Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (2000) 20, 3455. Printed in the USA.

Copyright 2000 Cambridge University Press 0267-1905/00 $9.50

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

JoAnn (Jodi) Crandall

INTRODUCTION1
Language teacher education programs are likely to be housed in
departments of applied linguistics, education, or languages and literature: These
three disciplines provide the knowledge base and opportunities for developing skills
and dispositions for both prospective and experienced teachers. Until recently,
applied linguistics (psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, language
description, and language teaching and testing methodology) formed the core of
language teacher education, not unexpected, since language teaching has historically
been the primary focus of applied linguistics (Bardovi-Harlig and Hartford 1997,
Crandall 1995; 1996). However, during the last decade, general educational theory
and practice have exerted a much more powerful influence on the direction of the
education of both preservice and inservice language teacher education, resulting in
a greater focus on: 1) practical experiences such as observations, practice teaching,
and opportunities for curriculum and materials development (Crandall 1994,
Johnson 1996b, Pennington 1990, Richards 1990, Richards and Crookes 1988); 2)
classroom-centered or teacher research (Allwright and Bailey 1991, Chaudron
1988, Edge and Richards 1993, Nunan 1989, van Lier 1988); and 3) teacher beliefs
and teacher cognition in language teacher education (Freeman 1996; 1998, Freeman
and Johnson 1998a, Richards and Nunan 1990). In fact, the last decade can be
viewed as a search for a theory of language teaching and, by extension, of language
teacher education at both the micro and macro levels (Freeman and Johnson 1998b,
Johnson 1996a, Larsen-Freeman 1990, Richards 1990). Language teacher
education is a microcosm of teacher education, and many of the trends in current
language teacher education derive from theory and practice in general teacher
education. These trends include at least four major shifts.
First, there is a shift from transmission, product-oriented theories to
constructivist, process-oriented theories of learning, teaching, and teacher learning.
Traditional, transmission-oriented teaching involves top-down approaches which
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present best practices for teachers to understand and imitate in their teaching
(Richards 1990, Widdowson 1997). Traditional teacher education views teachers
as passive recipients of transmitted knowledge rather than active participants in the
construction of meaning (in learning by reconstruction). Nor does it take into
account the thinking or decision-making of teachers. A shift to a constructivist
perspective of teaching and teacher learning makes teachers a primary source of
knowledge about teaching, reflected in an increasing focus on teacher cognition
(Johnson 1999, Kleinfeld 1992, Richards and Lockhart 1994), the role of reflection
in teacher development (Bartlett 1990, Freeman and Richards 1993, Schon 1983;
1987), and the importance of teacher inquiry and research throughout teacher
education and development programs (Crandall 1994, Freeman 1998, Wright
1992).
Second, there is a growing sense that language teacher education programs
have failed to prepare teachers for the realities of the classroom. As a result,
efforts are being made to transform teaching through a focus on situated teacher
cognition and practice (Bruner 1986, Lave 1988) and the development of concrete,
relevant linkages between theory and practice throughout the teacher education
program. The host of differences in learners, programs, curricula, materials,
policies, and the socio-cultural environment that teachers are likely to encounter in
their careers calls into question any set of best practices appropriate for all
contexts or any attempts to transfer the knowledge and practice from teacher
education programs directly to teaching (Casanave and Schecter 1997, Freeman
1989, Holliday 1994). Decontextualized theory fails to consider the multidimensionality and unpredictability of the classroom environment (Bailey and
Nunan 1996, Doyle 1986, Johnson 1996b). Partnerships between programs of
language teacher education and language teaching programs or schools provide
opportunities for contextualizing and integrating preservice and inservice teacher
education, encouraging prospective and experienced teachers, administrators, and
researchers to learn together as they also provide enhanced programs for language
learners (Crandall 1994, Darling-Hammond 1994, Holmes Group 1986).
Third, there is a growing recognition that teachers prior learning
experiences (what Lortie [1975] refers to as the apprenticeship of observation)
play a powerful role in shaping their views of effective teaching and learning and
their teaching practices. These preconceptions are remarkably resistant to change
unless awareness of that prior learning is developed in the teacher education
program and opportunities for practical experiences and conscious reflection upon
those experiences are provided throughout the program (Freeman 1991; 1996,
Freeman and Richards 1996, Johnson 1994, Kennedy 1987, Richards and Lockhart
1994). Similarly, one can expect that the way teacher educators were taught will
be replicated in their teacher education programs unless conscious reflection upon
teacher-education practice also takes place. Self-observation and reflection on
practice can help teachers move from a philosophy of teaching and learning
developed during their 16 or so years as a learner to a philosophy of teaching
consistent with their emerging understandings of the language learning and teaching

