ATTITUDES OF PARENTS TOWARDS THEIR

MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN: A RURAL

AREA EXAMINATION .

BY

NANCY GOVENDER

2002

ii

Attitudes of parents towards their mentally retarded children: a rural

area examination

by

Nancy Govender

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Arts (Clinical Psychology) in the Department of
. Psychology University of Zululand.

SUPERVISOR:

PROF N.V. MAKUNGA

JANUARY, 2002

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

49

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

55

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

65

REFERENCES

68

iv

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

English Questionnaire

APPENDIXB

Zulu Questionnaire

APPENDIX C

Permission requested from Thuthukani Special School

APPENDIX D

Permission granted by Thuthukani Special School

APPENDIX E

Attitudes of parents as reflected by themes

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this is my own work and all the sources I have used or
quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete
references.

NANCY GOVENDER
JANUARY 2002

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful acknowledgements are extended to:

My supervisor Prof N.V. Makunga whose critical responses were always helpful and
illuminating

The financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this
research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are
those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the National Research
Foundation.

Friends and Colleagues at the Psychology Department at the University of Zululand for
advice and support.

Prof S.D. Edwards, Ms Mbali Dhlomo and Or Sharon Mthembu for their unconditional
support and encouragement throughout my masters training.

Mr A.T. Mthembu for assistance with the data

Mrs Avri1 Bishop who, with endless patience, typed the manuscript.

vii

Mrs P.J. Stead, Principal of Thuthukani School for giving me permission to conduct
research at her school and for being co-operative.

Participants of this study without whom this dissertation would not have been possible.

My family whose understanding, care and support enabled me to complete my studies.

Mervin Govender, Premi Govender and Andre de Beer for their assistance with the data
and fieldwork.

Vinesh Moodley, my husband and best friend, for supporting, guiding and encouraging
me through the most difficult times in my life.

viii

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my late aunts Velimah Govender and

Senjevi Rangasamy who always believed in my capabilities and were
ever so proud of my achievements.

ix

ABSTRACT

This study examined attitudes of parents towards their mentally retarded children in rural
areas of ZuIuland. The study sample was obtained from a local hospital, a clinic and a
special school for the mentally retarded in the Zululand area.

The findings of this study revealed that parents in rural areas of Zululand have positive
attitudes towards their mentally retarded children. There were no differences between the
attitudes of mothers and fathers with both parents having more positive attitudes. This
study further revealed that parents in rural areas of Zululand loved and accepted their
mentally retarded children. However, the majority of parents were found to be
disappointed by having a mentally retarded child and expressed feelings of
embarrassment.

In the light of these findings further research areas is recommended with the aim of using
such information to build appropriate and successful rehabilitation and intervention
programs for mentally retarded children and their parents.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The 19th century saw a "strong awakening of interest in humane treatment of the mentally retarded"
(Anastasi, 1982 p.5). However, examining some of the writings of the 20th century (Huey, 1912;
Fernald 1912 in Anastasi, 1982; Foster, 1990), the attitudes of those purportedly concerned with the
mentally retarded seemed anything but humanitarian. Parekh and Jackson (1997) make an important
point, that a common perception exists that mentally retarded children are social outcasts, due to the
stigmatizing consequences of the process of labeling. Foster (1990) also, agree that the treatment of
mentally retarded people has been characterized by neglect and abuse. In support of this notion
Gilbride (1993) maintain that despite advances in public policy and legislation, significant barriers
towards people with mental handicaps stilI exist. Attitudes held by both the general public and the key
players, especially parents in the person's life are often cited as an important component of the
"handicapping" environment (Hahn, 1982; Yuker, 1988).

An attitude may be defined as the individual's tendency to react positively or negatively to some

person, object, situation, institution or event (Aiken, 1985; Thomas, 1982). This definition concurs
with that of Graharn and LiIly (1984) who describe an attitude as an opinion about something,
reflecting how favourable people are towards groups, people, ideas or issues. Kagan and Havemann
(1980) also, refer to an attitude as an organized and enduring set of beliefs and feelings, predisposing
us to behave in a certain way. Kagan and Havernann (1980) explain that it is the emotional component

of an attitude that distinguishes it from a belief. In this study the tenn 'attitude' will be used loosely to
cover parent's behaviour, perceptions, reactions, values, feelings, etc.

MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY

The most important figure in the child's immediate environment is a parent. Increasingly, parents are
also involved in caring for their children who are mentally retarded.

A child with such a disability may have anxiety, fear, shame or other negative feelings. These reactions
usually reflect how the child has been treated by others especially the family (Thompson & Rudolph,
1996). Literature has shown that parents' attitudes are critical to the successful caring of children with
illness. For instance, Atkinson and Coia (1995) point out that the way parents' react to an ill child
partly depends on how they perceive the illness and the practical impact the illness has on them.
Similarly, parents' reaction to a child with mental retardation will depend on the parents' attitude
towards mental retardation. McConachie (1986) agrees that parents' attitudes are an important source
~f

information about their behaviour towards their children. Hence the present study attempts to

~xamine

how parents' of mentally retarded children view and cope with the situation.

STATEl\fENT OF THE PROBLEM

When a child has a disability, family problems (which the child can sense) increase. Demands for
~nergy,

time and financial resources add a heavy burden ofstress.

Emotionally, the greatest risk to which most mentally retarded children are exposed is the loss or lack
of adequate relationship with an adult caregiver. This lossJIack has profound implications (Bowlby,
1988).

Mentally retarded children are particularly vulnerable to a range of negative attributions. The most
powerful of these is likely to be the position of "social reject" to which, inevitably, they are subjected.
Mentally retarded children are socially marginalized and rejected by almost all sections of the
community. Nevid, Rathus and Greene (2000) agree that people who have mental retardation are often
demeaned and ridiculed.

However, it should not be assumed that because most people find it stressful to care for a relative with
mental retardation that all parents would experience stress. Nevid, Rathus and Greene (2000) argue
that there are considerable cultural variations in family members' reactions towards mental retardation.
Since cultural beliefs help determine whether people view behaviour as normal or abnormal, parents
from different cultures will judge unusualness from different perspectives.

Almost no research has been conducted on the attitudes of parents in rural areas of Kwazulu-Natal,
who have a child with a mental disability and the effect which their attitudes might have on their child.
Yet according to McConachie (1986) parents' attitudes are an important area of inquiry in search for
improved services to families of mentally handicapped children and again, parental attitudes play a
major Tole in the treatment and diagnosis of the mentally retarded child.

e present study thus hypothesized that, as with other people, contact with a mentally retarded child
lone will not result in positive attitudes. In this study, it is specifically hypothesized that only those
arents of children who did not view their child's disability as central, did not view their child as
ifferent, incompetent or inferior and did not feel they were unable to cope with the disability would
emonstrate positive attitudes towards children with mental disabilities.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the present study was to assess the attitudes of parents in rural areas of Zululand
towards mental retardation.

DEFINITION OF OTHER KEY TERMS

Mental Retardation

The American Association on mental retardation (AAMR) defines mental retardation as a significantly
sub-average general intellectual functioning resulting in or associated with concurrent impairments in
adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period, before the age of 18 (Drew,
Logan & Hardman, 1992; Kaplan & Sadock, 1998).

!"he fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) defines
nental retardation as a significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning that is accompanied
Jy significant limitations in adaptive functioning in at least two of the following skill areas:
:ommunication, self care, home-living, social/inter-personal skills, use of community resources, self-

irection, functional academic skills, work, leisure, health and safety. DSM-IV allows for four grades
f severity: mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation. (American Psychiatric
ssociation,1994; Kaplan & Sadock, 1998).

e 10th revision of Intemational Statistical Classification ofDiseases and Related Health Problems
ICD-IO) currently in use in some countries around the world refers to mental retardation as a
ondition resulting from a failure of the mind to develop completely (World Health Organization, 1993
n Kap1an and Sadock, .1998). According to ICD-IO mental retardation is a condition of arrested or
ncomplete development of the mind characterized by impaired developmental skills that contribute to
he overall level of intelligence (Kaplan & Sadock, 1998). ICD-IO suggests that cognitive, language,
otor, social and other adaptive behaviour skills are affected and thus should be used to determine the
evel of intellectual impairments.

or the purpose of this study the definition of mental retardation as provided by DSM-IV will be
ccepted as DSM-IV is the classification system that is widely used even in South Africa.

arents

~Uthors of English Dictionaries (Brown, 1993; Simpson &

Weiner, 1989; Hughes, Michell & Ramson,

f 992) provide various definitious for the term parent (plural, parents):
,

a person who has fathered or given birth to a child

a biological father or mot4er

a person who has adopted a child

a person who holds the position or exercises the functions of such a parent, a protector, a
guardian

However Mabalot (2000) argues that a 'real' parent is a responsible person who takes an active part in
the child's life. For this study a modified definition based on one provided by Mabalot (2000) will be
used. A parent thus would be defined as a responsible person who takes an active part in a child's life,
irrespective of whether this person is the child's biological mother or father.

Children

Authors of English

Dictionaries (Brown, 1993; Simpson & Weiner, 1989; Hughes, Michell &

Ramson, 1992) provide various definitions also for a child (plural, children):

a young human being below the age of puberty

-san unborn or newborn human being, foetus, infant
one's son or daughter at any age
A young person of either sex below the age ofpuberty, a boy or girl.

:ne United Nations Convention on the rights of a child held at Turkey in 1999 refers to children as
lersous who have not completed their eighteenth year of age, unless under the law applicable to the
hild, do not attain legal age (United Natious Convention, 1999). In this study the definition of a child

by the Oxford Dictionary (Brown, 1993; Simpson & Weiner, 1989; Michell & Ramson, 1992) as one's
biological, adopted or foster son or daughter at any age is accepted.

RuralAreas

i\ccording to Small (2001) 'ruralness' is best thought of as a construct, with meaning provided by the
Jarticular context in which it is described. Contexts which provide meanings of rural areas include:
:Iemographics (whether there are few people in a given location, or whether the number of people is
ow given the available space), economics (an area may be defined as rural based on a single dominant
:conomic activity, usually farming), social (the values, behaviours, beliefs and or feelings of
ndividuals living within a particular community), psychological (ruralness can also be thought of as a
tate of mind.

Individuals self identity as being members of a rural community), cultural

(city

lwellers are perceived to be fast-paced, heterogenous, and easily adjustable to' change while rural
esidents are perceived to be slow-paced, homogenous and reluctant to give up tradition).

be above definition provides a comprehensive understanding of the term 'rural area' as used in this

tudy.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Mental Retardation is a source of pain and bewilderment to many families. Its history dates back to
the beginning of man's time. The idea of mental retardation can be found as far back in history as
around 1500 BC in Egypt (Scheerenberger, 1983).

The objectives of this chapter are to provide the reader with an overview of mental retardation, a
developmental disability with a long and sometimes controversial history and to examine cultural
influences on judgements of children with a disability. Rehabilitation of children with a disability will
also be discussed.

A HISTORICAL REVIEW ON MENTAL RETARDATION

In \Vestern conntries

Words used in earlier times to refer to people labelled mentally retarded included imbecile, feebleminded, moron and defective (Trent, 1995). As time progressed these terms were replaced by word
such as mental defectives, high grade and low-grade imbeciles, and higher functioning mentally
retarded. All these words reveal the meaning people attached to mental retardation. These terms were
"hanged even more recently to "persons with developmental disabilities" or "persons specially

challenged" with the intention of reducing the negative stigma associated with mentally retarded
individuals (Trent, 1995). The plight of individuals with mental retardation has been dependant on the
customs and beliefs of the era and culture or locale.

During medieval times, individuals with disabilities, including children were frequently sold to be used
for entertainment or amusement (Scheerenberger, 1983). Many of the unfortunate victims that were
hounded ar,d destroyed, during the early seventeenth century, were people of low intelligence (Marais
& Marais, 1976).

