Embodied Carbon The Inventory of Carbon and Energy Ice (Sample) 2
Embodied Carbon The Inventory of Carbon and Energy Ice (Sample) 2
Embodied Carbon The Inventory of Carbon and Energy Ice (Sample) 2
A BSRIA guide
Embodied Carbon
The Inventory of Carbon and
Energy (ICE)
By Prof. Geoffrey Hammond and Craig Jones
Ed. Fiona Lowrie and Peter Tse
A joint venture of
PREFACE
We are all now very familiar with the targets for reducing carbon. We
have heard how we must make our buildings more energy efficient and
are building to much higher standards than we were five years ago. But
that concerns energy use. Another important factor in the climate change
argument that we must take into account in buildings is the carbon in
materials used in construction.
But how do we achieve this? The first thing to do is to find out how
much carbon is actually embodied in these materials.
The report provides a lot of data and points you to lots more. It also
demonstrates some of the complexities of making embodied carbon
assessments. But just because the matter is complex we cannot ignore it.
European legislation on carbon is tightening all the time: we must have a
knowledgeable industry in the UK who are on top of the issues and
deliver the best solutions to meet whatever targets are required for
energy use or for embodied carbon.
This report compiled by the University of Bath and edited by BSRIA is a
welcome contribution to the development of this knowledge.
Dr Phillip Lee
Member of Parliament for Bracknell and Member of the Select Committee for
Energy and Climate Change 2010
This publication has been printed on Nine Lives Silk recycled paper.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher.
BSRIA BG 10/2011
January 2011
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
BSRIA is delighted to have been given the opportunity to publish this
guide for the University of Bath. We have produced ICE in print to
encourage the industry to consider embodied carbon, (not just
operational) and for people to learn more about embodied carbon before
legal requirements are imposed.
Building services engineers need to understand about embodied energy
and carbon when they are involved in life cycle analysis, and to
understand the trade-offs between high embodied carbon and low
operational carbon and vice versa.
We also want to draw much wider attention to the ICE open source
database, which is an ideal resource for any carbon design tool. We have
been delighted to have the database available for our own research with
the iCAT (Interoperable Carbon Assessment Toolkit) team.
This document is intended to give readers a flavour of the data and to
indicate the main watch points. To use the data readers will need to refer
to the most up-to-date and detailed version of the ICE database at
www.bath.ac.uk/mech-eng/sert/embodied/. This document is based on
version 2.0 of the ICE database.
For helping with this publication, we would like to thank:
The team working on the iCAT project, which is part funded by the
Technology Strategy Board under the Low Impact Buildings
Programme
Paul Slater (MPA The Concrete Centre) and David Collins (Future
Conversations) for extensive feedback on the concrete data
John Dowling and Nick Coleman (Tata Steel Europe) for extensive
feedback on the steel data
The many other industry experts who have provided useful feedback
and finally the many hundreds of ICE database users who have
provided feedback and messages of gratitude.
AUTHORS
Geoffrey Hammond is Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Director
of the Institute for Sustainable Energy & the Environment (I-SEE) at the
University of Bath.
Professor Hammond is a mechanical engineer with a multidisciplinary
background, including environmental engineering and management.
During the 1960s and early 1970s he worked as a design and
development engineer in the UK refrigeration industry, before
commencing an academic career at Uganda Technical College (under
the auspices of Voluntary Services Overseas) teaching mainly in the field
of applied thermodynamics. He held various academic appointments
within the Applied Energy Group at Cranfield University (1976-1989)
before moving to the University of Bath, where he took up a new
Professorship partially supported by British Gas plc. Geoffrey Hammond's
own research interests are mainly concerned with the technology
assessment of energy systems, using a toolkit of methods derived from the
engineering and environmental sciences (such as carbon and
environmental footprinting, environmental life-cycle assessment, and
thermodynamic analysis).
In recent years he has advised the UK Governments Department of
Energy and Climate Change, Department for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs, and the Government Office of Science on issues concerned
with energy and the environment: environmental footprinting,
renewable energy systems, sustainable production, and industrial energy
efficiency. Professor Hammond is the joint recipient of the Dufton Silver
Medal for one of his publications, and is the Joint PI of the first E.ON
UK / EPSRC research consortium on Transition Pathways to a Low
Carbon Economy.
Craig Jones is a highly motivated, innovative, and intelligent individual
with a strong academic background and a genuine enthusiasm for
environmental issues. After achieving a First Class Honours (MEng)
degree in Mechanical Engineering at the University of Bath, Craig stayed
at the university to work on the Carbon Vision Buildings project under
the supervision of Professor Geoffrey Hammond. It was on this project
that Craig created the ICE database and had the vision of making it freely
available on the internet. Since its first release the ICE database has gone
from strength to strength and Craig has since become a world leading
figure in embodied carbon assessment.
Craig has presented on the subject of embodied carbon to varied
audiences around the world and his research is far reaching, appearing in
countless books, media articles and carbon tools. He has also published
many scientific articles on the methodology and application of embodied
carbon, carbon footprinting, and life cycle assessment (LCA). The latter
offering a truly holistic approach.