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processes (what Freeman has referred to as InterTeaching, analogous to a language

learners development of interlanguage).
Fourth, there is a growing concern that teaching be viewed as a profession
(similar to medicine or law) with respect for the role of teachers in developing
theory and directing their own professional development through collaborative
observation, teacher research and inquiry, and sustained inservice programs, rather
than the typical short-term workshop or training program (Crandall 1993; 1994;
1996, Darling Hammond 1994, The Holmes Group 1986). Candlin and
Widdowson, in their introduction to each volume of their series, Language
teaching: A scheme for teacher education, sum up this trend in the following way:
If language teaching is to be a genuinely professional enterprise, it requires
continual experimentation and evaluation on the part of practitioners whereby, in
seeking to be more effective in their pedagogy, they provide at the same timeand
as a corollaryfor their own continuing education. Freeman (in Freeman and
Richards 1996) argues that one function of inservice training for teachers is to
enable them to be bilingual, that is, to rename what they have been previously
doing in light of what they are learning in their training, and by so doing, to
function bilingually, adding professional language to the local language they use in
their schools.
CONCEPTIONS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND MODELS OF
LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
Traditional language teacher education has involved a delicate balancing act
between education and training. The former addresses the development of language
knowledge and language teaching and learning. The latter emphasizes the
development of skills to apply this knowledge in the practice of language teaching,
with a limited opportunity to observe and practice that theory in actual classrooms
or simulated contexts such as microteaching (Crandall 1998). Those involved in
preparing prospective language teachers refer to themselves as either teacher
trainers or teacher educators. Widdowson (1997) describes teacher training as
solution-oriented, with the implication that teachers are to be given specific
instruction in practical techniques to cope with predictable events.., while teacher
education is problem-oriented, with the implication of a broader intellectual
awareness of theoretical principles underlying particular practices (1997:121). In
both orientations, the prospective or experienced teacher is viewed as a passive
recipient of transmitted knowledge; omitted is any understanding of the role that
language teachers play in their own development, which teacher research has begun
to demonstrate as being of considerable importance (Edge and Richards 1993,
Woodward 1991). Teacher development is a life-long process of growth which
may involve collaborative and/or autonomous learning, but the important distinction
is that teachers are engaged in the process and they actively reflect on their
practices. According to Wallace (1991), The distinction is that training or
education is something that can be presented or managed by others; whereas
development is something that can be done only by and for oneself (p.3).

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

Wallace (1991) identifies three major models of language teacher

education: 1) a craft or apprenticeship model by which less experienced teachers
learn through observing those with more experience; 2) an applied science or
theory-to-practice model by which knowledge is learned from experts and then
applied in real-world contexts; and 3) a reflective model by which teachers reflect
upon, evaluate, and adapt their own practice. These three models broadly
correspond to the three views of teaching identified by Freeman (1991; 1996): 1)
teaching as doing (a behavioral model emphasizing what teachers do and
encouraging a skills or craft model of teacher education); 2) teaching as thinking
and doing (a cognitive model emphasizing what teachers know and how they do it,
encouraging both theory and skills development and craft and applied science
models of teacher education); and 3) teaching as knowing what to do (an
interpretivist view emphasizing why teachers do what they do in different contexts,
encouraging the addition of reflection and the development of frameworks of
interpretation to theory and skill development in teacher education). Wallaces
three models of language teacher education are likely to be needed in all teacher
development, but in different degrees, depending upon teacher experience and
understanding. However, neither traditional education nor training are sufficient;
also needed are opportunities for teachers to reflect upon their beliefs and practices
and to construct and reconstruct their personal theories of language teaching and
learning (Bailey 1992, Flowerdew, et al. 1992, Freeman and Richards 1996,
Sachs, et al. 1996). Teaching depends upon the application of appropriate theory,
the development of careful instructional designs and strategies, and the study of
what actually happens in the classroom (Richards 1990:vii).
FROM METHODS TO METHODOLOGY AND THE IMPORTANCE OF
CONTEXT
The core of traditional language teacher education has long been the
methods course, a course which presents the theoretical rationale and practical
implications of language teaching approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques
(Anthony 1963, Blair 1982, Celce-Murcia 1991, Larsen-Freeman 1986, Oller
1993, Oller and Richard-Amato 1983, Richards and Rodgers 1982; 1986, Rivers
1981, Stevick 1980). Methods courses often discuss the rationale for, and
instructional practices reflected in innovative methods (e.g., Silent Way,
Community Language Learning, Natural Approach, Content-based Language
Instruction) as well as traditional ones (Grammar-Translation, Audio-Lingual,
Communicative), and they often combine this discussion with specific attention to
techniques for teaching the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing).
Sometimes specific courses in oral or written skills are provided, as are courses in
assessment and evaluation.
While courses in language teaching methods are still central to language
teacher education, there is growing concern that they not be taught in prescriptivist
terms, as recipes or cookbooks for effective teaching. Rather, they need to
investigate the range of instructional options language teachers have available in