Trent (1995) indicates that from time immemorial people with mental retardation in America were an
expected part of rural and smaH town life. Mentally retarded individuals with physical disabilities
usually received care from extended families. When the family broke down they would usually be
placed with neighbours, or in alrnhouses (indoor re!ief as it was known) and those who were capable of
breaking the law were placed in local jails. It is evident from literature (Trent, 1995) that people with
mental retardation might have been teased, pitied, their habits would disgust others, however, unlike
criminals they were not feared.

A cornerstone event in the evolution of the care and treatment of the mentally retarded was the work of
a physician, Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, who in 1800 took charge of a boy named Victor found living in
the forest in France. At about age 12, Victor was found to be deaf and mute with little understanding of
anything beyond his basic needs. Although the boy was declared to be an idiot by Dr Philippe Pine!,
Itard believed that intensive training could transform him into a normal, intelligent being. Itard
developed a broad educational programme for Victor to develop his senses, intellect and emotions.

"lthough after five years Victor continued to have significant difficulties in language and social
interaction, he acquired more skill and knowledge than many of Itard's contemporaries believed
possible. Hard's educational approach became widely accepted and used in the education of the deaf
(Scheerenberger, 1983). Edward Seguin, a pupil of Itard, impressed with Victor's achievements
developed interest in the problems of mental retardation and opened the first school for mental
defectives in Paris in 1837, using his own invention and some of the principles developed by Itard.
The work of Hard and Seguin had influenced people like Dr Maria Montessori, who then opened her
own school in Rome in 1896 (Marais & Marais, 1976).

Reports of successful education of disabled children in France and England led to key developments
occurring in the United States. Residential training schools were established. During the early part of
the 20th century, residential training schools proliferated and individuals with mental retardation were
enrolled.

But when training schools were unable to "cure" mental retardation, they became

overcrowded and many of the students were moved back into society, were the focus of education
began to change to special education classes in the community (Trent, 1995).

According to Trent (1995), training schools, which were initially more, educational in nature, became
custodial living centers, hence between 1910 and 1950 institutionalized care for people with mental
retardation was popular. After World War n, institutions were housing more and more disabled people
with fewer and fewer resources. As a result of the disillusionment with residential treatment, custodial
~are was no longer acceptable in the 1950's through the 1970's. Hence the Wyatt - Stickney federal
~urt in the 1970's was a landmark class action suit in Alabama establishing the right to treatment of

ndividuals living in residential facilities (Sheerenberger, 1983). Between 1950 and 1970 state

10

authorities built, refurbished ad added more public facilities than in any period in the American
history. The community model, which was prominent among mental health supporters was talked
about in meetings of the Association for Retarded Citizens. State officials were also concerned about
community placement.

Between 1880 and 1950, mental retardation had largely been seen as a

problem of lower class individuals and this group was regarded as a threat to the social order.
However, after the early 1950's, Americans were more and more likely to see retarded people as
human beings (Trent, 1995). Today, most states guarantee intervention services to children with
disabilities between birth and 21 years of age (Sheerenberger, 1983).

The test of intelligence developed by Binet was translated in 1908 by Henry Goddard and in 1935
Edgar Doll developed the Vineland Social Maturity Scale to assess the daily living skills / adaptive
behaviour of individuals suspected of having mental retardation (Sheerenberger, 1983). Psychologists
and educators now found it possible to determine who had mental retardation and provide them with
appropriate training and residential training schools.

It is clear from literature (Sheerenberger, 1983; Trent, 1995) that presently few mentally retarded

people live in large state operated institutions. In communities, many intellectually disabled people are
part of innovative learning, occupational and living arrangements. According to Trent (1995), mentally
retarded people who have money, supportive relatives and understanding neighbours and employers do
Well in American communities.

11

n South Africa

ccording to Foster in Lea and Foster (1990), in South Africa mental handicap was treated as a form
f insanity throughout the earlier periods. In the days of the Dutch East India Company there was a
Itrong belief among white settlers that lunacy was the result of demonaic possession. There was very
ftle mention of mental disorders as a disease. Individuals with mental disabilities were confined at
laces such as the first hospital (opened in 1656), the slave lodge or the convict station of Robben
land (Foster, 1990). Later on in 1846 an asylum was formally established on Robben Island under
ritish rule (Minde, 1974 in Foster, 1990). Robben Island was characterised by very poor conditions
uch as overcrowding, unsatisfactory food, lack of facilities for recreation and games and the only
eatrnent available was of a purely physical nature (Minde, 1974 in Foster, 1990). Robben Island was
losed as a lunatic asylum in 1920 after inquiries and numerous complaints on the conditions (Foster in
ea & Foster, 1990). Other asylums established throughout the country during the period from 1876 to
895 were also characterized by overcrowding and inadequate facilities. Foster (1990) explains that
natics were only segregated from other patients as a specific class of patients by the turn of the 20th
ntury. In the mid 1860's lunatics were classified according to gender and race, that is 'European'
d 'coloured' (Moyle, 1987 in Foster, 1990).

oster in Lea and Foster (1990) indicates that the notion of mentally handicapped or defective persons
as barely acknowledged and hardly treated as a separate category in the whole of the 19th century.
,
eal concern for the issue of mental defectives dates only from 1913. A committee investigating the
eatrnent of lunatics stressed the shortage of accommodation and noted that the large number of insane
d feeble-minded people was a serious danger to future generations (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990). In

12

901 in England there had been a change in tenninology, the 'feeble mind' was now being referred to
s 'idiot'. Thus in the proposed new Lunacy act for the Union, the committee recommended that
ffensive terms, used to describe individuals who needed special care and treatment, be avoided. In
913, the under-secretary for education pleaded for an estimated 2000 mentally defective European
hildren to be educated and cared for by the central authority (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990). In June
913 a meeting was held in Cape Town to begin steps for raising funds to develop a scheme for the
are, protection and training of the feeble-minded persons (Minde, 1975 in Foster 1990). The Girls
nd Mentally Defective Womans Protection Act no.3 of 1916 prohibited unlawful (other than between

usband and wife), 'carnal connection with any female idiot or imbecile' with severe penalties for
hose who attempted to or went against the act. Foster in Lea and Foster (I990) explains that this act
as concemed with social contrdl. Subsequent to the legal recognition to the category of 'mental
efectives' in the 1916 Act, there was a flurry of activity over the following three decades regarding
is problem category (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990). According to Foster social control, rather than
umanitarian care and concem for this newly recognised category of person was the dominant
rganising motive over this period.

intense new approach to handicap by the state was only noticed in the 1920's and 1930's. 'The
.nking of handicap to IQ, the rise of the mental testing movement, the preferential treatment of white
ersons, the institutionalisation of defectives, the problems associated with administrative spheres of
sponsibility, the differentiation of types of mental handicap (in particular the start of special
ducation for milder versions), race segregation and the linking of mental handicap to other forms of
eviance, were all issues of concern in the 1920s' (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990).

13

n 1927, importance and the need for child guidance clinics to conduct initial assessments of handicap
s well as provide guidance to 'parents was recognised. A psycho-educational clinic designed to
etermine the extent of feeble-mindedness was opened in Bloemfontein in 1927. The division of
uthority for mentally handicapped following the Special Schools Act No. 9 of 1948, indicated that
ower grade handicapped fell under the Department of health. The only facilities available were the
arge 'asylum' type institutions (Alexandra, Umgeni, Witrand) or licensed homes, were the dominant
olicy was custodial and basic physical care and no education was provided for. Provincial educational
uthorities were given the responsibility for the 'higher grade' of mentally handicapped children,
oughly those in the IQ range 50 to 80. Compulsory and free education was provided for in special
lasses and schools (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990).

ccording to Foster in Lea and Foster (1990) during the period from the mid 1960's to the late 1970's
he training for more severely handicapped was recognised. This period, as' Foster (1990) further
aintains was the beginning of a more outwardly-oriented approach were milder forms of mental
andicap began to fall increasingly under educational authorities and gradually extending to more
evere forms. Shifts towards community based and day-centre approaches in mental health societies
d other voluntary associations occurred, but mainly for whites and on a limited scale when compared
Europe and North America. Discrimination and racial segregation remained firmly entrenched
ecause statuary provision for black persons with mental handicap appeared for the first time only
round 1980 (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990).

the 19th century 'idiots' were classed alongside other outcasts i.e. the insane, lepers, the chronic and
oor sick. In the early 20th century 'defectives' were associated with delinquency, prostitution,

14

riminality, the 'poor white' and other social problems. Mental handicap has throughout this period, in
gal terms, been associated with insanity. In the 1980's according to Foster in Lea and Foster (1990)
ental handicap has been further stigmatized as it has been classed with the disabled, that is, the deaf,
lind and the crippled.

e apartheid era (post 1948) has been characterised by the systematic extension of racism in all
spects of mental health. Foster in Lea and Foster (1990) state that prior to 1948, even though racism
as evident in practise, no specific reference to 'race' was made in mental health legislation. However,
om 1960 onwards laws pertaining to mental handicap specified separately for different 'population
oups'. During this period, broad trends of change took place. There was a shift from custody to
eatrnent, from incarceration and segregation to outpatient and community based interventions, and in
e case of mental handicap, from little or no intervention to a recognition of the need for education
nd training. It was only in 1974 that the more severely handicapped became known as 'mentally
tarded,' however, this was applicable only to white children. Special education for black mentally
andicapped children was only introduced in terms of the Education and Training Act No. 90 of 1979
hich provided for both categories, the 'educatable' (or handicapped) and the 'trainable' or 'mentally
tarded child' (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990).

fter 1965, apartheid was firmly established and in South Africa black resistance was largely crushed.
is period was characterised by a period of 'moral panics', concern about inadequate controls for

;1 ore

widely differentiated sets of social misfits which led to inquiries into areas such as drugs,

cohol, minimal brain dysfunction, mental handicap, mental derangement, the mental health act,
erilization, etc. (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990).

15

. n the early 1980's in tenus of the Manpower Training Act No. 56 of 1981, vocational training centre
chemes for mildly retarded people were added to existing sheltered employment facilities. However,
ese facilities were largely for white persons. In the mid to late 1980's, it was evident that there was a
enewed state attention that was concerned with the issue of disability in general and including mental
andicap. Foster in Lea and Foster (1990) indicates that for the first time there was open recognition
f the massive shortfall in services for black handicapped persons along with calls for improvement
. nd co-ordination of services for all 'race' groups. Even in the last decade of the 20th century the
partheid based separate provisions was still in the statute books. It may be only in 1994, when the
rst democratic elections was held, that people of all race groups were allowed to make use of the
vailable facilities for people with mental retardation.

onsiderable changes were evident within the approach to mental health from 1960 onwards in South
fiica, but more especially in Western Countries (Foster in Lea & Foster,1990; Trent, 1995). These
fts were away from segregation to more active treatment, together with movements away from

carceration to voluntary, consen~ and more community oriented interventions. There were attempts
normalise the experiences and circumstances of the mentally ill and handicapped, and to reduce the
ove away from the stigmatising effects of categorisation and institutionalisation. From the 1960's to
e 1980's facilities in general were increased substantially. However, according to Foster in Lea and
oster (1990), some of these changes were evident in South Afiica, but at a slower pace, mainly
nceming whites with little exposure to the fierce attacks against professionals or institutionalisation.

oster in Lea and Foster (1990) states that in South Africa not a great deal has occurred in terms of real
ange with regards to mentally handicapped people. Foster notes that a change has come about in the

16

ecognition of educational needs, but effectively only for whites. According to Foster, the rhetoric of
eater community based policy for mentally handicapped has been present since the Van Wyk report
f 1967, but not many of their long list of services have been implemented. Some developments, which
ere rather slow, have taken place in wider sites of facilities for handicapped persons, such as
heltered and protective workshops, day-centres and social clubs, but they were mainly for white
ersons. The questions of normalisation, advocacy movements, self-help organisations, community
upport networks and human rights of persons with mental handicap have hardly been raised in this
ountry, until recently (Foster in Lea & Foster, 1990, p.62).

ccording to Gqubule (1987) provisions for the black mentally retarded was started by welfare and
rivate organisations such as mental health societies and churches. The govemment has only recently
ined with these bodies to provide for the mentally retarded among blacks. The new constitution
'ves all persons with mental handicap equal rights with every other citizen in the Republic of South
frica. However, Kathleen (1996) states that given the current social and economic climate in South
frica, it seems unlikely that much will be accomplished in the short term. The above-mentioned
uthor believes that it is unlikely that the government would be prepared to allocate an enormous sum
r the re-location of those persons with mental handicap who at present are housed in deplorable
onditions in mental institutions.