In 2010 Craig moved into industry to work for Sustain Ltd, a leading
carbon reduction company based near Bristol in the UK. Craig will
maintain good links with the University of Bath and he will be an
integral part of the future development of the ICE database. Craig joined
his new employers as a Senior Associate in Environmental Accounting,
which includes embodied carbon, carbon footprinting and LCA.
EMBODIED CARBON: ICE
BSRIA BG 10/2011
GLOSSARY
Allocation
The sub-division of input and output flows between one or more product systems. Also
applies to recycling methodology (see Annex B).
Biogenic
Derived from living organisms, but not from fossil origin, e.g. biomass is considered
biogenic, but coal is not.
(System)
Boundaries
A set of criteria that defines which processes are included within the (boundaries of)
assessment.
By-product
Calorific value
(CV) of energy
The energy content of a fuel (as may be released through combustion). It may be
expressed as a gross calorific value (GCV) or net calorific value (NCV). The former is
always larger than (or equal to) the latter. The difference is due to latent heat (energy)
remaining in condensation (water vapour) after combustion. The difference is typically 5-10
per cent (e.g. 10 per cent for natural gas, 5 per cent for coal).
Capital energy
Carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2e)
Carbon
sequestration
The extraction of carbon from the atmosphere, for example from trees and plants.
Co-product
Cradle
The cradle is defined as being the earth, i.e. material deposits within the ground.
Cradle-to-gate
Encompasses all input and output flows (as applicable from the system boundaries)
between the confines of the cradle up to the factory gate of the final processing operation.
Cradle-to-gate +
end-of-life
Cradle-to-gate plus the end of life processes. This excludes the use phase.
Cradle-to-grave
Cradle-to-site
Delivered energy
Energy that is delivered to a consumer, e.g. a barrel of oil, kWh of delivered electricity, m3
natural gas, all at the point of use.
Downstream
impacts
Impacts associated with processes that occur at future, downstream, points in the system
relative to the process under investigation. For example, in the case of a finished product
sitting in storage its eventual delivery is a downstream process.
Embodied carbon
Embodied carbon is the sum of fuel related carbon emissions (i.e. embodied energy which
is combusted but not the feedstock energy which is retained within the material) and
process related carbon emissions (i.e. non-fuel related emissions which may arise, for
example, from chemical reactions). This can be measured from cradle-to-gate, cradle-tograve, or from cradle-to grave. The ICE data is cradle-to-gate.
(EC)
Embodied energy
(EE)
Is defined here as the total primary energy consumed from direct and indirect processes
associated with a product or service and within the boundaries of cradle-to-gate. This
includes all activities from material extraction (quarrying/mining), manufacturing,
transportation and right through to fabrication processes until the product is ready to
leave the final factory gate.
GLOSSARY
Feedstock energy
Feedstock energy is derived from fuel inputs that have been used as a material rather than
a fuel. For example, petrochemicals may be used as feedstock materials to make plastics
and rubber. The energy is not released but retained and therefore feedstock energy may
often be (partially) recovered at the end of product lifetime (e.g. through incineration).
Fuel related
carbon dioxide
emissions
Functional unit
A reference unit of study normally used for comparative purposes, e.g. 1 m2 of carpet
over a lifetime of 10 years. A fair functional unit is necessary for such assessments. See
Section 5.1 for further discussion.
Global warming
potential (GWP)
The release of GHGs into the atmosphere gives rise to climate change. There are many
GHGs and each has a different level of potency. Each gas is normalised relative to the
impacts of one unit of carbon dioxide. For example each unit of methane is considered to
be 25 times more harmful than a single unit of carbon dioxide (on a 100 year timescale),
consequently it has a global warming potential of 25 (kgCO2e).
Greenhouse gases
(GHGs)
Gases that when released into the atmosphere absorb and emit thermal infrared radiation.
These gases trap heat within the atmosphere thus contributing to climate change.
Heating value
(HV) of energy
See calorific value (CV). An alternative name for GCV is higher heating value (HHV). Net
calorific value is equivalent to lower heating value (LHV). They are equal metrics often
expressed in Joules.
Life cycle
assessment (LCA)
A tool where the energy and materials used and pollutants or wastes released into the
environment as a consequence of a product or activity are quantified over the whole lifecycle (ideally) from cradle-to-grave.
Primary
electricity
Electricity that has been generated without the need for secondary (fossil) fuel inputs, e.g.
hydro, PV, wind.
Primary energy
Energy that has been traced back to the cradle. Delivered energy is traced upstream into
its primary equivalents i.e. including the upstream impacts of delivery, refining, extraction.
Process carbon
dioxide emissions
Non-fuel related carbon dioxide emissions, i.e. derived from chemical or physical reactions
during manufacturing processes, such as the carbon released from limestone in the kiln of
cement clinker production.
Recycled content
The fraction of material retained within the product that was derived from recycled
materials. This differs from material recycling and recovery rates (i.e. metal recycling
rates), which neglect to consider the difference between the quantity of material
recovered and the changes in total market demand of material.
Renewable energy
Energy (including electricity) extracted from renewable resources, such as wind, solar,
water.
