Here is a short introduction to graphic design theory, explaining the different

aspects of design which are considered when composing a piece of fine art or
producing a graphic layout in commercial art. I call it classic theory because
it forms the basis for many decisions in design.
Elements of Design

Line
Shape
Texture
Value & Color
Space

Principles of Design

Movement
Balance
Emphasis
Unity

A line is a form with width and length, but no depth. Artists use lines to
create edges, the outlines of objects. A line is created by the movement of the
artist's pen.
Line Direction
The direction of a line can convey mood.

Horizontal
lines are calm
and quiet,

vertical lines
suggest more
of a potential
for movement,

while diagonal
lines strongly
suggest
movement and
give more of a
feeling of
vitality to a
picture.

Contour and gesture

Lines used to follow the edges of forms are called
contour drawings

Drawings which seem to depict more movement

than actual outline are called gesture drawings.

Line as Value

Lines or crosshatching can also be used to create areas of grey inside a

drawing. These areas of

darker
shading inside a figure, called areas of value, can give a more threedimensional feeling to an object.

Texture is the surface quality of an object. We experience texture when we

touch objects and feel their roughness, smoothness or patterns. Texture is the
artist's way of mapping these tactile impressions on to the two-dimensional
picture. Texture is created by varying the pattern of light and dark areas on
an object. Notice how the areas of light and dark give the impression of depth
to the image below.

Value

Color Space

Color
Properties of Color:

Hue

Color Schemes:

Monochromatic

Color Value

Analogous

Intensity

Complementary

Optical Color Mixing

Triadic

Color Discord

Value
Value refers to the
relative lightness or
darkness of a certain
area. Value can be used
for emphasis. Variations
in value are used to
create a focal point for the
design of a picture. A
light figure on a dark
background will be
immediately recognized
as the center of attention, Drawing by Marguerite Smith, Saskatoon
similarly for a dark figure
on a mostly white
background. Gradations
of value are also used to
create the illusion of
depth. Areas of light and
dark can give a threedimensional impression,

such as when shading

areas of a person's face.

Color
Color occurs when light in different wavelengths strikes our eyes. Objects have no
color of their own, only the ability to reflect a certain wavelength of light back to
our eyes. As you know, color can vary in differing circumstances. For example,
grass can appear gray in the morning or evening or bright green at noon. Colors
appear different depending on whether you view them under incandescent,
florescent or natural sunlight. Colors also change according to their surroundings.
You can see this by looking at the color squares below - the reddish outline box is
the same color in all the examples.

Properties of Color
Hue

Hue refers to the color itself. Each different hue is a different reflected wavelength
of light. White light broken in a prism has seven hues: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet. White light occurs when all the wavelengths are reflected
back to your eye, and black light occurs when no light is reflected to your eye. This
is the physics of light.

When it comes to using color in art, things get quite messy. Looking at the color
wheel above, when using color pigments, the three primary colors used are yellow,
blue and red. These three colors are blended together to produce other colors,
called secondary colors, such as green, orange and purple. Mix enough colors
together, and you get black. Pretty strange, eh?

Computer Colors
Computer colors are produced by
combining the three colors of red,
green and blue together. Believe it
or not, you can get yellow by
combining these colors (I've never
been able to figure out why, but you
can!)

Printer Colors
Things get even dicier on computers when
you go to print out these colors. Printing
uses the CYMK convention which takes
cyan (light blue), yellow, magenta (pinky
red) and black inks and tries to recreate the
color that your computer created with red,
green and blue light.

Color Value

Color value refers to the lightness or darkness of

the hue. Adding white to a hue produces a high-value color, often called a tint.
Adding black to a hue produces a low-value color, often called a shade.
Intensity

Intensity, also called chroma or saturation, refers to the brightness of a color. A

color is at full intensity when not mixed with black or white - a pure hue. You can
change the intensity of a color, making it duller or more neutral by adding gray to
the color. You can also change the intensity of a color by adding its complement
(this is the color found directly opposite on the traditional color wheel). When
changing colors this way, the color produced is called a tone.
When you mix complementary colors together, you produce a dull tone. However,
when you put complementary colors side by side, you increase their intensity.
This effect is called simultaneous contrast - each color simultaneously intensifies
the visual brightness of the other color.
Below are some examples of how this works, using a program called
Metacreations painter. As you can see, you choose a hue from the outer ring.
Inside the triangle, you can vary the saturation of the hue (amount of color), the
tint or the shade.

Above: choosing a pure color of blue (hue) Above: choosing a less saturated color of blue
by moving the cursor all the way to the
(tone) by moving the cursor toward the center of
right.
the triangle.