LASSIFICATION OF MENTAL RETARDATION

e Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders presents four categories and dimensions
ased on intelligence quotients (IQ) to classifY mental retardation, that is: mild mental retardation (IQ

17

,el 50-55 to approximately 70), moderate mental retardation (IQ level 35-40 to 50-55), severe mental
:ardation (IQ level 20-25 to 35-40) and profound mental retardation (IQ level below 20 or 25)
merican Psychiatric Association (APA), 1994). Kaplan and Sadock (1998) add that these levels of
:atal retardation reflect the degree ofintellectual impairment.

:ople with mild mental retardation develop social and communication skills during the preschool
ars (ages 0-5 years) and they often are not distinguishable from children without mental retardation
til a later age. They can acquire academic skills up to approximately the sixth-grade level. As
ults they may need supervision, guidance, and assistance. They can usually live successfully in the
rnmunity, either independently or in a supervised settings (APA, 1994).

iividuals with moderate mental retardation acquire communication skills during early childhood
ars. They profit from vocational training and with moderate supervision, can attend to their personal
~e.

They are unlikely to progress beyond the second grade level in academic subjects. As adults

:y are able to perform unskilled and semi-skilled work under supervision in sheltered workshops or
the general workforce (APA, 1994).

Lring their early childhood years individuals with severe mental retardation acquire little or no
mrnunicative speech. During the school age period they may learn to talk and can be trained in self
'e skills. However, they are limited in terms of instruction in pre-academic subjects, such as
rning the alphabet and simple counting. As adults they are able to perform simple tasks in closely
lervised settings (APA, 1994).

18

.1ost individuals with profound mental retardation have an identified neurological condition that
.ccounts for their mental retardation. They display considerable impairments in sensorimotor
Unctioning during their early childhood years. Motor development and self-care and communication
skills may improve if appropriate training is provided. Some can perform simple tasks in closely
supervised and sheltered settings (APA, 1994).

REACTIONS OF PARENTS TO HAVING A MENTALLY RETARDED CHILD

Early parental reactions following the diagnosis of a handicap of a child include ambivalence, anger,
confusion, denial, self pity, blame, feelings of helplessness, depression, disappointment, grief, guilt,
mourning, rejection, shock, impulses to kill the child and suicidal impulses (Mary, 1990; McConachie,
1986; Ntombela, 1991). McConachie (1986) quotes several authors such as Drotar, Baskiewicz, Irvin,
Kennell and KIaus (1975); Cunningham and Davis (1985) who described parents reactions in terms of
stages. According to these authors a state of shock is experienced at the initial disclosure, i.e. a feeling
of not being able to register or understand the news and thus withdrawing. This will be followed by a
reaction stage, during which emotions of denial, sadness, anger, etc., may be felt in a rush. Then
gradually parents will enter an adaptation stage when they, for example, begin to ask questions about
What can be done, and finally a reorganisation stage when they seek help and begin to plan ahead
(P.45).

McKeith (1973) states that parents reactions will be influenced by a number of factors such as:
whether the handicap is evident at birth or becomes evident later; whether there is a prospect of severe

19

mental handicap or not; whether the handicap is obvious to other people and by the attitudes of other
people such as lay people, teachers, social workers and doctors to handicap and handicapped people.

In her study of the reactions of Black, Hispanic, and White mothers to having a child with handicaps,

Mary (1990) found that almost all mothers reported strong feelings for their child immediately after
receiving the news of the disabling condition. The most commonly expressed negative emotion was a
feeling of grief or sorrow, which had lessened over time. There were also reports of the negative
feeling of shock and guilt which 'had also lessened over time. The mothers that reported considering
suicide were mothers of children with severe retardation. The study also revealed that Hispanic
mothers reported an attitude of self-sacrifice towards the child and greater spousal denial of the
disability more often than did the other mothers. Both Hispanic and White mothers often reported
stages of reaction from strong negative feelings to later periods of adjustment. Overall the study
revealed a common and universal reaction ofIove and sorrow across cultures and level of retardation.

Similar reactions of shock, surprise, anxiety, disbelief and disappointment by mothers was found by
Kromberg and Zwane (1993) in their study of Down Syndrome in the Black population in the Southern
Transvaal. Many of the mothers in this study had been very upset, wept and withdrew. Some had felt
physically sick, tired, helpless, numb, faint and cold after learning of their child's diagnosis.

According to Rawlins (1983), a recent development in the literature is the acceptance of the dynamic
nature of the interaction between the parents and the handicapped child. Waiter and Stinnet (1971)
suggests that because both parties (parents and children) are interacting with each other, the attitudes of

20

rents do change from one of numbing, shock, rejection and depression to one of acceptance and
lderstanding as the child grows older (cited in Rawlins, 1983, p.96).

cConachie (1986) states that strong initial reactions by parents are affected by the manner in which
~y

are informed of their child's disability. Parents who were informed 'well' reported primarily

~lings

of sadness rather than of anger (Cunningham & Davis, cited in McConachie, 1986). Ntombela

991) adds that parents are unlikely to accept that their child is extremely mentally handicapped if
ey are informed late and in an impersonal manner (p.l5). According to Hannam (1975) cited in
:ombela (1991) "there is no good way of letting parents know that there child is mentally
ndicapped, but there must be ways of not making a bad situation worse" (p. IS).

:winstein, Nadler and Rahav (1991) state that the higher levels of acceptance of a mentally retarded
ild by their parents are associated with greater coping efforts by relying either on self (i.e. self-help
forts) or others (i.e. help-seeking).

ACTORS AFFECTING A MENTALLY RETARDED CHILD

lueation

study conducted by Govender (1984) revealed that there was a significant difference between the
~dictions

of parents of scholars and parents of non-scholars regarding the future functioning of their

;pective children. Parents of scholars had a more optimistic attitude regarding the future functioning

'I

d _ m " of tJrerr clllIdren ilim >"",," of _-,"ol~ "'" ,,",y 0100 f..md """ >"",," of

,Ij
1

;~

21

non-scholars who were optimistic about their child's future tended to view their children's condition in
a less threatening light and described their conditions as slight. This study looked only at parents of
physically disabled and chronically ill children. However, mental retardation is a chronic condition,
which very often is accompanied by physical disabilities. Thus the findings of the abovementioned
study can to an extent be generalised to parents of mentally retarded children.

Loss of a significant caregiver

Pringle (1975) state that there is a wide variety of circumstances that leads to the separation of children
from their families. These may include chronic mental or physical illness and desertion or death of
parents or significant caregivers. When this happens, substitute care for the mentally retarded child is
sought. The child may end up being cared for by another family member, fostered or placed in an
institution. According to Pringle (1975) the removal of a child to an unfamiliar environment causes
great distress, more especially if the child is young and has a limited understanding of verbal
explanations. The child may feel insecure and blame his naughtiness for the loss of his/her loved one.
"However adverse a home, the child lives in familiar surroundings and is looked after, however
inadequately by familiar people. Being taken from it means the collapse of the world he has accepted
nd trusted as the only one he knows" (Pringle, 1975, p. 135).

hildren with a disability may not be as easily accepted into the homes of others as children without a
isability. According to Pringle (1975) adequate physical care is not sufficient to ensure satisfactory
motional, social and intellectual growth. The loss of a significant care-giver for the mentally retarded
hild implies, in most situations, the loss of the only person who understood and loved himlher.

22

he future in terms of employment

s a move towards nonnalization, a number of programs have been developed in South Africa and
broad to teach vocational skills to individuals with mental retardation.

Seyfarth, Hill, Orelove,

cMillan and Wehman (1987) state that some of these programs have helped workers with mental
etardation to gain employment in which they work beside and perfonn the same tasks as nonandicapped workers. Seyfarth et. aI., (1987) further state that while these vocational training and
lacement have important benefits to the people involved, such as enhanced feelings of efficacy and
elf-worth, there are also dangers and disadvantages as well, such as the possibility of physical injury,
xploitation, abuse and loss of guaranteed financial aid payments. Success in a given job, according to

eyfarth et. aI., (1987) is influenced by many factors other than mental ability and there are threshold
equirements in most occupations that close out some persons from entering those fields. For mentally
etarded people, even the logistics of daily life, such as telling time or travelling on a public
ransportation system, are challenges that limit their immediate prospects to gain employment
Seyfarth et. aI., 1987).

11 parents hold idealized expectations of their child's potential and prospects in the world of work
Venn, Dubose & Merbler 1977; in Seyfarth et. al., 1987), which may be either realistic or umealistic
ohnson & Capobianco 1957; in Seyfarth et. aI., 1987). Seyfarth et. aI., (1987) conducted a study in
irginia on the factors that influence parent's vocational aspirations for their children with mental
tardation. The sample consisted of mothers or fathers of persons with mental retardation who were
7 years of age or older. Some of the factors that they fonnd to be significant were: parents attitudes
Wards work as a nonnal part of life; the child's age and the child's developmental level. Parents

23

isagreed that work should be a nonnal part of life for their sons and daughters. Parents of older
ersons held lower aspirations for their sons and daughters as compared to parents of younger persons.
arents of children with higher developmental functioning held higher vocational aspirations for their
hildren when compared with parents whose children functioned at lower developmental levels.
haracteristics such as the child's sex and parents education were found to have little or no impact on
he parent's vocational aspirations for their mentally retarded children.

n a study on the factors relating to the employability of persons with intellectual disability,
immennan (1998) found that persons with mild rather than those with moderate intellectual disability
vere preferred for employment.

e goverrunent in 1996 released a Green Paper on Employment and Occupational Equality. The aim
f this paper is to minimize barriers to people from historically disadvantaged groups and accelerate
iring, training and promotion. According to Kathleen (1996) this proposed equalization plan appears
o include disabled persons. However from the changes that have been implemented following this
aper, it seems that people with physical disabilities are only included. The likelihood of large
ndustries and company's hiring an individual with a mental disability is minimal. Thus it is highly
nlikely that a mentally retarded person would be able to secure unsheltered employment.

24

I1PACT OF SOCIALlENVIRONMENTAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS ON A MENTALLY

ETARDED CHILD

uralenvironDlent

ealth sel"Vlces such as occupational therapy, physiotherapy, speech therapy and psychological
services are generally limited or not available in rura1 areas. Also transport to such services is a
limitation. Without these services it becomes almost impossible to assess and treat individuals with
disabilities. As a result these individuals may lose out on provisions made by the state to assist them
such as the single care grant.

Socio-economic factors

A family's socio-economic status plays a major role in the well being of a mentally retarded child. The
family income will determine factors such as the type of housing, eating habits, child rearing practises
and the type of medical treatment that can be afforded. Thus a low socio-economic status will impact
negatively on the type and quality of care a mentally retarded child receives.

Islam, Durkin and Zaman (1993) found in their study of the socio-economic status and prevalence of
mental retardation in Bangladesh that the prevalence of mild mental retardation was strongly and
significantly associated with low socio-economic status (8E8), while the association for severe mental
retardation was weak and not significant. The sample included in this study was 2 to 9 year old
children from the five regions of Bangladesh.

A two-phase study design was followed in each

25

community. In the first phase, a house to house survey was conducted, and all 2 to 9 year old children
were screened for disability.

Information on a variety of indicators of (SES) such as parental

education and occupation, land ownership, household possessions and housing conditions was
j

,collected. The second phase included the referral of all children with positive screening results and a
I

Irandom sample of 8% of those who screened negative for professional evaluation of mental
I

'retardation. Some of the factors that were found to have high factor loading on a single factor and to
be internally consistent, with an alpha coefficient of .79 were: mother's education; father's education;
main occupation of head of household and ownership number of household possessions (such as radio,
television, bicycle, motor cycle, boat, cow and others) and housing conditions (number of rooms,
individuals per room, floor material, source of drinking water and electricity). The authors of the
above-mentioned study state that their findings is consistent with that of observations in developed
countries of a strong association between the prevalence of mild mental retardation and low (SES) and
a weaker or possibly no association between the prevalence of severe mental retardation and low
(SES).