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their repertoires and, through case studies, interviews, or introspection, examine

the kinds of decisions teachers make in planning and carrying out instruction
(Richards 1990, Roberts 1998, Stevick 1998, William and Burden 1997). The shift
from methods to methodology is consonant with constructivist theories of
learninga shift away from a top-down approach to methods as products for
teachers to learn and match and toward a bottom-up approach to methodology as
reflections on experiences. The shift involves prospective teachers in exploring
the nature of effective teaching and learning, and discovering the strategies used by
successful teachers and learners in the classroom (Richards 1990:vii).
While few language teacher educators believed that the role of the
traditional methods course was to make future teachers into methods teachers (cf.
methods actors), the counter view, that prospective teachers should pick and
choose from among the techniques described in an eclectic approach, conveyed
little coherence. Several recent core texts for methodology courses (Brown 1994,
Nunan 1991; 1999, Omaggio Hadley 1993) are more cognizant of the role of
context and the need to engage prospective and experienced teachers in analyzing
their own theories of teaching and learning as they practice, discuss, and reflect
upon instructional techniques (Graves 2000, Hartman 1998, Nunan and Lamb
1996). Collections of what works or new ways of teaching or educating
teachers (e.g., Freeman and Cornwell 1993) continue to provide teachers with
practical options, but analysis and evaluation of teaching and learning strategies that
teachers use in a variety of contexts help bring coherence to the process. Focusing
on teacherstheir beliefs about teaching, learning, or classroom interactioncan
help balance more top-down, product-oriented conceptions of language teaching,
with more nuanced, bottom-up, process-oriented descriptions of specific language
teaching events. Studies of teachers, either undertaken by teachers themselves or in
collaboration with researchers (Shulman 1992), can help illuminate the processes by
which language teachers plan and make decisions about their teaching (Woods
1996). Central to these studies is the need to examine underlying teacher beliefs
and teacher thinking.
1. Teacher cognition and beliefs
Traditional teacher education has largely ignored the substantial set of
beliefs about teaching, learning, teacher-student roles, and the like which teacher
candidates bring to their program from their experiences as students and language
learners. Teachers do not engage in mere implementation of routinized procedures, but are constantly engaged in thinking, problem-solving, and decisionmaking. While content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge remain
important underpinnings of language teacher education, also needed are opportunities for prospective teachers to become aware of their own beliefs about
effective teaching and learning, and they need opportunities to acquire the ways of
thinking (general strategies, personal orientation, and habits of mind) that
characterize being a member of the language teaching community. Case studies

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

and teacher narratives, teaching videos, and teacher journals offer windows into
that thinking (Kennedy 1987, Richards and Lockhart 1994, Woods 1996).
Teacher cognition is situated in practice (Lave 1988); thus, it is
important to consider the effects of context upon teacher decision-making and
teaching and learning. Traditional language teacher education programs have
attempted to capture some of the diversity of language teaching situations in broad
terms through courses and texts which look at learners with respect to common
patterns of variation: different ages (teaching young children or adults), different
levels of proficiency (teaching beginners or advanced learners), different purposes
for learning (academic, professional, or general), and different contexts (second
or foreign language; intensive or occasional). But these attempts are not likely to
provide sufficient preparation for the heterogeneity of learners or contexts that
teachers actually encounter. Fanselow (1987; 1992), Head and Taylor (1997), and
others offer a number of activities to make teachers underlying beliefs more
explicit and to encourage the development of alternative perspectives.
Studies of teachers and teaching reveal the number of decisions which
teachers make, often with competing demands and not much time to think back to
principles or applications derived from teacher education programs (Burns 1995,
Freeman and Richards 1996, Kleinfield 1992). Woods (1996), in the first major
study of teacher cognition in language teaching, describes how teachers rely upon
experience and call into play their beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge in that
decision-making. Richards (1996) identifies eight maxims or principles derived
from experience which teachers use to explain the decisions they make during
teaching. Often tacit, these maxims need to be made explicit if teachers are to
consider new techniques or changes in practices.
2. The role of reflection
What is often missing from traditional language teacher education is
recognition of the role that the teacher plays in generating knowledge through
teaching experience and reflection (conscious recollection and evaluation of that
experience; Bartlett 1990, Freeman and Richards 1993, Wallace 1991). As Bruner
(1986; 1990) explains, universities have traditionally focused on scientific
knowledge which is abstract, decontextualized, and impersonal, but teachers also
need access to narrative ways of knowing which relate theory to specific practices
in concrete, contextualized, and personal ways. In focusing on how, language
teacher education has ignored the important ?what? and why questions which can
only be answered by teacher reflection and research. Bartlett (1990) suggests a
cycle (similar to action-research cycles) moving from observation, to interpretation, introspection and questioning, to consideration of alternatives, and then to
adaptation of instruction. Wallace (1991) also provides a scheme by which teachers
can recall their practice and engage in critical reflection. Fanselow (1987) suggests
that teachers break rules and then observe and reflect upon the consequences.
Reflection on experience provides a means for prospective and experienced teachers