Above: adding white (tint) to the color by

moving the cursor to the top part of the
triangle

Above: adding black (shade) to the color by

moving the cursor toward the bottom part of the
triangle

Optical Color Mixing

When small dots of color are placed adjacent to each other, your eye will combine
the colors into a blended color. This is the principle used when printing color in
magazines. Dots of cyan, magenta, yellow and black are distributed in a pattern
on the paper, and depending on the quantity of a certain dot, you will see a
specific color on the page. Paul Signac used a technique called pointillism that
involved creating art using the combination of dots to form images. View Port St.
Tropez.
Color and Space
Certain colors have an advancing or receding quality, based on how our eye has to
adjust to see them. Warm colors such as red, orange or yellow seem to come
forward while cool colors such as blue and green seem to recede slightly. In the
atmosphere, distant objects appear bluish and the further away an object
appears, the less colorful and distinct it becomes. Artists use this to give an

illusion of depth, by using more neutral and

grayish colors in the background.
Color Schemes
Monochromatic

This color scheme involves the use of only one hue. The hue can vary in value, and
black or white may be added to create various shades or tints.
Analogous

This color scheme involves the use of colors that are located adjacent on the color
wheel. The hues may vary in value. The color scheme for this site is analogous,
with the colors varying only slightly from each other.
Complementary

This color scheme involves the use of colors that are located opposite on the color
wheel such as red and green, yellow and purple, or orange and blue.
Complementary colors produce a very exciting, dynamic pattern.
Triadic

This color scheme involves the use of colors that are equally
spaced on the color wheel. The primary colors of yellow, red
and green could be used together in a color scheme to produce a
lively result.
Check out Color Picker web software. This application will allow you to choose a
color and then display its complementary or triadic match. Hint: read the
instructions first, then click on the link which says "Open Color Picker 2". Color
Picker 2.
Color Discord
While monochromatic, analogous, complementary or triadic color schemes are
considered to be harmonious, there are some color schemes considered dissonant.
Discordant colors are visually disturbing - we say they clash. Colors that are
widely separated on the color wheel (but not complementary or triadic) are
considered to be discordant. Discordant colors can be eye-catching and are often
used for attention-getting devices in advertising.
Some sources for information about color:

Illusion of Space and Depth

We live in a three-dimensional world of depth. When we look around us, some
things seem closer, some further away. The artist can also show the illusion of
depth by using the following means:

Size & Vertical Location

Overlapping
Detail (Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective)
Linear Perspective

Size & Vertical Location

Since objects in our environment look smaller

when they are farther away, the easiest way to
show depth is to vary the size of objects, with
closer objects being larger and more distant
objects being smaller. As well, we perceive
objects that are higher on the page and smaller
as being further away than objects which are in
the forefront of a picture.
OVERLAPPING

When objects are

partially obscured by
other objects in front of
them, we perceive them
as further back than the
covering objects.
We do not see them as
incomplete forms, just
further back.
Detail (Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective)

Atmospheric perspective uses color and value contrasts to show depth. Objects
which are further away generally have less distinct contrast - they may fade
into the background or become indistinct dark areas. The foreground objects
will be clear with sharper contrast. Here is a link to Leonardo da Vinci's use
of aerial perspective: Investigating aerial perspective

Linear Perspective (Converging Lines)

Linear perspective is based on the idea that all lines will converge on a common
point on the horizon called the vanishing point. You have observed linear
perspective when you notice that the lines on the highway appear to meet at a point
in the distance. Artists use linear perspective to create a focal point for a picture.
Any walls, ceilings, floors or other objects with lines will appear to come together at
the horizon line. These lines converging lead our eyes towards that point. Often, the
most important object or person in the picture will be located at that point. You can
see in the drawing above how all the lines in the drawing seem to lead your eye
toward the church in the center back of the drawing.
Here is a web page which investigates linear perspective in Leonardo da Vinci's
work: Exploring Linear Perspective ing up a picture using Other types of
perspective, such as two-point or multipoint perspective are also used. Two-point
perspective, which occurs when you display a building from a corner view, as
opposed to a front view, is often used by architects to show a more three-dimensional
view of a building. this site:

Anticipated Movement
Live figures portrayed in unstable body positions cause
us to feel that motion is imminent. We know from past
experience with these positions that some kind of
movement will occur. This heightens the feeling of
motion.

Fuzzy Outlines
When figures move past us at very high speeds,
we perceive that figure as somewhat blurry. This
experience leads us to interpret blurry or
indistinct outlines as conveying motion.

Multiple Image
Similarly, showing multiple overlapping images
gives us the impression of motion. We can see
that the person or figure has moved through a
series of poses.
Optical Movement
In optical movement, the eye is forced to move
around the picture dynamically in order to see all
the different elements. Optical movement can be
enhanced by curved forms that keep your eyes
moving in a circular pattern throughout the
picture.

Optical Illusions
Certain optical illusions based on the repetition of
geometric forms will cause your eye to produce
motion where none is present. This picture really
seems to move, doesn't it?

Rhythm and Movement

Rhythm refers to the way your eye moves throughout a picture. Some pictures
move you throughout in a connected, flowing way much like a slow, stately
rhythm in music. Other pictures move you from one place to another in an
abrupt, dynamic way much like a fast, staccato rhythm in music will give you
the impression of movement. Rhythm in art is created by the repetition of
elements. Similarity of elements, or flowing, circular elements will give a more
connected flowing rhythm to a picture, while jagged, or unrelated elements
will create a more unsettling, dynamic picture.