Cultural factors

An individuals cultural and religious belief will impact significantly on their attitudes towards people
with mental retardation. According to Sibaya (1993) the Black man's way of life was pervaded with
strict attachment to prescriptions and his outstanding characteristic was order. Any deviation from the
established norms and rules was subject to correction, discipline and extinction. Thus implicit in this
desire for order and coherence was the fear and intolerance for the odd and unusual. Hence the birth of
ins was an unusual occurrence; sickly, malformed children (e.g. severely mentally retarded) and a

26

number of individuals born at the same time were killed. Some of the explanations provided for the
killing of these children were that they were bad omens and it was a disgrace for a human female to
have offspring in a litter and their disfiguration was horrible (Kidd, 1906; Krige 1965, cited in Sibaya,
1983). Sibaya (1983) points out that this practise could have been a way of eliminating or eradicating
the strange or unusual individual so that order could be maintained. It could also have been a way of
sparing the handicapped person the suffering he or she would have to endure if allowed to live, or it
could stem from a primitive religious belief that the exceptional individual did not belong to this world
but had mistakenly come from the world of the ancestors. However, according to Vilakazi (1962)
these primitive customs and practises had stopped with the spread of Christianity in Africa.

In Zulu traditional society, according to Laubascher (1937), mental retardation was not conceived as a
weakness of the mind and a permanent mental defect but as delayed maturity and a slowness in the
whole growth process. There was great tolerance and acceptance and people were prepared to wait,
from year to year, for the 'child' to mature, according to their standards ofjudgement. Gqubule (1987)
,states that mentally retarded children were given the status of children and were not given tasks beyond
!

Itheir capacities. The people believed that abnormalities carmot affect the mind as a natural process.
Any condition that produced an alteration of the mind, other than ukutwasa. was considered to be
witchcraft (Laubascher, 1937).

Sibaya (1983) states that despite the drastic changes that have taken place in the past 80 years there is
inclination towards communality amongst Blacks. Blacks tend to put community interests before
ersonal interests. Hence, Sibaya (1983) suggests that there is a positive perception of the handicapped
erson in the community.

27

In traditional Zulu culture, according to NtombeIa (1991), the saying that akusilima Sindleb 'ende
Kwabo meant that even the mentally retarded child was accepted as a member of the family. The

parents were hopeful that the child would be cured of the handicap if some beast is slaughtered and
they pleaded with the ancestors. A piece of the skin of the slaughtered beast was then tied around the
wrist of the handicapped child. Ntombela (1991) points out that this belief is gradually disappearing, as
most Black people are becoming urbanised and adopting western culture. He adds that the pressures of
industrialization and the movement from the extended family to the nuclear family make it difficult for
the handicapped child to be readily accepted nowadays. Ntombela (1991) attributes this to the fact that
there is often nobody around to look after the child when the mother goes out to fend for the other
members of the family. He states that Christianity has also caused many Blacks to rely more on God
for their needs than on the ancestors.

Davis, Oliver, Tang and Wu (2000) state that generally people in Western countries tend to possess
more accurate information, demonstrate more positive attitudes, show more social acceptance, and are
more supportive of the integration of people with mental retardation (p.75). However, they state that
Asians tend to hold more moralistic, individualistic and fatalistic views of the condition. They quote an
example from Chen and Tang (1997) and Cheung and Tang (1995) that in Chinese societies having a
offspring with mental retardation is regarded as a form of punishment for parents violation of
Confucian teachings, such as dishonesty, misconduct, or filial impiety. It is believed that the families,
rather than the societies, should bear the full responsibility of these people. However, according to
Cheung and Tang (1997) as cited in Davis et. al., (2000), Chinese families often engage in either
avoidance coping strategies, such as wishful thinking, denial, and social withdrawal, or appeal to

28

upernatural power to deal with the situation and reject social integration of these family members to
linimize the stigma attached to mental retardation.

'HE ROLE OF PARENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MENTALLY RETARDED

:HILD'S SELF CONCEPT, SELF ESTEEM AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONING

::iovender (1984) states that all children regardless of the severity and type of disability they have will
evelop self images and feelings about who they are and how they think others perceive them,
lccording to Pringle (1975) the attitude of the significant others in the child's life determines how the
hild feels about himselflherself and about his/her handicap. The nature, severity and onset of a
isability impacts less on how the child will function in the future, when compared to the impact of the
ttitude of his parents, first and foremost, and then of those of his peers, teachers and eventually
ociety (Pringle, 1975). Grebler (1952) also believes that the parent's attitude towards their child
.npacts greatly on the child's sense of self. "A child's personality is mainly formed by his parents
ttitudes towards him, and a child's attitude towards himself is conditioned by the parents attitudes"
Grebler, 1952, p,475).

'he most "significant others" in a mentally retarded child's life are their parents who are seen as
rimary socializing agents. This is in view of the fact that children with severe disability tend to be
omewhat more sheltered than other children therefore their most frequent and intense interactions are
ven more likely than those of normal children to be with parents and other family members
Govender, 1984). Govender (1984) further maintains that handicapped children will have positive
elf concepts if they are defined positively by their "significant others" and negative self concepts if

29

heir "significant others" do not evaluate them highly. Thus the role of parents and others such as
iblings is of vital importance, especially for the mentally retarded child whose inter-personal
xperiences are mainly within the family context.

.TTITUDES ON MENTAL RETARDATION

\.ttitudes towards mild, moderate, severe and profound retardation

n an investigation of the attitudes of female undergraduate students towards mentally retarded

)ersoo8, Gottlieb and Siperstein (1976) in Ferrara, (1979) found that they had more favourable
lttitudes towards mildly retarded persons than towards severely retarded persons.

}ottlieb and Siperstein (1980) conducted another study in which they examined parents and teachers
lttitudes towards mildly and severely mentally retarded children towards school and community
ntegration practises. The sample consisted of only adult women. The study showed that the woman
vere not generally supportive of school integration for severely retarded children, while they felt that
egular classes would help the mildly mentally retarded to learn more and become more socially
lcceptable. The study also showed a difference in the women's attitude with regards to the prognosis
)f the mildly and severely retarded children with regards to living a normal life. The women felt that
he severely retarded could not be expected to learn to live a normal life and reach a level of
Unctioning equal to normal children. With regards to community integration, Gottlieb and Siperstein
1980) found that the severely retarded child is viewed as less of a threat. The explanation they offer

30

to this finding is that in the community neither children nor teachers are forced to come into contact
with the severely mentally retarded child.

In a comparative study of perceptions of parents towards their mentally retarded children Greene
(1970) found that there was a significant difference in the perception of parents towards their retarded
children depending on the severity of the child's retardation. No literature was located on attitudes
towards moderate and profound retardation. These two categories of mental retardation was found to
be generally ignored in the literature.

Attitudes of both parents

In an investigation of the attitudes of parents of retarded children, living in a rural section of Western
Minnestoa, Condell (1966) found that some parents found it hard to accept that the child was mentally
retarded and agreed that they needed help in getting more knowledge about the child's condition, they
recognized a mistake in not seeking help earlier. The parents were satisfied with the attitudes and
. behaviour of their neighbours in relation to the retarded child. According to Condell (1966) parents of
retarded children showed great concern and anxiety about the future, particularly the child's future.
Parents wondered what would happen to the child if something should happen to them. This study also
revealed that parents like to talk to other parents of retarded children since it creates a type of common
bond and there can be an exchange of ideas. The study further showed that the largest number of
parents continue to wish that their child could be normal.

31

According to Grebler (1952) it is assumed that parental attitudes towards mentally retarded children
are magnified in their expression by the frustrating experience of having given birth to and bringing up
a mentally retarded child. The above-named author examined parental attitudes towards mentally
retarded children as reactions to frustration. The findings ofthis study were as follows:

The feelings of parents ofmentally retarded children are exposed to an experience of frustration
due to elements inherent in the child's condition and the limitations imposed upon them by the
outside world

The parents react to this frustration in terms of their own personality problems

Their reaction to the child's mental retardation is inter-related with their general attitude
towards the child

Parents who tend to condemn the outer world for the child's mental retardation tend to reject
the child

Parents who react with emotions of guilt and condemn themselves shows ambivalence towards
the child, while parents who don't express any blame show acceptance of the child

Due to unfavourable parental attitudes, mentally retarded children show behaviour problems,
which in turn prevent them from using even their limited capacities

Ntombela (1991) states that emotional stress of parents is unavoidable due to the constant physical
care, financial demands, restrictions placed on their normal lifestyles, the disappointment of having a
handicapped child, the guilt feelings arising from their anger and rejection of the child and concerns
about his/her future and life-long care.

32

According to Ntombela (1991) a common attitude of parents is Hyperpaedophilia, which is the

pathological over-attachment to the child. When this happens the parents love for the handicapped
child develops into a grossly exaggerated devotion and over-protectiveness which negatively affects
the life and needs ofother members of the family (Boswell & Wingrove, 1974 in Ntombela, 1991).

Attitudes of mothers

Mothers generally occupy the position of greatest responsibility in familial child care and therefore,
play a important role in detennining the impact that retarded children have on their families (Gumz,
1972). According to Ntombela,(199l), apart from social and emotional problems, mothers suffer
actual physical stress because of the higher mobility of the handicapped child, and the obesity and
respiratory infections which are common amongst children with a severe. mental handicap.
Rangaswami (1995) conducted a study to determine parental attitudes of mothers towards retarded
children with and without behaviour problems, from both rural and urban areas in Madras, India. This
study revealed that the overall attitude of mothers of retarded children with and without behaviour
problems differ significantly. The mothers of mentally retarded children with behaviour problems were
found to have a significantly higher negative attitude towards their retarded children. Rangaswami
(1995) state that the mothers of retarded children with behaviour problems have a problem in accepting
their children. The findings of this study showed that the mothers of mentally retarded children are not
hopeful about education, future of the children, home management and they also feel more hostile
towards their children. According to Rangaswami (1995) the birth of a retarded child shatters the hope
and aspirations, leading to hopelessness and negative attitude towards the child. This negative attitude
as Rangaswami further maintains, can be a function of the degree of retardation, problem behaviour,

33

burden on the family, etc.. However, Condell (1966) points out that a mentally retarded child who does
not experience acceptance and security in his house is in greater danger of developing behaviour
difficulties than a normal child.

Weinger (1999) argues that although in practise the principle care-giver role in the family is usually
assumed by the mother, she has socialized to sacrifice her own needs for the benefit of other family
members. According to Weigner, "if this broader perspective is recognized, the mother and family
may realize how the political has become personal, and free themselves from a facile acceptance of the
way things have been" (p.76). This feminist perspective as Weigner (1999) further maintains will
assist practitioners to reach out to mothers to assure them that their behaviours are based on choice
rather than on feelings of powerlessness or necessity.

Attitudes of fathers

There are very few studies available on the relationship between fathers and their mentally retarded
children. This could be related to the fact that previously fathers did not take on an active role in their
child's life. However, presently fathers are also very involved in the care of their children. Thus the
attitudes of fathers will impact significantly on the mentally retarded child's sense of self.

In a study conducted almost three decades ago, Gurnz (1972) found that father's perceptions of their
mentally retarded child were more instrumental while mothers were more expressive. Fathers concerns
centered mainly around the impact of the mentally retarded child on the family budget and the cost of
Providing help for the child, whether the child will achieve academic success and support himlherself

34

in adult life and whether the child could be a leader, a 'winner' and be able to stand up for himself
Mother's concerns generally focused on the emotional strain of caring for the retarded child, whether
the child will be accepted by others and will be happy regardless of academic achievement or job
success. The findings ofthis study may not be very relevant to the present time as the roles of mothers
and fathers in family life have changed considerably.

