6 Ground Crew
After landing at a friendly airfield and taxiing to a parking ramp, you can communicate with the
ground crew for re-arming and re-fueling.
Prior to communications though, you will need to rotate the INT (intercom) dial clockwise on the
Intercom Control Panel to enable communications with the ground crew. You will also need to press
the HM (hot mic) button on the panel to initiate communications with the ground crew.
Once the intercom panel has been set up correctly, you can press F6 to display the Ground Crew
options.
F7 AWACS
After selecting the F7 AWACS option from the main radio menu, a list of all friendly AWACS in the
mission will be listed, along with their VHF AM contact frequencies. Upon setting your VHF AM radio
accordingly and contacting the desired AWACS, you'll be given the following options:
F1 Vector to bullseye. Sending this request to AWACS will result in AWACS providing you heading
and range to the bullseye/anchor point set for the mission.
F2 Vector to home plate. Sending this request to AWACS will result in AWACS providing you
heading, range, and the ATC frequency of the mission specified landing airbase.
F4 Request bogey dope. AWACS will provide heading, altitude, and aspect of the nearest enemy
aircraft.
F5 Request Picture. Sending this request to AWACS will result in AWACS providing you bearing,
range, and altitude of known enemy air threats.
The AWACS response differs according to the range of enemy air groups:
If BULL (over 50 nm): (Your flights callsign), (AWACS callsign), new picture, <number of groups
detected> groups. First group, bulls <bearing> for <range>, <altitude band>. Second group, bulls
<bearing> for <range>, <altitude>. (repeats up to three groups)
If BRA (under 50 nm): (Your flights callsign), (AWACS callsign), new picture, <number of groups
detected> groups. First group, bra <bearing> for <range>, hits <altitude band>. Second group, bra
<bearing> for <range>, hits <altitude band>. (repeats up to three groups)
EAGLE DYNAMICS
173
SUPPLEMENTS
174
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
SUPPLEMENTS
Airdromes Data
Airdrome
Runway
15-33, 2500m
130.0
14-32, 2400m
139.0
14-32, 2500m
22X (VAS)
108.75
140.0
07-25, 2400m
67X (KBL)
07 ILS - 111.5
133.0
08-26, 2500m
44X (KTS)
08 ILS - 109.75
134.0
09-27, 2400m
31X (TSK)
09 ILS - 108.9
132.0
13-31, 2400m
16X (BTM)
13 ILS - 110.3
131.0
12-30, 2500m
13-31, 3000m
04-22, 2900m
121.0
04-22, 1800m
126.0
04-22, 3200m
125.0
09-27, 2500m
122.0
05-23, 3100m
128.0
04-22, 1780m
123.0
04-22, 2600m
124.0
12-30, 3900m
12 ILS - 111.7
30 ILS - 109.3
135.0
06-24, 2300m
24 ILS - 110.5
136.0
10-28, 3000m
10 ILS - 110.5
141.0
06-24, 3100m
06 ILS - 111.1
127.0
08-27, 3100m
EAGLE DYNAMICS
TACAN,
channel
ILS
Tower
comm
129.0
13 ILS - 110.3
31 ILS - 108.9
138.0
137.0
175
176
Alphabet
Russian
Latin
Bb
Ww
Gg
Dd
Ee
Vv
Zz
Ii
Kk
Ll
Mm
Nn
Oo
Pp
Rr
Ss
Tt
Uu
Ff
Hh
Cc
Oo
Ch ch
SUPPLEMENTS
Yy
Uu
Aa
Jj
Xx
Ee
Morse code
Digits full
Morse code
Digits brief
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178
Morse code
Punctuation marks
Period
Semicolon
Colon
Point
Question mark
Quotes
Comma
Left brackets
Right brackets
SUPPLEMENTS
Developers
Eagle Dynamics
Management
Nick Grey
Igor Tishin
Project Development
Dynamics, Russia
Andrey Chizh
Assistant Development
documentation
Alexander Babichev
Project manager
Producer
Associate Producer
Producer Germany
Manager,
&
QA
Director
Manager,
of
Eagle
technical
Programmers
Dmitry Baikov
Ilya Belov
Nikolay Brezin
Maxim Zelensky
Andrey Kovalenko
AI AC, weapons
Alexander Oikin
Evgeny Podyachev
Alexey Smirnov
Effects, graphics
Timur Ivanov
Effects, graphics
EAGLE DYNAMICS
179
Avionics
Vladimir Feofanov
AI AC flight dynamics
Konstantin Tarakanov
Weapons, Sensors
Avionics
Kirill Kosarev
AI vehicles, ships
Eugene Gribovich
Avionics
Dmitri Robustov
Terrain
Denis Tatarnicev
Terrain
Alexey Petruchik
Terrain
Dmitri Kaplin
Terrain
Weapons
Dynamic atmosphere
Timur Tsigankov
AC, vehicles
Pavel Sidorov
AC models
Constantine Kuznetsov
Sound engineer
Kirill Grushevich
Buildings, Terrain
Buildings, Terrain
Konstantin Miranovich
Buildings, Terrain
Max Lopatkin
Buildings, Terrain
Olga Starovoytova
Buildings, Terrain
180
SUPPLEMENTS
Buildings
Characters
Quality Assurance
Valery "USSR_Rik" Khomenok
Lead Tester
Testing
Testing
Testing
Localization
Science Support
Dmitry Yo-Yo Moskalenko
Andrey Filin
EAGLE DYNAMICS
181
Third Parties
Zachary "luckybob9" Sesar - 3D models of watchtower, corrected model of the power lines pylon
Tester staff
Gavin "159th_Viper" Torr
Nikolay "Agm" Borisov
Darrell "AlphaOneSix" Swoap
Pascal "Cougar" Bidegare
Carlos "Design" Pastor Mendez
Guillaume "Dimebug" Leleve
Valery "=FV=BlackDragon" Manasyan
James "Eddie" Knight
Kiko "Mistral" Becerra
Daniel "EtherealN" Agorander
Frank "Feuerfalke" Bender
George "GGTharos" Lianeris
Matthias "Groove" Techmanski
Dmitry "Laivynas" Koshelev
Zachary "Luckybob9" Sesar
Ed "Manawar" Green
Gennedy "Marks" Tagiltsev
Michael "MoGas" Stobbe
Stephen "Nate--IRL--" Barrett
Craig "Nemises" Reynolds
Jon Espen "Panzertard" Carlsen
Roberto "Radar Rider" Benedi Garcia
Maxim "RIMM" Boitsov
Rick "rjetster" Ladomade
Steve Davies
Roberto "Vibora" Seoane Penas
Erich "ViperVJG73" Schwarz
Peter "Weta43" McAllister
Paul "paulrkii" Kempton
Nick "BlueRidgeDX" Landolfi
Evan "Headspace" Hanau
Shawn "StrongHarm" Burton
Jesus "mvgas" Gastonrivera
Alexander "BillyCrusher" Bilievsky
Christopher "Mustang" Wood
Chris "Ells228" Ellis
Timothy "WarriorX" Westmore
Werner "derelor" Siedenburg
Special thanks to all the Open Beta testers.
182
SUPPLEMENTS
Special thanks
Sergey Archakov for photos of P-51
Stephen "Nate IRL" Barrett for a big testing contribution
EAGLE DYNAMICS
183