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to develop more informed practice, making tacit beliefs and practical knowledge
explicit, articulating what teachers know and leading to new ways of knowing and
teaching. Long ignored, teacher inquiry and reflection are now viewed as
important to the development of language teaching theory and appropriate language
teacher education.
3. Teacher narratives and case studies
Many ways of tapping into teachers knowledge and helping teachers to
make explicit their own beliefs about teaching have been proposed, including
analyses of teacher logs, diaries, or journals; audio or video recordings of teaching;
interviews; and teacher narratives or case studies of teacher practice (Kleinfield
1992). Narratives (stories, cases, lessons, anecdotes, and extended examples), long
a part of teacher education, were dismissed as practitioner lore by scientific
positivism, and have only recently been brought back into teacher education
(Shulman 1992, Wideen, et al. 1998). Teaching case studies and stories (like those
used in the medical, legal, or business education) provide a means of bridging
theory and practice and demonstrating the complexity of teaching as a profession.
They provide contextualized portraits of the many factors which influence teacher
decision making and behavior in the classroom
Teacher narratives, or stories that teachers tell about their classroom
experiences, convey the daily experiences of teachers and the ways in which they
try to make sense of these experiences through talking or writing about them
(Bailey and Nunan 1996, Casanave and Schecter 1997, Hartman 1998, Plaister
1993, Richards 1998). Teachers avoid abstract theoretical statements in talking
with each other about their work because these lack connection to classroom
experience. Stories help teachers understand students; they address the dilemmas
of teaching and the competing roles that teachers carry out; and they provide
professional development through reflection on practice. Narratives represent a
primary way in which teachers organize and understand the complexities of their
profession, involving competing demands, constraints, policies, and power
relations. In working with case studies, prospective and experienced teachers
become actively involved in the kinds of decision-making they face in their
language teaching (Plaister 1993). Case studies also offer a way to help teacher
educators avoid the imposition of culturally inappropriate teaching philosophies
(Bax 1995a; 1995b).
4. The role of practical experience
The growing respect for the situated knowledge of the teacher, the
recognition of the teacher as central in the teaching and learning process, and the
crucial roles of the teacher as program and materials developer, needs analyst,
decision-maker, problem-solver, and researcher of his or her own classroom
(Richards 1990), has led to a call for teacher preparation programs to create
opportunities for prospective teachers to access this knowledge and test theories and

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

principles with actual practice. Practica (practical experiences such as

observations, internships, apprenticeships, student teaching, or other teaching
practice) have long been a part of most language teacher education programs.
Richards and Crookes (1988) found that 75 percent of the language teacher
education programs they reviewed included a practicum experience, ranging from
observing experienced teachers or peers, being observed by or conferencing with
supervising or mentor teachers, participating in peer or microteaching, or being
responsible for classroom instruction. However, these experiences are often too
few, too late, and not sufficiently focused on the realities of the classroom, the
program, or the school (Crandall 1996). A number of language teacher educators
(Crandall 1994, Johnson 1996b, Richards 1990) have called for more extensive and
intensive practical experiences to be integrated throughout the teacher education
program, providing prospective teachers with greater opportunities to link theory
with practice and to receive support and learn from experienced teachers, while
also offering experienced teachers an opportunity to learn from their new
counterparts (Stoynoff 1999). Within general teacher education, prospective
teachers spend more time in real teaching situations than is often the case in
language teacher preparation programs, especially those housed outside of
education departments. Partnerships between university-based teacher education
departments and schools offer prospective and experienced teachers opportunities
for engaging in collaborative research and teaching, while also benefitting the
language learners in the classroom. (See Crandall 1994; 1995 for a description of a
professional development center approach which engages prospective and
experienced language teachers in research, program planning, curriculum
development, and teaching to benefit secondary school immigrant students as well
as improve teacher education and development.)
Observation of mentor teachers or peers and self-observation through video
recordings, accompanied by reflective activities such as journal writing and
feedback or discussion sessions, are especially important for language teacher
preparation and continuing teacher development (Crandall 1994, Fanselow 1987).
Unfortunately, because observation is characteristically used in teacher supervision
and evaluation, the self-knowledge it can provide has too often been ignored. A
number of observation schemes and instruments have been developed that enable
teachers and researchers to focus attention on specific aspects of classroom
interaction, management, or instruction, and construct or reconstruct
understandings of language teaching and learning.
Teacher-education programs can also provide practical experiences that
encourage prospective teachers to continue their professional development after
leaving the program. These experiences help prepare them for a variety of
professional activities: writing for publication, developing proposals for conference
presentations or grant funding, or working on public speaking and professional
presentations (Crandall 1996).