Attitudes ofsiblings

Ntombela (1991) describes some of the feelings and the effects that the brothers and sisters of a
mentally retarded child experience. These feelings range from jealousy, shame, guilt, to frustration.
The siblings may feel jealous and even rejected, as the mentally retarded child demands the parent's
attention. These feelings are exacerbated by the material deprivation they may also experience due to
the increased financial responsibilities towards the disabled child. They may feel ashamed and as a
result become socially isolated as they feel that they cannot invite their fiiend's home, as other children
often tease them. Frequent feelings of guilt, a tendency to blame the handicapped sibling for the
problems in the family and depression may develop over a period of time. The siblings may feel
frustrated due to the parents restrictions concerning the kind of games and outings in which their
handicapped child and hislher siblings may be involved, so as to protect the handicapped child from
injury. There is also concern regarding the freedom that normal brothers and sisters enjoyed prior to
the birth of a child with a handicap and the chores and responsibilities assigned to them as a result of
parent's involvement with the handicapped child.

35

According to Weinger (1999) siblings with more approving attitudes towards their brothers or sisters
with mental retardation are more likely to perceive their family as being more emotionally responsive
to each other.

Attitudes of teachers and students

Due to the amount of contact that teachers have in most mentally retarded children's lives, their
attitude would impact significimtly on these children. A study conducted by Efron and Efron (1967)
revealed that special class teachers expressed more favourable attitudes to the mentally retarded than
do teachers of ordinary children (Rawlins, 1983).

According to Gotlieb (1975), in Rawlins (1983), only a small minority of teachers is in favour of
integrating the mentally retarded 'into regular classes. He offers an explanation that "regular education
teachers do not possess special positive attitudes towards children labelled mentally retarded (p.120).
Gotlieb suggests that the move towards integration should be accompanied by programmes designed to
influence and change teacher's attitudes to a more positive one.

A study conducted by Stephen and Braun (1980), in Rawlins (1983), showed that teachers who had
taken courses in special education were more willing to accept handicapped children into their
classrooms than were those who had not taken such courses.

36

n a cross-cultural study of attitudes towards the mentally retarded in South Africa, Rawlins (1983)

'ound that Zulu teachers and Zulu University students strongly rejected the mentally retarded.
'1owever, the study also revealed that Zulu high school pupils were more accepting of this disability.
:n his study of the perception of Black University students of the handicapped person in a Zulu
;peaking community, Sibaya (1984) found that student's attitudes were favourable towards the
~andicapped.

However, the author reports incongruence between student's beliefs and behaviours. The

study has revealed a tendency of the students to avoid contact with handicapped people. Rawlins
(1983) attributes this rejection of mental retardation to the elevated status and authority given to
individuals with advanced education, more especially in the Zulu culture. According to Gqubule
(1987) Blacks in South Africa perceive higher education as a means to improve both their political and
social lives and thus would reject anything that represents the opposite.

Johnson (1950) in Rawlins (1983) found that mentally retarded children were the most rejected
children in twenty regular classes. Johnson concludes that these children were rejected because of
their behaviour in the classrooms, playground and behaviour outside the school environment. Rawlins
(1983) also cites a study by Lapp (1957) with contrary findings. He found that mentally retarded
children were more rejected among their peers in special classes than among their peers in regular
classes. Rucker, Howe and Sniden (1969), in Rawlins (1983), found that mentally retarded children in
regular classes have a lower social status and are less well accepted by other children. Gottlieb (1975),
in Rawlins (1983) looked into the acceptance of the retarded by their non-retarded peers. He suggests
that retarded children are very seldom chosen as 'a best friend', irrespective of the organizational
COntext ofspecial classes or integrated settings.

31

Davis, Tang, Oliver and Wu (2000) found in their study of Chinese children's attitudes towards mental
retardation that these children demonstrated favourable attitudes towards mental retardation and school
integration. When compared to a sample of Irish children, the Chinese children were more positive
towards school integration and were more willing to have social interactions and form social
relationships with people who are mentally retarded. The study also revealed that younger Chinese
children in kindergarten, as compared to older children in primary and secondary schools, tended to
show the most positive attitudes towards mental retardation. However the authors state that it is
unclear how these children attitudes will correspond to their actual behaviours in real life situations as
in Chinese families small children are often trained to be polite and nice to people, especially those that
are less fortunate than themselves.

Attitudes of employers

Rimrnerrnan (1998) states that the attitudes of employers play a major role in determining the success
of employing workers who have been labelled with mild and moderate intellectual disability.
According to Rimmerman (1998) employing such individuals not only reduces support and treatment
costs of caring for these individuals and allows them to pay taxes, but also improves their selfConfidence and independence.

Larger companies have been found to be more positive in their attitudes towards hiring persons with
disabilities than small companies (Levy, Jones-Jessop, Rimrnerman & Levy, 1993, in Rimrnerman,
1998, p.246). Hartlage (1974) in Rimrnerrnan (1998) found that corporate executives who were less
educated are more biased against individuals with intellectual disability and therefore would be less

38

receptive to their employability. However, Posner (1968) in Rimmerrnan (1998) reported that less
educated corporate executives may place less emphasis on the educational accomplishments of persons
with disabilities and may be more favourable towards hiring them. Rimmerrnan (1998) state that the
attitudes of corporate executives towards the employability of people with intellectual disabilities can
be significantly related to their prior experiences with those persons. The author found in his study
that corporate executives that had previous contact with persons with intellectual disability tended to
be more favourable towards their employability. Rimmerman (1998) cites a study conducted by Levy
et. aI., (1992) that found that executives who had contact with persons with disabilities in the corporate
work force expressed more favourable attitudes than executives who had no such prior experience.

Rimmerrnan (1998) found that corporate executives prefer to employ persons with intellectual
disability who have vocational and social skills, and they avoid hiring persons whose intellectual
. disability raises concerns about their ability to integrate in the workplace.

In a study conducted by Florian (1974) in Rimmerrnan (1998), it was found that most of the corporate
executives offered technical reasons, such as a lack of available positions or the lack of specific job
skills as an explanation of their un\villingness to hire individuals with disabilities.

Most of the

employers indicated that economic benefits and/or legislation would not change their attitudes towards
hiring individuals with disabilities.

39

 Attitudes of rehabilitation workers and other people in helping professions

Rutledge and Scatt (1997) state that the trend towards deinstitutionalization and the movement of more
mentally retarded people into community settings implies that more physicians are caring for mentally
retarded patients in their daily practises. Thus physician's negative attitude will have a detrimental
effect on the delivery and outcomes of medical services and may influence the beliefs and attitudes of
others who assist in this health care. In a study on medical student's attitudes towards people with
mental retardation, Rutledge and Scott (1997) found that most of the medical students did not have
negative attitudes towards people with mental retardation. Seventy-seven percent of the students were
wiIIing to work with mentally retarded patients after they completed their training and 95% felt that
people with mental retardation should live in the community.

Marais and Marais (1975) condemn those professionals who adopt a "clinical detachment" from their
patients/clients and feel that such professionals should be working in a different field. The nature of
such professional work according to Marais and Marais (1975), entails an intimate understanding of all
the functions of their patient/client, yet there are some professionals who never touch them, never talk
with them, but only at, about or through them and when discussing their interest with colleagues,
refuse even to consider their feelings or those of their families. The above-named authors quotes two
examples of personal contact with such professionals. They mention a hospital social worker who
always kept a polythene cover on the passenger seat of her car when transporting mentally
handicapped patients and a consultant psychiatrist who habitually talks about handicapped young
People in their presence but without reference to them, using the third person, and very often the
impersonal pronoun 'it'.

40

lf

THE EFFECT OF EDUCATION, SOCIAL AND EMPLOYMENT EXPERIENCE ON

ATTITUDE CHANGE

In a study of the acceptance of mental retardation and help-seeking by mothers and fathers of children
with mental retardation, Lewinstein, Nadler and Rahav (1991) found that parents who are more
educated, belong to a higher social class, and have fewer children accept their child's retardation better
and tend to cope with emerging difficulties by approaching external helping sources.

Nunnally (1961) in Sewpaul (1985) concluded through a series of classroom studies that it is more
difficult to establish effective communication programmes for changing attitudes than for increasing
popular knowledge. A study conducted by Morrison (1977) in Sewpaul (1985) indicated that negative
attributions to mental patients can be changed in a positive direction by means of educational seminars.
This study demonstrated that college student's attitudes towards mental illness can be changed
effectively by means of didactic presentations, which do not reflect a medical paradigm. In a study
which looked at high school students attitudes towards mental illness, Nunnally (1961) in Sewpaul
(1985) found that students attitudes improved after receiving didactic presentations on mental illness.
He concluded that attitudes towards mental health concepts can be improved and that these
improvements last.

However, according to Sewpaul (1985), researchers such as Attrocchi and

Eisdorfer (1961) and Jaffee et. al., (1979) claim that didactic teachings alone are inefficient agents of
attitude change.

Sewpaul (1985) makes a point that practical experience does play a role in attitude change. She
describes a study by Gelfand and UlIrnan (in Rabkin, 1972) that compared the attitudes of student

41

nurses assigned to a psychiatric programme with the attitudes of nurses in non-psychiatric

programmes. The study showed that students in the psychiatric programmes became significantly less
authoritarian in their responses as compared to the student nurses that were not in the psychiatric
programme. Sewpaul (1985) state that didactic teaching together with personal contact with mentally
ill patients, and effective supervision, would be effective in allowing students to gain a sounder
knowledge and more favourable attitudes of mental illness and the mentally ill.

REHABILITATlONIINTERVENTION

Ferrara (1979) states that the goal of rehabilitation and intervention is based on the assumption that
after training, retarded individuals will acquire behaviour patterns that will ensure either full or partial
integration into the 'nonnal' life setting and will be able to meet some or all of the expectations of
society. Parental attitudes play a major role in the rehabilitation and treatment of the mentally retarded
child (Witter, 1972; in Ferrara, 1979). In an investigation of attitudes of parents of mentally retarded
children towards nonnalization activities, Ferrara (1979) found that parents ofretarded children were
more positive when these activities referred to a general group (mentally retarded persons) rather than
to their own child. According to Ferrara (1979) the study indicates that parents will exercise their
legislative prerogative and refuse such services for their child. Ferrara (1979) states that there is a need
for parent-specific counselling and/or training as an integral part of the child's nonnalization plan. The
author further states that a failure to meet this need will result in the defeat of nonnalization on a
Practica1leveJ. Ferrara (1979) states that in order for nonnalization activities to become realities for

Imentally retarded children, the attitudes of their parents must be assessed and areas of conflict and
COncern resolved. The information obtained from such an assessment, can assist policy makers and

42

implementers to construct strategies that will prevent or minimize a conflict between theory and
, practice (Ferrara, 1979).

According to Gqubule (1987) the aim of assessment is to intervene so as to effect positive changes in
growth and development. The four main categories of intervention approaches in mental retardation
are: the educational approach; behaviour modification and management; psychotherapeutic and the
medical approach.
,

The behaviour modification approach aims to increase the repertoire of behaviour and skills through
direct and indirect methods. The psychotherapeutic approach underlies attempts aimed at effecting
positive changes in personality and social functioning. The educational approach, according to Hutt
and Gibby (1976 in Gqubule, 1987) represents an attempt to evaluate carefully the capacity of each
child and to assist in developing them to the highest degree of which he/she is capable of. Some of the
skills, which are taught through special education, are aimed at protecting the mentally retarded child
against common dangers, managing hislher social and economic affairs, accepting social responsibility
and to contribute meaningfully to society. The socio-cultural approach, which appears to be the most
Widely used approach, stresses the role of culture and social agents in cognitive growth and
development. It involves analyzing the physical and economic needs of the client and seeks ways and
means of providing basic needs of food, clothing, shelter, medical care and school requirements. It
also uses social, welfare, state agencies and other agents to secure sponsorships and a single care grant.
The choice of approach, however, will depend on its suitability to the condition, the circumstances of

Ithe client and the intervention context (Gqubule, 1987).

