RVS SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

CE 6451 -Fluid Mechanics and Machinery Notes

Prepared By
P.LAKSHMANAN
ASSIATANT PROFESSOR

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CE 6451 -Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

1 INTRODUCTION

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Units & Dimensions. Properties of fluids Specific gravity, specific weight, viscosity,
compressibility, vapour pressure and gas laws capillarity and surface tension. Flow
characteristics: concepts of system and control volume. Application of control volume to
continuity equation, energy equation, momentum equation and moment of momentum
equation.

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UNIT-I
1. Define fluids.
Fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowing. It has no definite
shape of its own, but confirms to the shape of the containing vessel.
2. What are the properties of ideal fluid?
Ideal fluids have following
properties i) It is
incompressible
ii) It has zero
viscosity iii)
Shear force is zero
3. What are the properties of real fluid?
Real fluids have following
properties i) It is compressible
ii) They are viscous in nature
iii) Shear force exists always in such fluids.
4. Define density and specific weight.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume (kg/m3)
Specific weight is defined as weight possessed per unit volume (N/m3)
5. Define Specific volume and Specific Gravity.
Specific volume is defined as volume of fluid occupied by unit mass (m3/kg)
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of specific weight of fluid to the specific weight
of standard fluid.
6. Define Surface tension and Capillarity.
Surface tension is due to the force of cohesion between the liquid particles at the
free surface.Capillary is a phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid.
7. Define Viscosity.
It is defined as the property of a liquid due to which it offers resistance to the movement of
one layer of liquid over another adjacent layer.
8. Define Newtons law of Viscosity.
According to Newtons law of viscosity the shear force F acting between two layers of fluid
is proportional to the difference in their velocities du and area A of the plate and inversely
proportional to the distance between them.
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9. State momentum of momentum equation?

It states that the resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change of
moment of momentum
10. What is momentum equation?
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum principle It states
that, the net force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the change in momentum of flow per unit
time in that direction.
PART B
1. The space between two large inclined parallel planes is 6mm and is filled with
a fluid. The planes are inclined at 30 to the horizontal. A small thin square
plate of 100 mm side slides freely down parallel and midway between the
inclined planes with a constant velocity of 3 m/s due to its weight of 2N. Determine
the viscosity of the fluid.
The vertical force of 2 N due to the weight of the plate can be resolved along and
perpendicular to the inclined plane. The force along the inclined plane is equal to the
drag force on both sides of the plane due to the viscosity of the oil.
Force due to the weight of the sliding plane along the direction of motion = 2
sin 30 = 1
Viscous force, F = (A 2) (du/dy) (both sides of plate). Substituting
the values,
1 = [(0.1 0.1 2)] [(3 0)/6/ (2 1000)}] Solving for viscosity, = 0.05 Ns/m2
or 0.5 Poise

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2. The velocity of the fluid filling a hollow cylinder of radius 0.1 m varies as u = 10
[1

(r/0.1)2] m/s along the radius r. The viscosity of the fluid is 0.018 Ns/m2. For

2 m length of the cylinder, determine the shear stress and shear force over
cylindrical layers of fluid at r = 0 (centre line),
0.02, 0.04, 0.06 0.08 and 0.1 m (wall surface.)
Shear stress = (du/dy) or (du/dr), u = 10 [1 (r/0.1)2] m/s
du/dr = 10 ( 2r/0.12) = 2000 r
The ve sign indicates that the force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of
velocity, u. Shear stress = 0.018 2000 r = 36 rN/m2
Shear force over 2 m length = shear stress area over 2m = 36r 2rL = 72 r2 2 =
144r2
3.

Determine the power required to run a 300 mm dia shaft at 400 rpm in journals
with uniform oil thickness of 1 mm. Two bearings of 300 mm width are used to
support the shaft?
The dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.03 Pas. (Pas = (N/m2) s). Shear stress on the
shaft surface = = (du/dy) = (u/y)
u = DN/60 = 0.3 400/60 =
6.28 m/s = 0.03 {(6.28 0)/
0.001} = 188.4 N/m2
Surface area of the two bearings, A = 2 DL
Force on shaft surface = A = 188.4 (2 0.3 0.3)
= 106.6 N Torque = 106.6 0.15 = 15.995 Nm
Power required = 2 NT/60 = 2 400 15.995/60 = 670 W.

4. Determine the resistance offered to the downward sliding of a shaft of 400mm dia
and 0.1 m length by the oil film between the shaft and a bearing of ID 402 mm.
Thekinematic viscosity is 2.4 104 m2/s and density is 900 kg/m3. The shaft is to
move centrally andaxially at a constant velocity of 0.1 m/s.
Force, F opposing the movement of the shaft = shear stress area
F = (du/dy) ( D L ),
= 2.4 104 900 Ns/m2,
du = 0.1 m/s, L = 0.1 m, D= 0.4 m
dy = (402 400)/(2 1000)m,

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Substituting, F = 2.4 104 900 {(0.1 0)/[(402

400)/ (2 1000)]} ( 0.4 0.1) = 2714 N
5. Determine the power required to run a 300 mm dia shaft at 400 rpm in journals
with uniform oil thickness of 1 mm. Two bearings of 300 mm width are used to
support the shaft.
The dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.03 Pas. (Pas = (N/m2) s).Shear stress on the shaft
surface = = (du/dy) = (u/y)u = DN/60 = 0.3 400/60 = 6.28 m/s
= 0.03 {(6.28 0)/ 0.001} = 188.4 N/m2,Surface area of the two bearings, A = 2
DL
Force on shaft surface = A = 188.4 (2 0.3 0.3) = 106.6 N,
Torque = 106.6 0.15 = 15.995 Nm,
Power required = 2 NT/60 = 2 400 15.995/60 = 670 W
(check using eqn. 1.9.2, P = 3 N2LR3/450 h = 669.74 W)