Look at the two images above. The painting by Matisse [1] is full of sweeping
circular areas which move your eye around the picture (it is a good example of
optical movement). The elements are flowing and circular and give you the
impression of a calm quiet rhythm. The line drawing on the right is more
dynamic due to its incomplete nature and the feeling of motion is much more

evident.

One method used to attract attention in the design of a page or work of art is
the use of a focal point. A focal point draws your attention to the most
important element on the page. There are several techniques used to
emphasize the most important object on a page.

Ways to Create a Focal Point

Emphasis by Contrast

In realistic art the focal

point is usually quite easy
to spot. Larger figures,
usually found in the
foreground, provide a
focal point. Even in nonrealistic art, it is usually
easy to spot the focal
point. If most of the
figures are horizontal, a
vertical element will
stand out as a focal point.

If the rest of the elements

are irregular, a geometric
shape will stand out.

If most of the elements

are dark, a splash of light
color will catch the eye.

Emphasis by Isolation

If most of the elements in a work of art are

grouped closely together, an object by itself
stands out as a focal point.

Emphasis by Placement

An object placed in the center will often be perceived as a focal point. If all
eyes in the painting look at one object, or if an object is placed at the center of
the lines of perspective, that object will be perceived as the focus of the work.

This painting by John Trumbull, entitled The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis,

shows how a focal point can be emphasized both by placement and by eye
direction.

Classic design theory discusses unity in terms of the objects present in a piece of art.
Regarded in this way, unity discusses the need to tie the various elements of a work of art
together. Unity is a measure of how the elements of a page seem to fit together - to belong
together. A unified work of art represents first a whole, then the sum of its parts.
Ways to Achieve Unity
Proximity

The simplest method of making objects

appear to belong together is to group them
closely together. This allows us to see a
pattern.

Repetition

Another method often

used to promote unity is
the use of repetition.
Repetition of color,
shape, texture or object
can be used to tie a work
together.

Continuation

A much more subtle method of unifying a work involves the continuation of

line, edge or direction from one area to another. Continuation is often used in

books and magazines to tie the elements of a page together with the use of
rules, and by lining up edges of copy, headlines and graphics.

This painting by Degas [1] has many elements of continuation. The circle of
the girl's back is continued in the circle of the tub on the floor. The
overhanging brush guides our eyes towards the objects on the table, which
are arranged as a continuation of the circle.

[1] Edgar Degas. The Tub. 1886. Pastel, 60 x 82 cm. Louvre, Paris.

To understand balance, think of the balance beam. When objects are of equal weight,
they are in balance. If you have several small items on one side, they can be balanced by
a large object on the other side. Visual balance works in much the same way. It can be
affected not only by the size of objects, but also their value (ie. lightness or darkness,
termed visual weight).

Symmetrical (Formal) Balance

Symmetrical balance is mirror image balance. If you
draw a line down the center of the page, all the
objects on one side of the screen are mirrored on the
other side (they may not be identical objects, but they
are similar in terms of numbers of objects, colors and
other elements. Sometimes they are completely
identical (often seen in architecture).
Look at this drawing of the Cathedral of Saint-Pierre
in Angouleme, France. You can draw a line down the
middle of the front face, and everything on either
side would be mirror image.

ASYMMETRICAL (INFORMAL) BALANCE

Asymmetrical balance occurs when several smaller items on one side are balanced by a
large item on the other side, or smaller items are placed further away from the center of
the screen than larger items. One darker item may need to be balanced by several lighter
items.
Although asymmetrical balance may appear more casual and less planned, it is usually
harder to to use because the artist must plan the layout very carefully to ensure that it is
still balanced. An unbalanced page or screen creates a feeling of tension, as if the page or
screen might tip, or things might slide off the side, just as the unbalanced balance beam
would tip to one side
BY COLOR

Our eyes are

drawn by color.
Small areas of
vibrant color
can be used to
balance larger

areas of more neutral colors. The vivid red skirt

on the left is balanced by the larger neutral pink
dress [1].
BY VALUE

Value refers to the darkness or lightness of

objects. Black against white has a much
stronger contrast than gray against white. To
balance these two colors, you would need a
larger area of gray to balance the stronger
value of black.

BY SHAPE

Large flat areas without much detail can be

balanced by smaller irregularly shaped objects
since the eye is led towards the more intricate
shape.
The front dancer in this painting by Degas [2]
stands out in intricate detail compared to the
large blurry area behind her.

BY POSITION

Using a balance beam, a larger weight closer to

the center point can be balanced by a lighter
weight further away from the center. This is
the basis for balance by position. Sometimes
larger elements on one side of the page can be
balanced by a smaller element that is
positioned by itself at the far end of the other
side of the page. This is a very tricky type of
asymmetrical balance that often ends up
Look at how the small watering can on
looking out of balance.
the left is used to balance the larger
dancers to the right [3].

BY TEXTURE

Smaller areas with interesting textures

(variegated light and dark, or random
fluctuations) can balance larger areas with
smoother, untextured looks.