43

The general objective of all intervention approaches is to help the retarded person to function
comfortably and adequately at the present time and to prepare him for adequate functioning (within
limitation of his capacity) as an adult (Blake, 1976; in Gqubule, 1987). Gqubule (1987) maintains that
with training the client will be able to reach independence in basic self-care; perfonn (under
supervision) useful domestic chores and occupational skills of sewing, knitting, packing, etc., but will
need constant supervision in social and economic affairs. Functional academic achievements will be at
a simple level of single word recognition, writing and simple number concept.

Nabuzoka and Ronning (1993) discuss the design and evaluation of intervention programs that are
aimed at promoting the integration of children with disabilities in mainstream schools. Some of the
interventions that they found to be useful in promoting interaction and social behaviour between
children with and without intellectual disabilities were play-skills training of children with disabilities
accompanied with teacher prompts and a 'special friends approach'. An increase in social behaviour
was noticed in both the experimental and natural situations when the 'special friends' approach,
associated with the non-disabled children taking the role of initiators of interaction was utilized.

FACILITIES AVAILABLE FOR REHABILITATION OF MENTALLY

RETARDED

INDIVIDUALS

The role of special care centres are to provide day care facilities, residential care and stimulation
programmes for the mentally retarded child (Ntombeia, 1991). Day care facilities give the mother
some relief from her emotional and physical stress while the child is away. Residential care are for

44

mentally retarded children whose parents are not able to look after them at home or who have no
access to day care centres. Children who are so profoundly mentally retarded require residential care
where all the necessary treatment facilities are available. Stimulation programmes assists the mentally
retarded child to develop motor, sensory, communication and self-help skills as well a elementary
health habits, depending on the degree ofthe child's handicap.

Historically in South Africa there appears to be no or very little provisions and facilities for people
with mental retardation. Shifley (1996) state that there is no evidence to indicate that child patients
were included among the so-called lunatics confined in asylums in South Africa prior to 1894. She
thus makes the inference that mentally retarded children died in infancy, or remained in the custody of
their families regardless of the severity of their handicap until reaching adulthood. Shirley further
states that during this period no mention is made of the availability of educational or training facilities
in South Africa.

The earliest proposals for special classes or special schools for mentally defective children did not
come from a governmental source but from the South African Society for the Care of the feeble
minded in 1913 (Vitkus, 1987; in Shirley, 1996). It was only in 1921 when the first institution, i.e.,
the state funded Alexandra institution in Cape Town, was opened for the training of the feeble-minded
in South Africa. Feeble-mindedness at that time was not recognised in any other race thus this school
catered only for white children.' It was only in the 1940's that a change in perception towards the
mentally retarded became apparent. There was a focus on the training of males in useful occupations
with the assumption that they will earn a living in the open labour market. The assumption for the
training offemales was that most of them would marry and become parents (Shirley, 1996).

45

Shirley (1996) conducted personal interviews with parents in South Africa and in the U. K. in the
1990's. She found that parent's preferred that their mentally handicapped child be placed in a special
class attached to an ordinary school. Parents felt that there would be less stigma attached to inclusion
in a special class rather than in attending a special school. Attendance at a special school would have
also resulted for many parents in their child living away from home. Thus the majority of parents were
in favour of special classes (Shirley, 1996). However, there are both advantages and disadvantages in
placing a mentally retarded child in a special class in mainstream school or placing them in a special
school.

In the mid 1980's some of the facilities available for moderately and severely handicapped children
included: special care centres (which is a day or residential centre catering for profound and severe
range of intelligence); training centres (catering for the upper severe through to moderate intelligence)
and a work and occupation centre (which are protective workshops and other settings, both day and
residential, that provides regular employment for mentally handicapped adults). In the mid 1980's, in
addition to the above, special pre-schools, for children below the age of seven, became available.
However, this facility was only for whites (Shirley, 1996).

After reviewing the number of persons in need for special care facilities, according to race, Shirley
(1996) makes a point that while the mentally handicapped of any race were disadvantaged, black
mentally handicapped persons were even more so.

In post apartheid South Africa, with a new

Democratic government, and with the collapse of the previously racially biased Departments of

46

Education and Culture, one would assume that special care facilities are available to people of all race
groups.

According to Shirley (1996) the needs of mildly mentally handicapped adults in South Africa were
largely ignored, until recently. However, Shirely further states that all awareness of this need by
Mental Health Societies has resulted in the provision of protective workshops and farms, for example,
the recently established Sunnyside Protective Farm at Bulwer, Kwazulu-Natal. After personal
interviews and observations, SliiI;ley notes that a substantial change has taken place in these workshops
from the mid 1980's to the mid 1990's. In the 1980's contract work was scare and frequently the
young people were under-employed. By the mid 1990's the quantity and quality of work at these
workshops had iInproved. The increased training programmes for the workers allowed them to branch
into unexplored areas of furniture repairs and certain forms of contract work which required slightly
more skill than in the past. Shirley states that a new sense of purpose is apparent in the workshops and
many are achieving a genuine sense ofjob satisfaction.

Sheltered workshops are mainly situated in urban areas.

However, Mental Health Societies are

currently increasing the number of sheltered farming schemes for young adults with mental handicap.
These schemes also provide residential accommodation for the participants. The ultimate goal of such
schemes is the ability to compete in the market place (Shirley, 1996).

Shirley (1996) agrees that even though some of these schemes are situated in rural areas they are
presently not catering for mentally retarded individuals among rural communities. Currently what is
happening is that residents from urban institutions are being translocated to the rural ones. One of the

47

major concern in rural areas is that so many individuals who are mentally retarded remain unidentified
and consequently are deprived of appropriate care and education (Shirley, 1996).

According to

Gqubule (1987) almost all training centres for African mentally retarded children are situated in places
were children remain in their homes, or are accommodated in foster homes, and benefit from services
of special schools and whatever resources, such as social and welfare services, that are available.

Shirley (1996) further reports that according to the mental health societies involved the results of the
established farms are positive. However, the main concern of workers in the State sector of mental
health is whether the new govemment will provide sufficient funding to allow for the continuence of
service provision. Ntobela (1991) adds that the lack of special care centres is a factor, which has a
negative effect on the family of a mentally handicapped child. This is particularly so among Black
rural communities where the lack of such facilities, especially the residential special care centres, is
critical (Ntombela, 1991).

48

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Makunga (1988) states that a researcher has many possible methods of investigation to choose from
depending on the question that is being asked. In research the first step is to determine what is to be
done in the study. CheruInik (1983; in Makunga 1988) refers to this as the research design and
Kerlinger (1973; in Makunga 1988) calls it the research prograrmne.

The current study

The present investigation sought to canvass the attitudes of a range of parents with the aim of
delineating how those suffering from mental retardation are perceived by others.

The study was designed to be carried out in two phases namely the exploratory or pilot study and the
mainstudy.

PHASE I - PILOT STUDY

Before embarking on the main study an exploratory study was undertaken to help identify problem
areas in the use of the instrument identified for collecting data. A total of 25 questionnaires were

distributed to parents of pupils at Thuthukani Special School and 16 returned representing a response
rate of 64%. Table I shows the response rate ofsubjects in the pilot study.

49

TABLE 1 - Response rate of subjects in the Pilot Study

PARTICIPANTS
Parents

DISTRIBUTED

RECEIVED

25

16

64

Bush and White (1995) agree that with 64% of the questionnaires returned, the response rate can be
regarded as good.

The pilot study revealed certain problems in the draft questionnaire which were solved before the
conunencement of the main study. The feedback received enabled the researcher to identify and solve
problems in respect of, for example, the relevance of questions and the format of the questionnaire.

PHASE 11 - MAIN STUDY

Method
Sample

The subject pool consisted of 62 parents ofmentally retarded children in KwaZulu-Natal. The majority
of the sample consisted of parents with children attending Thuthukani Special School which caters
mainly, for children from rural areas. The rest of the sample were parents of mentally retarded children
Who attended the Psychology Clinic at Empangeni Hospital, University of Zululand and Sundumbili
Clinic in Mandeni. Forty-nine ofthese parents were females and 13 were males (See Table 2).

50

TABLE 2 - Distribution of subjects for the main study sample

GENDER

Females

49

79

Males

I3

21

Total Sample

62

lOO

There was a higher proportion' of females than males in the sample with approximately two-thirds
females. The respondents were predominantly Zulu speaking (which reflected the dominant black
language of the area in which the study was conducted). It can thus be assumed that the sample reflects
to a large extent attitudes typically held by members of the "black" Zulu-speaking population group.
All respondents were surveyed on a voluntary basis. Inclusion in the investigation strictly meant that a
"diagnosis" of "mental retardation" to the child of a participating parent had been suggested or made
by a mental health worker.

Confidentiality

Makunga (1988) points out that because material revealed during research may at times be distressing
to subjects, it is essential that they are reassured that their welfare will at all times be protected. Thus,
subjects were assured that their answers would remain strictly confidential and that their anonymity
would be protected. Subjects were informed that this data would not be released to other persons
without their permission.

51

Research instrument

A questionnaire comprising fifty statements of a Likert-type scale served as the measuring instrument.
The researcher asked questions using a rating scale to obtain infonnation that a yes/no answer would
not divulge, (see Appendix A). A Likert type scale questionnaire provides questions which are
standard and which can be compared from person to person. Less articulate respondents are not at a
disadvantage. Respondents are also more likely to respond about sensitive issues when using such
questions. Answers generated by these questions are more easier to code and analyse (Bailey, 1987;
Behr, 1988; Neuman, 2000). A questionnaire as an instrument of research is extensively used and it
continues to be the best available instrument for obtaining infonnation.

The questionnaire for the present study was developed using statements from the .Parental Attitude
Research Instrument - PARI (Schaefer & Bell, 1958), the Thurstone Sentence Completion Test
(Thurstone, 1959) and Parekh (1988). Questions were designed to provide infonnation on parent
behaviour, perceptions, reactions, values, feelings etc., which is the definition of attitude used in this
study. The questionnaire was first translated into Zulu by a Zulu speaking post-graduate student in
psychology. This translation was then checked by another Zulu speaking academic.

Respondents had to indicate to which degree they agree (or not) with each statement by encircling the
number corresponding to one of five response categories varying from "strongly agree" to "strongly
disagree."

52

Procedure

Research questions were distributed to parents at the end of a parents meeting held at Thuthukani
Special School. Parents were first informed of the study by the school principal and then by the
researcher. Parents consent to participate in the study was obtained. Parents who decided to participate
were given time to complete the questionnaire. Instructions and questions were read out and explained
individually to those parents who were illiterate. The same procedure was carried out at the various
psychology clinics.

At the end, with questionnaires being completed, parents were thanked and informed that they should
feel free to contact the researcher to discuss any issues that might have been raised by the survey.
Parents were also informed that free professional counselling was available to any person who felt the
need for such services.

Scoring

Data collected was scored and coded by the researcher. All coding was rechecked by the researcher.
Information on scoring is reported in Chapter 4.

53

Data analysis

Frequencies and percentages of responses were tabulated for the total sample in an attempt to make
sense of the data collected. Graphs and tables were also used to present findings. These results are
presented in Chapter 4.

54

CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

As explained by Makunga (1988) raw data are by themselves meaningless, therefore, on completing
the data collection the researcher must make sense of observed data. In an attempt to obtain answers to
research questions, in this chapter data collected are presented with comments about significant
findings.

ATTITUDES OF PARENTS TOWARDS THEIR RETARDED CHILDREN

Table I summarizes the responses of parents in the A, B, C, D and E categories, that is, distribution of
responses along the "very negative" to "very positive" attitude continuum.

TABLEt
CATEGORY

Very Negative

Attitude
Number

of

Negative

Unsure

Positive

E
Very positive

10

51

0%

16%

0%

82%

2%

respondents
% ofrespondents
--c

The observed distribution of respouses in Table I indicate that most respondents, that is, 82% of the
subjects in the present study fell within the D category, which indicates positive attitude towards

55

mental retardation. Two percent of the respondents fell within the E category indicating a very positive
attitude. Thus, 84% of the respondents in the present study expressed a positive attitude towards
mental retardation. There were no respondents in the A or very negative and C or unsure categories.
Only 16% of the respondents fell within the B category which indicates a negative attitude.