System expansion
The expansion of system boundaries to include other processing operations (e.g. indirectly
affected activities). This is often applied to assess the benefit of avoided burdens (see
Annex B).
Upstream
burdens
Impacts associated with processes that occurred at previous points in the system
(upstream). For example, in the case of a finished product sitting in storage material
extraction, processing, previous transportation and fabrication are all upstream processes.
Waste product
FOREWORD
Climate change is the most serious global sustainability issue and the
energy required to operate buildings is a major component of global
emissions, with 40 per cent of total carbon emissions coming from
buildings. However, aside from climate change, our energy reserves are
limited, and renewable energy alone is unlikely to be the answer to
reducing carbon emissions to prevent the lights going out at some
point in the future.
Therefore reducing our carbon emissions by assessing the whole life cycle
of a building will become an increasingly important factor that will need
to be assessed if we are to understand and manage the carbon emitted
from buildings as a whole.
What is embodied carbon? It is the energy used, converted to carbon
emissions plus the additional non-fuel related carbon, for the extraction
of raw materials, the processing of these materials into products, the
transport of the products to site, the installation of the material or
product, the maintenance of the material product and the end of
life disposal.
Previously, embodied carbon has typically made up between 20 per cent
and 50 per cent of the total carbon footprint of a building, and so the
Government has concentrated on the operational aspect of the carbon
emissions in terms of regulation. However, as buildings become more
efficient, and improve in operational performance towards zero carbon,
the embodied carbon will increase to become the major proportion of
the overall emissions. Added to this, if the calculation which is used to
convert KWh to CO2 by the national grid is reduced in 2050, as
proposed by the Committee on climate change, then the proportion of
operational versus embodied will reduce even further.
There are a number of different modelling tools on the market currently
being developed, that deal with the complexity of data associated with
the range of materials involved, and enable assessments to be made on
achieving the best or most appropriate solution. These methods can also
be used to assess total carbon emitted when looking at redeveloping a
building, which may have an implication on whether to totally redevelop
of refurbish. The Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) is an established
and recognised inventory that is used in the industry.
Mr. Mitchell Layng IENG ACIBSE
Associate Director, Engineering, Prupim
Member BSRIA Publications Panel
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1
2
3
3
2.1 Background
2.2 Selection and quality of data
4
4
10
10
24
29
58
64
78
78
79
80
80
81
82
84
7 RECYCLING OF METALS
85
87
9 SUMMARY
89
91
95
11.1General resources
11.2Tools
11.3Environmental product declarations
11.4General EPD resources and databases
95
96
97
98
12 READING LIST
99
REFERENCES
101
115
117
TABLES
Table 1: Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) main summary.
10
Table 2: Aggregates material profile.
30
Table 3: Aluminium material profile.
32
Table 4: Cement material profile.
34
Table 5: Clay and bricks material profile.
38
Table 6: Concrete material profile.
40
Table 7: Glass material profile.
44
Table 8: Plastics material profile.
46
Table 9: Steel material profile.
50
Table 10: Timber material profile.
54
2
59
Table 11: Total per m of brick wall.
2
61
Table 12: Total per m of steel cladding.
Table 13: Cradle to grave energy for steel cladding under three
different methods for recycling.
63
Table 14: Embodied carbon and carbon savings of the Olympic Park
and Village.
67
Table 15: The embodied energy and carbon of UK new build
dwellings.
79
Table 16: The ideal boundaries used in ICE.
115
Table 17: UK (EU) cradle-to-grave ICE aluminium and steel data
under three different methods for recycling.
124
FIGURES
Figure 1: Creation and refinement method of the ICE database.
5
Figure 2: Guide to the material profiles.
25
Figure 3: Embodied carbon of the baseline design and the actual
design of Farringdon station re-development.
65
Figure 4: dcarbon8 bill of quantities tool.
68
Figure 5: Embodied carbon of Masdar City designs.
69
Figure 6: Carbon emissions by source.
69
Figure 7: Embodied carbon of commercial offices.
70
Figure 8: Cross laminated timber construction.
72
Figure 9: Summary of embodied CO2 for different structural
solutions.
73
Figure 10: Aerial view of the Open Academy during construction.
73
Figure 11: The embodied carbon from cradle-to-commission for
the four options.
75
Figure 12: Embodied energy and carbon breakdown of a new build
primary school.
76
Figure 13: The relationship between embodied energy and
embodied carbon.
77
Figure 14: Base case scenario.
118
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1.1
EMBODIED
CARBON IN
CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1.2
THE RISE OF
EMBODIED
CARBON
INTRODUCTION
THIS GUIDE
USING THIS
GUIDE
This guide contains sections that are part reference and part reading text.
Readers already familiar with the ICE database may be more
comfortable to dip in and out of the document at any appropriate point.
However, new readers to the subject and to the ICE database may wish
to read from the beginning. Sections 1 and 2 are background to the
subject of embodied carbon and the ICE database. Section 3 contains
the main embodied energy and carbon data, as a reference source.
Section 4 onwards contains information that will be useful to apply to
the database, including several examples, case studies, and further
resources.