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5. The role of research

Classroom research, research that is carried out in the second or foreign
language classroom to answer questions about teaching and learning, plays an
increasingly important role in both initial teacher preparation and ongoing teacher
development. This research can focus on teachers (e.g., questioning strategies,
teacher decision-making, error correction, or teacher modifications); learners (e.g.,
learning styles and strategies, learner interaction, affective variables, or language
output from specific tasks); or the interaction between teachers and learners (Burns
1995, Nunan 1989, van Lier 1988). Research on language acquisition and learning
was traditionally conducted by university researchers (sometimes in collaboration
with language teachers) and reflected their research traditions, using experimental,
ethnographic, discourse, or interactional analyses (Chaudron 1988), often with a
goal of identifying best practices in language teaching or learning. Studies of
teachers attempting to implement these best practices reveal that teachers adapt
them substantially to fit their specific teaching contexts. This adaptation process
has led to the addition of action or teacher research grounded in the specifics of
individual teacher contexts. Allwright and Bailey (1991) offer a number of
suggestions for small-scale and large-scale research and provide guidance on
conducting research and analyzing findings. Such research can be undertaken
collaboratively by teacher educators/researchers and teachers or individually by
teachers researching their own classrooms (Crandall 1994; 1995). Research
undertaken by teachers and focused on observation, analysis, and potential changes
of ones own teaching represents one means by which teachers can reconsider their
assumptions and practices and enhance teacher professionalism. Often, this
research is most successful when teachers collaborate in the research process or
engage in inquiry or study groups which meet periodically to discuss findings;
otherwise, the daily responsibilities of teaching may take precedence. The
publication of the results of teacher research in journals, stories, or case studies can
also provide opportunities for other teachers to explore changes in their own
practice as well.
ASSESSMENT IN LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION
Congruent with increased emphasis on performance assessment in language
teaching is the increasing focus on performance assessment of prospective and
experienced teachers, especially in new teacher-evaluation schemes resulting from
the standards movement (Johnson 1996b). These performance assessments may
include audio- or videotapes of classroom teaching; examples of student work;
lesson plans, curriculum guides, or syllabi; entries from a teaching log or journal;
statements of a personal (evolving) philosophy of teaching; or simulated performances such as microteaching, role plays, or interviews. Frequently, these
documentations of performance are combined into a teaching portfolio (along with a
curriculum vita, transcripts, letters of reference, teaching evaluations, and brief
annotations or reflections on the significance of the contents of the portfolio),
providing concrete evidence of teacher capability and ongoing development. In

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

some teacher education programs, the teaching portfolio serves as documentation of

the student teaching experience; in others, it is integrated into the entire program
and serves as one of the final evaluation criteria.
NATIVE- AND NON-NATIVE-SPEAKING PROFESSIONALS IN SECOND
AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE CONTEXTS
Another concern in language teacher education which is receiving a great
deal of attention in both the foreign and second language teaching communities is
the role of the native speaker (Kramsch 1997). Because of the globalization of
English, the growing prominence of World Englishes, and the increasing need for
English teachers around the world, the issues of appropriate competencies,
expectations, and roles for native- and non-native-speaking teachers have received
frequent discussion (Braine 1998, Cook 1999, Medgyes 1992; 1994). Determining
who is a native speaker is not quite so simple as previously imagined, and the
linkage between native-speaking proficiency and professional competence is also
often misconstrued (when teachers are hired not because of their preparation, but
because they are native speakers). Recently, a number of researchers and
language-teacher educators have called for the rejection of near native-speaker
proficiency as a model for language education (Cook 1999) and have pointed out
the advantages of non-native speakers. Teachers who share the same linguistic and
cultural experiences with their students can provide a good model for them,
anticipating problems and sharing strategies they have used in their own language
learning (Kahmi-Stein, et al. 1999, Medgyes 1994).
Research has also documented the concerns that non-native-speaking
teacher candidates have in teaching in a context in which most of the teachers are
native speakers (Kahmi-Stein, et al. 1999, Polio and Wilson-Duffy 1998), including
a lack of self-confidence about target-language proficiency, perceived bias in favor
of native speakers in hiring, and, when engaged in teacher education outside their
own country, a lack of role models and voice in their own profession. Ways to
address these issues include pairing non-native and native-speaking students in field
experiences and other practica; assigning non-native-speaking teacher candidates to
non-native-speaking mentor teachers; integrating issues related to non-native
speakers throughout the curriculum; and addressing language-proficiency needs.
Similarly, language teacher education programs need to address foreign-language
contexts, especially the more problematic situations involving large classes, limited
materials and resources, and unfamiliar educational policies and teaching practices
(Braine 1998).
SOME SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR EXPERIENCED TEACHERS
While much of the above discussion has focused more on inexperienced
teachers and teacher preparation, as well as inservice teacher education and
development, there are a number of studies which address the specific issue of
teacher development with experienced teachers. These studies include the