The histogram portraying this data will be as follows (see Figure 1 below).

90%
80%
70%
60%

..

III
Cl

50%

.'!l
c
III

III

40%

ll.

30%
20%
10%
0%

Very Negative

Negative

Unsure

Fig. 1 Attitudes of Parents

56

Positive

Very Positive

ATTITUDES OF MALES AND FEMALES TOWARDS MENTAL RETARDATION

Table 2 below summarizes the responses of mothers and fathers towards their mentally retarded
children.

TABLE 2

ATTI TUDE
Positive

Negative

TOTAL

MALES

62

38

13

FEMALES

44

90

10

49

TOTAL

52

84

10

16

62

Of the 13 fathers of mentally retarded children 8 (62%) expressed positive attitudes towards their
affected children and 5 (38%) indicated negative attitudes.

Forty four (90%) of mothers who had mentally retarded children indicated positive attitudes and in 5
(10%) cases negative attitudes were expressed.

Since both fathers and mothers did not display strongly negative attitudes, these were not included in
Table 2.

The histogram portraying this data is as follows (See Figure 2).

57

90
80
70
60
III
Gl
Cl
l'll
C
Gl

..

50

40

.
Gl

Male
Female

ll.

30
20
10
0
Negative

Positive

FIG. 2 Attitudes of fathers and mothers

58

Al III UDES OF PARENTS REFLECTED BY THEMES FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE:

Five themes were drawn from the questionnaire and these included: love and acceptance,
ellharrassment, frustration, disappointment and over-protection (see Appendix E). The participants
responses are as follows:

Love and acceptance

The majority of parents (74%) as shown in Figure 3 responded positively to the theme of love and
acceptance.

.-

IlSO'ong_
DNega1Ne

DSO'ongN_

Fig. 3

.~
.

.",

Theme of love and acceptance

S9

..

Embarrassment

seen in Figure 4, most parents (71%) were found to have feelings of embarrassment towards their
mentally retarded children

DShcng_
Positive
ONegalNe
OShcng"~-

Figure 4

...

Theme of embarrassment

60

Frustration

As seen in Fig. 5 below 58% percent of parents in the present study were not frustrated by their
mentally retarded children while 31 % were frustrated and 11 % were greatly frustrated.

Frustration

11 Slrong

_me

.Positiw
ONegalM!

o Slrong Nega1M!

Fig. 5

Theme of Frustration

61

Disappointment

Figure 6 shows that 68 percent of parents expressed feelings of disappointment towards their mentally
retarded children. Of this 68%, twenty four percent of parents were greatly disappointed by having a
mentally retarded child.

Dissapointment

IISvongPosilNe
.Posi1Ne
o Negative

CStrong

Fig. 6: Theme of Disappointment

62

Over-Protection

'v[ost parents (82%) as shown in Fig. 7 did not appear to be over-protecting their mentally retarded
child, while 15% were over-protective and 3% were greatly over-protective of their mentally retarded
children.

,"strong_
.Pos~

DNeQatiw
o Strong Nega1M!

Fig. 7 Theme of Over-protection

63

CHAPTERS
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The main objective of the present study was to investigate the attitudes of parents in rural areas of
Zululand towards mental retardation.

The present study was conducted in response to previous work concerning attitudes towards mental
retardation among samples. This work has yielded findings which have depressing implications for
decisions about the treatment and management of mentally retarded individuals. This work has left an
impression that mentally retarded individuals are rejected, worthless and seen as a burden.

However, the results of the present study suggest that such a scenario is not always evident. On the
contrary the majority of parents in rural areas of Zululand were found to have a positive attitude
towards their mentally retarded children. Although a small proportion of parents had a negative
attitude, no parents were found to have a strongly negative attitude. When these findings are
considered against the background of previous findings, the conclusion may be drawn that communal
life amongst Blacks has led to the positive perception of the handicapped person in the community
(Sibaya, 1984). It has been observed in the present study that although most mothers and fathers
displayed positive attitudes, more mothers than fathers had positive attitudes. One important finding of
this study is that both mothers and fathers did not display strongly negative attitudes.

Another important finding of this study concerns the fact, that irrespective of the child's disability,
parents loved and accepted their children. A possible explanation may include cultural expectations in

64

..---------------------------------'--~"_._--~---_ ..

--_.-.

a traditional Zulu society. According to Laubashcher (1937) and Ntombela (1991), in a Zulu traditional
society and culture, there was great tolerance and acceptance of a mentally retarded child. It is possible
to observe, as we have in the present study, a high rate of parents being positive towards mental
retardation, given the fact that much of the rural areas in Zululand are still very traditional and rich in
Zulu culture. The higher levels of acceptance of a mentally retarded child by their parents are
associated with greater coping efforts by relying either on self or others (Lewinstein, Nadler & Rahav,
1991). Due to the extended family system in rural areas of Zululand the responsibility of caring for a
mentally retarded child is shared. Ntombela (1991), however, explains that nowadays because of
urbanization and breakdown of the extended family, mentally retarded children are not easily accepted.

The findings of the present study contradict those ofa similar study conducted by Condell (1966) on
the attitudes of parents of retarded children living in a rural section of Westem Minnesota. According
to Condell (1966) parents found it difficult to accept the presence of retardation. Thus, cultural factors
do appear to play a role in the acceptance of a child who is mentally retarded.

In this study, it seems parents have feelings of embarrassment towards their mentally retarded children.
This embarrassment could stem from the perceived negative attitude of the general population towards
such children. According to McKeith (1973) embarrassment can lead to withdrawal from social
contacts and consequent social isolation. Withdrawing from society can be detrimental to both the
mentally retarded child and his/her parents.

65

Although parents expressed feelings of disappointment towards their mentally retarded children, they
were not over-protective towards these children. Thus, hyperpaedophilia did not appear to be a
significant variable in parents in the rural areas of Zululand.

However, it gives hope to observe a high number of parents being positive towards their mentally
retarded children. In conclusion, the present study found that parents in rural areas of Zululand had
positive attitudes towards their mentally retarded children.

The results of the present study, however, need to be treated with caution for the following reasons:

The composition and small size of the sample, limits its representativeness thus we can not
generalize from this finding. Also, the respondents were a select group of black parents,
that is, those from rural areas.

The study employed quantitative methods. In so far as this, there was a restricted
exploration of underlying, ideological, issues and the respondents' subjective experiences
and interpretations were ignored. Therefore, this further limits the extent to which the
findings can be generalized. Further studies are required to confirm and elaborate findings
of the present study. Such studies should include qualitative methods to gain access to
respondents own understanding of their social behaviour.

Although the present study is l~ted in scope, it has provided a basis for much needed similar research
in other rural areas either than those in Zululand.

66

RECOMMENDATION

An attempt should be made to replicate this study and the present study can only be regarded as

exploratory.

67

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Islam, S.; Durkin, M.S. & Zaman, S.S. (1993). Socioeconomic status and the prevalence of mental
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Laubscher, RI.F. (1937) Sex, custom and psychopathology: a study of South African pagan natives.
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McKeith, R. (1973). The feelings and behaviour of parents of handicapped children. Developmental
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Rangaswami, K. (1995) Parental attitudes towards mentally retarded children. Indian Journal of
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78

APPENDIX A
Attitude Scale of Parents towards their mentally retarded children
(Adapted from Parekh, 1988: Schaefer & Bell, 1958: Thurstone. 1959)
NB, All data obtained will be treated in a strictly confidential manner,
IdentiJYing particulars of parent:

a,

Age:

b.

Sex:

-=

~----

Read each ofthe statements below and then rate them as follows::...:_ _

strong~ agree

;ree

U;ure

D_iS_~_gl'_ee_ _ ~_s_tro_ng_Iy_E_D_is_a_g_ree__

1__

Indicate yonr opinion by placing a cross" X" in the box" A "ifyon strongly agree, .. B" Ifyon agree, .. C" if
yon are unsure, .. D" ifyon disagree and .. E " if yon strongly disagree with each statements.
Please note that there are no right or wrong answers,

1. When I think of my mentally retarded child, I think how lucky I am. God gave him so much
more than a lot of kids have,

BeD

2, "::=~==-""'Tc...L::o:..:u:.;ha,==v-=e-=a:.;m=en::;t=aIl:::.L:..:re:..:tar=::::d:::e=d-=c=hil::'d::,.::th=e:.L.:d::::o:::n='t:.;lik=e:.;t:::o~asrso::.:c::::ia::t:::e=w~i~th~o::u::.;,
B
C
D
E
3, It would make me happy to know that my community respects my mentally retarded child,

woman's nerve if she had to be with them all da ,

C
D
E

retarded children will

CiD

5, Mentally retarded children should be more considerate of their mothers, since their mothers

~~rsom~hfur~th=em~~

_
-----,C=---

6, Raising mentally retarded children is a nerve- wreckinq job,

J::~==D~=======::E====

7, One of the bad things about raising mentally retarded children is that you are not free enough
oftime to do just as you like,

8, Parents sacrifice almost all oftheir own fun for their mentally retarded children.

9, Taking care of a mentally retarded child is something that no woman should be expected to
do by herself?
A
B
C
D
E

NglJan2002

APPENDIX A

retarded might be a danger to socie

B e E
11. It hurts me to think that 1 am a arent ofa child who is ment

B e E

12. I felt disappointed when I found out that my child is mentally retarded.

ciD

13. I have acce ted the filet that m

14. I would love my child more ifhe/she were not mentall1..:.re~t_ar-,-d-,:ed=,'_ _-'--_ _-=-_ _

15. I have contnbuted to my child's mental retardation.

A
B

L_ _D_--'-_----"'E'---_
E

16. The best way to discipline mentally retarded children is by hitting them.

CiD

17. I enjoy playing with my mentally retarded child.

A
B

retarded child with me when I attend functions.

18. I feel embarrassed to take m

19. I don't like my mentally retarded child to play with children who are not mentally retarded.

CiD

20. I lve more attention to m child who is men

21. I don't think that my mentally retarded child would someday be able to find a partner and get

married.

BeD

22. I think that someday that my men! retarded child would get better.

23. I think that m

A

NglJan2002

__

ciD

a nonnal school

APPENDIX A
24. My mentally retarded child's problem or illnesses don't stand in the way of our family
progress.

BeD

25. If my mentally retarded child were more pleasant to be with it would be easier to care for
him/her.
A
BeD
E

26. Thinking about my mentally retarded child's future make me sad.

ciD

27. I don't worry too much about my mentally retarded child's health.

ciD

28. Professionals (nursesetc) in an institution would understand my mentally retarded child

better.

BeD

29. My mentally retarded child feels that I am the only one who understands him or her.

ciD

retarded child than doin some other kind of work.

31. My mentally retarded child is very capable, well functioning person despite his/her other
problems.
A
BeD
E

32. I always watch to make sure that my mentally retarded child does not do physical harm to
himseWherselfor others.
A
BeD
E

ot out ofthe house or

D
34. When others are around my mentallr retarded child I cannot relax, I am always on guard.
A
Bel
DIE

35. In hislher own way my mentally retarded child brings as much pleasure to our family as the
other members.

BeD

36. I worry what will happen to my mentally retarded child when I can no longer take care of
him/her.

Ng/Jan2002

BeD

APPENDIX A
37.1 think that in the future my mentallf retarded child will take up more and more of my time.

DIE

Bel

38. I am very careful about asking my mentally retarded child to do things, which might be too
hard for him/her.
D
E

IAI--B--C

39. Parents should take care oftheir own me

retarded children.

BeD

40. As the time passes I think it would take more and more to care for my mentally retarded
child.
A
BeD
E

41. It is easier for me to do something for my mentally retarded child than to let him/her to do it
for himseWherselfand inake a mess.

leD

42. I feel that I must rotect my mentally retarded child from the remarks ofother children.
A
B

Le

43. Sometimes I feel v

DIE

retarded child.

ashamed because of

44. It makes me feel ood to know that I can take care ofm

45. I try to get my mentally retarded child to take care ofhimseWherselt:

A
B
CiD

retarded child does not lead a normal life.

C
47. I don't mind when people look at

CiD

mx mentally retarded child.

-l

48. If it was not for my mentally retarded child things would be better.
1
A
B
1
ciD

49. My mentally retarded child's need comes first.

A
B
C

50. I am not embarrassed when people 9uestion me about my mentally retarded=..=c=hil=d=-".,..--_ _

A
B
1
CiD
E

NglJan2002

APPENDIXB
OKUNGASHIWOLNEMIZWA YOMZALI ONENGANE EKHUBAZEKILE
QAPHELA: LONKE ULWAZI OLUTHOLAKELE LIYOTHATHWA NJENGA
NEMFIHLO IMINININGWANE WAKHO
a.

Umyaka:

b.

UbuIili:

l ndlea:
l
Funda okun~ezansi ubusukuni ka utub ol e 1Ul ae
C
B
A
Kanginaqiniso
NgiyavumelaDa
NgiyavumelaDa

Kaugivumelani

Kangivumelani
Sampela

N~empela

Khombisa umbono wakbo Dgukufaka loluphawa "X" ebhokisini "A" uma IMII1la kakhulD: "B" uma uvuma :
"C" uma uugazi uknthi nvume Dome uphise; " n" uma uphika Da "E" uma uphika kakhulu. Okufanele
nikwazi yikuthi akukho impe.ndulo ekuzona nokuugezona.

1. Dma ngicabanga ngengane yami ekhubazekile ngibona nginenhIanhla ukuthi uNkulunkulu

umnikeze okuninf kunezinye izingane.

2. Dma abuntu bazi ukuthi unengane ekhubazeke ngokomqondo abathandi ukuzihlangenisa

nawe.
A
B
C
D
E

3. Kungangijabulisa ukwazi ukuthi umphakathi engihlala kuwo uyayihlonipha ingane yami

ekhubazekile.
A
B
_ _,:::C_ _L--_~D~_....L._~E
__

4. Izingane ezikhubazeke ngokwengqondo zingazana

bahlukumezeke enhlalweni.
A
B
C

zenze

mama

bazo

ukuba

5. lzingane ezikhubazeke ngokwengqondo kufanele zibacabangele 0 mama bazo njengaba

-=-__
bezenzelo konke. _ _-=
A
B
C
--D--_~E:...-----.J

6. Ukukhulisa izingane ezikhubazekile kungumsebenzi onzima.

A
B
\~
I=---=-D-- _ _....::E:...-----.J

7. Enye yezinto ezimbi ngokukhulisa lZIDgane ezikhubazekile ukuthi awunaso isikhathi

oyitbandayo.
sokwenza noma
A
L
B
I_----=c==---_ _~D==--::::.E_--,

8. Abazali banikela yonke intokozo

benzela izingane ezikhubazekile.
A
B
__
C
D

NglJan2002

APPENDlXB

9. Ukunakekela izingane ezikhubazekile engqondweni yinto okugeke kulindeleke ukuthi noma

yimuphi umuntu wesifuza ne ayenze.'--_---=-_ _,--_---::,----_-.,-_ _=-_ _

10. Izingane ezikhubazekile zingaba yingozi emphakathini.

11. Kungiphatha kabi ukwazi ukuthi ng

wengane egula ngenggondo.

12. Ngizwa ngiphoxeka ngenkathi ngithola ukuthi ingane

CA

DIE

jemi ikhubazekile.
__

DIE

13. Sengikwemukele ukuthi ingane yami igula ngenggondo.:....._---::,--

,--_ _

I_----=:D::.-...._ _--=E=--------------J

14. Ngingayithanda kakhulu uma bekuthiwa ayikhubazekile ingane yami.

CiD

15. Nginesendla ekukhubazekeni komntanami

16. lndleJa engcono rkugOndisa ingane ezikhubazekile wukuyishaya

CiD

17. Ngiyakuthanda ukudJala neizingane ezikhubazekile.

18. Ngizizwa ngiphoxeka ukuthatha ingane yami ezikhubazekile ngiye nayo emicimbini.
A
B
~
CiD

19. Angithandi ingane yami eikhubazekile ukuthi idlale

Sane

lE

ezingakhubazekanga

20. Isikhathi sami esiningi ngisinakeza umntwane wami ezikhubazekile kunezinye izingane.
A
B
CiD

lE

21. Angicabangi ukuthi izingane ezikhubazeke ngengqondo zingakwazi ukuthi ngelinye ilanga
-=-_ _
zitbole umuntu ~athandane nayo ziphinde zishade. _ _-=-

CiD

22. Ngicabanga ukuthi ngelinye iJanga rane rami ekhubazeke ngomgondo

NglJan2002

CiD

YOba ngcono.
E

APPENDIXB
23. Ngicabanga ukuthi ingane yami egu1a ngeqondo ingakwazi ukuhlanganyele esikoleni
nezinye izingane eziphilayo.
D
E

kwegane

yami

24. Ukuhlukemezeka
ungaphumeleli.
A

ngokomqondo

25.Ukuba izingane
ukuzinakekela
A

ezihlukumezekile kumnandi

kuwenzi

ukulzimbadakanya nazo,

ngabe

umnndeni

ukuthi

wethu

kulula

26. Ukucabanga ngekusasa lengane yami khubazekile kungenza ngiphatheke kabL

A
B
1
DIE

27. Angikhathazeki kakhuIu ngempilo yengane yami ehlukumezikile.

CiD

28. Ongoti kwezolwwazi (ngengabahlengikazJ) bangakwazi kangcono ukukhubazeka kwengane

yamL

BeD

29. Ingane yami ekhubazekile icabanga ukuthi yimina ngedwa engikwazi ukur=izwc:..:..=a._,.--_ _

CiD

30. Ngingamene nginakekele ingane yami kunokuba ngenze omunye umsebeDZl=:.-.

A
B
CiD

lE

31. Ingane yami ::loona ikwazi ukuzenzela nomayini noma ikhubazekile

__

CiD

32. Ngihla1e ngimqaJhele ukuthi akazilimazi yena noma abanye.

A
_
B
CiD

33.Ingane yami ekhubazekile ingaba sengozini uma iphumela ngaphandle komuzi noma
kwegceke.
B
c
D
E
A

34. Uma kukhona abantu eduze kwakhe ngihlaJa ngimgadile.

35. Ngeyakhe indlela uletha intokoza emndenini njengamanye amalunga omndenL

CiD

36. Ngikhatbazwa ukuthi kuyokwenzekani kuye uma ~!!:asa~m~n!!,:a~k~ek~e!!:li._~

Ng/Jan2002

APPENDIXB

37. Ngicabanga ukuthi kusasa Iengane izothatha isikhathi sami sonke.

A
B
CiD

38. NgiyakunakekeIa ukuthi ngingamenzisi izinto ezingaba Iukhuni ukuthi azenze=.,---=-_ _

A
B
CiD
lE

39. Abazali kufaneIe bazinakekekelele bona izingtane zabo ezikhubazekile.

A
B
CiD

40. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ~a ukuthi kuzodin,aeka nginmakekeIe kakhuIu.

BeD

41. KuIuIa kakhuIu ukumenzeIa zonke izinto (kunoku mumeIa) ukuthi azenzeIe bese enza
umonakaIo.

BeD

42. Ngibona kungcono ukuthi ngimvikele ukuthi engaconwa noma achwenswe ezinye izingane.
A
B
CiD
E

43. Kwesinye isikathi ngizizwa nginamahloni ngoba ekhubazeke emqondweni.

A
B
CiD

E
E

45. Ngiyazama ukumtshengisa nokumfundisa ukuthi kufanele azinakekeIe kanjani.

A
B
CiD
lE

46. Ngiphoxekile ngokuthi ingane yami ngeke ikwazi uku]hiIa impiIo eiwayeIekile.
I
A
I
B
[
C
_
DIE
47. Anginandaba uma abantu bebuka ==an=e.Ly=anu:;,;=e=:kh~u~baze=rkil=e_=- _ _r-_---;:;:_ _
A
B
-.J.
CiD
E

48. Ukuba bekungesikhona okwengane rami ekhubazekile ngabe izinto ziham:::.:ba::..::k=a=hl=;e.:;--_,

A
B
DIE

Le

49. Izindingo zengane rami ekhubazekile zirullum phambiIi.::....-_-=-=-_ _

A
B
C
'_--=D=---_ _--=E=---_

50. Anginarnahloni uma abantu bebnza ~empiIo yenyane ~ ekhubazekile.

A
B
L
c
L
D
'----=Eo---

NglJan2002

APPENDIX C

University of Zululand
Department of Psychology
Private Bag X 10001
Kwa-Dlangezwa
3886
13/11/00
The Principal
Thutukani School
DearMadam
I request permission from you to conduct research at your school.
The title of my research is: Attitudes of parents in rural areas
towards their mentally retarded children.
Thanking you.
Yours sincerely

Ms Nancy Govender
Ml-elinicaI Psychology student
Supervised By:

/~1AN'-f,

N.VMak~

Prof.
/
Senior Clinical Psychologist

APPENDIX D

3!2 Thuthukani Special School

~

P.O. Box 1121

Empangeni 3880
Tel: Office (035) 7920079
Fax:
(035) 7920100
Webs~e:

WNW.thuthukani.org.za

FeAMA- t ~ S I
"'.+
.

I.V/...

vvI.w-ll~

1~

'3

y~

-1r/M.

(()l.o.A-

8~kl'l..Ctrt

~~~

79SkoxcL

r:(//t.II\JCAPA L

--Il.e. .

b~/;

./:> I:J...crcP

8.0"751

(11.., .

V-o

IL...ct lu...Lc..k~
.
(lot..

1O"L<.A-

~~~

APPENDIXE

ATTITUDES OF PARENTS AS REFLECTED BY THEMES

1..

LOVE AND ACCEPTANCE (Questions 1, 13, 14,30,35,44,47,7)

1) When I think of my mentally retarded child, I think how lucky I am, God gave
him so much more than lots of kids have.

13) I have accepted the fact that my child is mentally retarded.

14) I would love my child more if he/she were not mentally retarded.

30) I would rather be caring for my mentally retarded child than doing some other
kind ofwork.

35) In hislher way my mentally retarded child brings so much pleasure to our
family as the other members.

44) It makes me feel good to know that I can take care of my mentally retarded
child.

47) I don't mind when people look at my mentally retarded child.

7) One ofthe bad things about raising mentally retarded children is that you are not free enough of the
time to do just as you like.

EMBARRASSMENT (Questions 18,43,50)

18) I feel embarrassed to take my mentally retarded child with me when I attend
functions.

43) Sometimes I feel ashamed because ofmy mentally retarded child.

50) I am not embarrassed when people question me about my mentally retarded

child.

FRUSTRATION (Questions 4, 6, 25)

4) Mentally retarded children will get on any woman's nerves if she had to be
with them all day.

6) Raising mentally retarded children is a nerve-wrecking job.

25) If my mentally retarded child were more pleasant to be with, it would be

easier to care for him/her.

4.

DISSAFPOINTMENT (Questions 12,26, 46)

12) 1 felt disappointed when 1 found out that my child is mentally retarded.

26) Thinking about my mentally retarded child's future makes me sad.

46)1 am disappointed that my mentally retarded child does not lead a normal life.

5.

OVER-PROTECTION (Questions 29, 32, 33, 34, 38, 42, 49)

29) My mentally retarded child feels that 1 am the only one who understands
him/her.

32) 1 always watch to make sure that my mentally retarded child does not do
physical harm to himselflhersel(

33)My mentally retarded child would be in danger ifhetshe got out of the house
or yard.

34) When others are around my mentally retarded child I cannot relax, I am
always on guard.

38) I am very careful about asking my mentally retarded child to do things, which
might be too hard for himlher.

42) I feel that I must protect my mentally retarded child from the remarks of
other children.

49) My mentally retarded child's needs come first.