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importance of shared responsibility for the design and delivery of inservice

programs, sustained time for learning and reflection, and opportunities for feedback
and reflection (Bax 1995a; 1995b, Darling-Hammond 1994, Hayes 1995). In
discussing an inservice teacher-training program in Thailand, Hayes (1995) argues
that sessions should be task-based, classroom-centered, and practical, focusing not
only on the application of theory to practice, but also including awareness-raising
sessions, with shared responsibility in both the design and the implementation of the
program. Teachers should also have opportunities to practice innovations through
microteaching, peer teaching, and poster sessions before returning to their
classrooms and, where possible, engage in follow-up sessions.

NOTES
1. Reviewing any field requires difficult decisions, but this is especially true of
language teacher education. The last decade has witnessed the publication of
hundreds of books and articles in this field. In choosing among these, I have drawn
more from the ESL/EFL teacher-education resources, especially those written
about the United States context, because I know that literature best. However,
much of what is written about English language teacher education may be
applicable to other language teacher education if issues of cultural appropriateness
or cultural appropriation are taken into consideration.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
[The large number of texts and articles published in the last ten years on language
teacher education make it impossible to be comprehensive. In the references, I
have explicitly eliminated discussion of texts related to teaching specific language
skills (listening, speaking, reading, or writing) or specific language systems
(pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary) except as these are discussed in more
general methods texts. I have also not included texts focused specifically on a
particular method or approach or the use of corpora, technology, or other new
resources. It was also necessary to eliminate texts focused on specific learners
(children or adult, beginners or advanced, school or university, or students with
special needs such as learning disabilities). The fact that hundreds of these
resources have been published in the last ten years is one demonstration of the
increasing professionalism of the language teacher education field.]
Bailey, K. M. and D. Nunan (eds.) 1996. Voices from the language classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

This collection of stories told by language teachers and teacher educators in

a wide range of contexts (ESL classes in Pakistan, KwaZulu high school
classrooms in South Africa, dual-language classrooms in Hungary, junior
high classes in the US, and bilingual classrooms in Peru) is intended for
prospective and experienced teachers, teacher educators, and researchers in
second and foreign language education. Using data from observational
field notes, teachers and learners journals, interviews, stimulated recall
protocols, and lesson plans and transcripts, the stories provide an
opportunity to listen to teachers talk about their understandings of teaching
and learning, and the interpretations they make of their own experiences in
thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making in a variety of contexts.
Issues such as class size, student anxiety in class participation, fear of
failure in a writing classroom, student and teacher reactions to changes in
curriculum, and the effects of different pedagogies or program structures
are all explored.
Candlin, C. N. and H. G. Widdowson (series eds.) Language teaching: A scheme
for teacher education. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Designed to involve language teachers in their own professional
development through critical appraisal of ideas and the informed
application of these ideas in their own classrooms (introduction to the
series), this integrated series is organized in three sub-themes of inquiry
and practice in language teaching and learning: 1) language knowledge,
dealing with linguistic description (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar,
and discourse); 2) modes of behavior, applying that knowledge in the
teaching of the four language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and
writing); and 3) modes of action, operationalizing knowledge and behavior
in language teaching (syllabus design, language-course content,
methodology, and evaluation). Each volume is organized into three
sections: 1) explanation (theoretical background); 2) demonstration (the
application of that theory), and 3) exploration (small-scale classroomcentered research activities for teachers to undertake). Titles in the series
include:
Anderson, A. & T. Lynch. Listening.
Batstone, R. Grammar.
Bygate, M. Speaking.
Cook, G. Discourse.
Dalton, C. & B. Seidlhofer. Pronunciation.
McCarthy, M. Vocabulary.
Nunan, D. Syllabus design.
Rea-Dickins, P. & K. Germaine. Evaluation.
Tribble, C. Writing.
Wallace, C. Reading.
Wright, T. Roles of teachers and learners.

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Freeman, D. (series ed.) TeacherSource series. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.

This series positions the teachers voice at the center of language-teacher
development, focusing on the teachers point of view in coming to
understand aspects of teaching and learning. Each volume consists of three
strands: 1) teachers voices, where practicing language teachers in various
settings talk about their experiences with the topic; 2) frameworks, which
lay out key concepts and issues related to the topic; and 3) investigations,
which provide activities to engage readers to relate the topic to their
teaching contexts. Titles in the series include:
Anderson, N. Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies.
Bailey, K. Learning about language assessment: Dilemmas, decisions, and
directions.
Campbell, C. Teaching second-language writing: Interacting with text.
Becker, H. Teaching ESL K12: Views from the language classroom.
Freeman, D. Doing teacher research: From inquiry to understanding.
Graves, K. Designing language courses: A guide for teachers.
Irujo, S. Teaching bilingual children: Beliefs and behaviors.
Johnson, K. E. Understanding language teaching: Reasoning in action.
Larsen-Freeman, D. Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring.
Moran, P. Teaching culture: Perspectives in practice.
Scovel, T. Learning new languages: A guide to second language
acquisition.
Stevick, E. Working with teaching methods: Whats at stake?
Johnson, K. E. Teachers understanding teaching. [CDROM]
Freeman, D. and K. E. Johnson (eds.) 1998a. Research and practice in English
language teacher education. [Special issue of TESOL Quarterly. 32.3.]
Perhaps no other volume in the last decade better portrays the major
concerns in language teacher education than this special issue of the TESOL
Quarterly. Following a lead article by the editors on reconceptualizing
the knowledge-base of language teacher education, subsequent articles
explore issues of research, practice (especially best practice), and
collaboration in teacher education. The issue concludes with a number of
thematic reviews of teacher education books and series.
Freeman, D. and J. C. Richards. 1993. Conceptions of teaching and the education
of second language teachers. TESOL Quarterly. 27.193216.
In their attempt to answer the question: What is an appropriate theory of
effective language teaching? the authors analyze a range of ESL/EFL
approaches and methodologies, using Zahoriks (1986) tripartite division of
teaching conceptions: 1) science/research conceptions, which operationalize
learning principles, follow a tested model, or base their notion of what

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

effective teachers do on empirical studies; 2) theory/ philosophy

conceptions, which rely on rational or values-based expla-nations, rather
than empirical evidence; and 3) art or craft conceptions, which take an
eclectic approach to both methodology and techniques and place more
emphasis on the teacher than on the methodology. The authors point out
that no teacher teaches according to just one of these; no one conception of
teaching is superior to another (myth of supremacy); nor does a teacher
consciously select a teaching conception at some point in training (myth of
correct choice). There is also no evidence that teachers go through stages
of professional development, accepting and then rejecting one conception
(for example, science/research) only to embrace another. Their analysis of
teacher training programs suggests that teacher educators take one of three
positions with regard to these conceptions of teaching: 1) noncompatibility,
accepting one and rejecting others; 2) eclecticism, treating all conceptions
as equal and encouraging teachers to choose among them; and 3)
developmental, viewing different conceptions as appropriate at different
stages of professional development.
Freeman, D. and J. C. Richards (eds.) 1996. Teacher learning in language
teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
In order to better understand language teaching, we need to know more
about language teacherswhat they know about language teaching, how
they think about classroom practice, and how that knowledge and those
thinking processes are learned through formal teacher education and
informal experience on the job (p. 1). The 15 studies in this collection
offer insights into the thinking and experiences of teachers and their
responses to training and teaching from three perspectives: the usefulness
of preservice training, the importance of learning in the practice of
teaching (teacher decision-making during teaching), and the role of teacher
education in teaching practices.
Hartman, D. K. (ed.) 1998. Stories teachers tell: Reflecting on professional
practice. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co.
This collection of presentations from the 1998 Northeast Conference on
Foreign Languages is the first to be authored by classroom teachers and
presented in narrative form. These 40 professional stories, grouped into
beginnings, evolution, revelation, and extinction, are written by
and for novice or experienced foreign- and heritage-language teachers
teaching in a wide range of kindergarten through university contexts. The
contributors spent a weekend together in a writers workshop where they
discussed, wrote, rewrote, and edited their contributions together. One of
the most interesting stories for teacher educators is that of a student teacher
whose creativity and confidence in the Spanish classroom is nearly
destroyed by one supervising teacher, only to re-emerge when the student

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is assigned to another. G. Richard Tucker, in his review of the stories at

the end of the collection, identifies strong correspondences between
classroom practice and current language education theory , with
teachers incorporating exemplary practices into their classrooms on a
continual basis (218219). But he also notes a discordant discrepancy
between how teachers present themselves in these stories (anxious,
creative, empathetic, ingenious, and sensitive) and the exemplary ways
(highly focused, intellectually confident, productive, and task-oriented)
in which language researchers, policy makers, and administrators present
teachers (220).
Head, K. and P. Taylor. 1997. Readings in teacher development. Oxford:
Heinemann.
Written by two language teachers and teacher trainers with extensive
experience in English language teacher development, this collection of
readings and activities is designed to inspire and help teachers in their own
development. The book begins by defining teacher development and then
explores ways in which teachers can learn about themselves in relation to
the learners in their classrooms and their interactions with colleagues. The
final chapters focus on personal well-being, including coping with
challenges and potential burnout, managing change, and assessing ones
own progress. The book draws upon a wide range of sources (general
educational theory and practice, psychology, and group dynamics, as well
as language teaching and teacher development) in the brief text excerpts; it
then provides a jigsaw of activities which can be undertaken alone or
with others to promote greater self-awareness, confidence, willingness to
experiment and change, and personal growth as a teacher.
Lee, J. L. and B.VanPatten (series eds.) The McGraw-Hill foreign language
professional series: Directions in second language learning, and
Perspectives on theory and research. New York: McGraw Hill.
These two related series of texts for second and foreign language teachers,
teacher educators, and researchers explore the relationship between second
language acquisition research and second and foreign language teaching.
The Directions series focuses on classroom instruction and management
and is intended for teacher educators and teachers, while the
Perspectives series is primarily for researchers of second language
acquisition and teaching. Titles in the two series include:
Bardovi Harlig, K. & B. Hartford (eds.) Beyond methods: Components of
second language teacher education.
Lee, J. F. & B. VanPatten. Making communicative language teaching
happen.
Musumeci, D. Breaking tradition: An exploration of the historical

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

relationship between theory and practice in second language

teaching.
Sauvignon, S. J. Communicative competence: Theory and classroom
practice.
Richards, J. C. 1990. The language teaching matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
With a goal of engaging teachers and teachers-in-training, as well as
teacher educators, in the investigation of classroom teaching and learning
(ix), this collection introduces the matrix, Richards metaphor for an
interactive and multidimensional view of language teaching,
consisting of a number of factors, including teachers, learners, the
curriculum, methodology, and materials. Chapters address curriculum
development, the design of instructional materials, and particular issues in
the teaching of listening comprehension, spoken conversation, reading,
writing, and content-based instruction (the latter written with Daniel
Hurley). Throughout, the emphasis is upon a bottom-up description of the
processes of teaching and learning (methodology), rather than a top-down
approach to methods or products, consistent with the approach that
Richards outlines in the second chapter, Beyond methods. Much of
what Richards discusses in his last chapter, on directions for language
teacher education, is occurring today, including a shift from training to
education perspectives; an emphasis on research in both preservice and
inservice development; an inquiry, discovery-oriented, and reflective
approach to teaching and learning; and an increased dependence on
educational research and theory (especially curriculum and instruction) and
reduced dependence on linguistics and language theory in language-teacher
development.
Richards, J. C. and D. Nunan (eds.) 1990. Second language teacher education.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
A goal of this collection is to help prospective teachers develop critical
decision-making skills and self-awareness as a teacher. The first chapter,
by Richards, discusses the need for a theory of effective teaching. He
considers both a micro approach, looking at individual teacher behaviors
such as questioning, pacing, or wait time, and a more macro or holistic
approach, looking at teacher-student interaction in the classroom, including
turn-taking, task organization, and classroom management. Also included
are chapters by Nunan on Action research in the classroom and by
Bartlett on Teacher development through reflective teaching, one of the
earliest discussions of the place of reflective teaching in ESL/EFL teacher
education.
Underhill, A. (series ed.) The teacher development series. Oxford: Heinemann.

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Intended for teachers, trainers, and academic managers, this series is

focused not only on subject matter and teaching methods , but also
on the people who are working with the subject and using the
methods. The goal of the series is to widen the perspective of language
teaching and to encourage teachers to become students of their own
learning. Titles in the series include:
Bowen, T. & J. Marks. Inside teaching.
Head, K. & P. Taylor. Readings in teacher development.
Impey, G. & A. Underhill. The ELT managers handbook.
Scrivener, J. Learning teaching.
Underhill, A. Sound foundations.
Wallace, M. J. 1991. Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
After discussing two traditional models of language teacher education (craft
and applied science), Wallace focuses on a third, involving reflection,
which he develops throughout the book. He describes ways for teachers to
recall their experiences and engage in reflection, suggesting the use of a
number of media (audio, video, teacher logs), as well as approaches to
recording, coding, and interpreting the findings.
William, M. and R. L. Burden. 1997. Psychology for language teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This educational psychology text for language teachers reviews major
developments in psychological theories and discusses their relevance for
language teaching and learning. Beginning with a review of behaviorism,
humanism, and cognitivism, the authors then focus on integrating a socialinteractionist perspective with a social-constructivist approach to learning,
discussing in detail Feuresteins concept of mediation, Vygotskys zone of
proximal development, the role of attribution theory to individual learner
variables, learner training, and the importance of context (both outside and
inside the classroom) on teaching and learning. A final chapter reviews 10
basic principles for language teachers which emerge from the previous
discussion.

LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

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