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UNIT II
1. Mention the general characteristics of laminar flow.
There is a shear stress between fluid layers
No slip at the boundary
The flow is rotational
There is a continuous dissipation of energy due to viscous shear
2. What is Hagen poiseuilles formula?
P1-P2 / pg = h f = 32 UL / _gD2
The expression is known as Hagen poiseuille formula.
Where P1-P2 / _g = Loss of pressure head
U = Average velocity
= Coefficient of viscosity
D = Diameter of pipe
L = Length of pipe
3. What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow?
Frictional resistance for the turbulent flow is
i. Proportional to vn where v varies from 1.5 to
2.0. ii. Proportional to the density of fluid.
iii. Proportional to the area of surface in contact.
iv. Independent of pressure.
v. Depend on the nature of the surface in contact.
4. What is the expression for head loss due to friction in Darcy formula?
hf = 4fLV2 /
2gD Where
f = Coefficient of friction in pipe
D = Diameter of pipe

L = Length of the pipe

V = velocity of the fluid

5. What do you understand by the terms a) major energy losses, b) minor energy losses
Major energy losses: This loss due to friction and it is calculated by Darcy weis bach formula and
chezys formula.
Minor energy losses:- This is due to i. Sudden expansion in pipe. ii. Sudden contraction
in pipe. iii. Bend in pipe. iv. Due to obstruction in pipe .
6. Give an expression for loss of head due to sudden enlargement of the pipe:
he = (V1-V2)2 /2g
Where
he = Loss of head due to sudden enlargement of pipe .
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2
7. Give an expression for loss of head due to sudden contraction:
hc =0.5
V2/2g here,
c = Loss of head due to sudden
contraction. V = Velocity at outlet of pipe.
8. Give an expression for loss of head at the entrance of the pipe:
hi =0.5V2/2g
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Where,
hi = Loss of head at entrance of pipe.
V = Velocity of liquid at inlet and outlet of the pipe.
9. Define the terms a) Hydraulic gradient line [HGL], b) Total Energy line [TEL]
a) Hydraulic gradient line:
Hydraulic gradient line is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head
and datum head of a flowing fluid in apipe with respect the reference line.
b) Total energy line:
Total energy line is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum
head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference
line.
10. What are the basic educations to solve the problems in flow through branched
pipes?
i. Continuity
equation. ii.
Bernoullis
formula.
iii. Darcy weisbach equation.
PART B
1. A liquid of specific gravity 1.3 flows in a pipe at a rate of 800 l/s, from point 1 to
point 2 which is 1 m above point 1. The diameters at section 1 and 2 are 0.6 m
and 0.3 m respectively. If the pressure at section 1 is 10 bar, determine the
pressure at section 2.Using Bernoulli equation in the following form .
Taking the datum as section 1, the pressure P2 can be calculated

Solving, P2 = 9.092 bar (9.092 105 N/m2)

2. A small thin plane surface is pulled through the liquid filled space between
two large horizontal planes in the parallel direction. Show that the force
required will be minimum if the plate is located midway between the planes.

Let the velocity of the small plane be u, and the distance between the large planes be h.
Let the small plane be located at a distance of y from the bottom plane. Assume linear
variation of velocity and unit area. Refer Fig.
Velocity gradient on the bottom surface = u/y
Velocity gradient on the top surface = u/(h
y),
Considering unit area,
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Force on the bottom surface = (u/y), Force on the top surface = u/(h
y) Total force to pull the plane = u {(1/y) + [1/(h y)]} ...(A)
To obtain the condition for minimum station of the force the variation of force with
respect to y should be zero, or dF/dy = 0, Differentiating the expression A,
dF/dy = u {(1/y2) + [1/(h y)2]}, Equating to
zero
y2 = (h y)2 or y = h/2or the plane should be located
at the midgap position for the force to be minimum.
3. In a closed end single tube manometer, the height of mercury column above the
mercury well shows 757 mm against the atmospheric pressure. The ID of the tube
is 2 mm. Thecontact angle is 135. Determine the actual height representing the
atmospheric pressure ifsurface tension is 0.48 N/m. The space above the column
may be considered as vacuum.
Actual height of mercury column = Mercury column height + Capillary depression
Specific weight of mercury = g = 13600 9.81 N/m3
Capillary depression, h = (4 cos)/D
= (4 0.48 cos135)/(0.002 13600 9.81)
= 5.09 103m = 5.09 mm (depression)
Corrected height of mercury column = 757 + 5.09 = 762.09 mm
4. A liquid with kinematic viscosity of 3 centi stokes and specific weight
9 kN/m3 fills the space between a large stationary plate and a parallel plate of 475
mm square,the film thickness being 1 mm. If the smaller plate is to be pulled with
uniform velocity of 4 m/s, determine the force required if the liquid film is
maintained all through.
The force required (eqn 1.8.2), A = A (du/dy), where is shear stress, and is
dynamic viscosity. In this problem kinematic viscosity and specific weight are given.
Stoke = 104 m2/s. Density = specific weight/g. So, = 0.03 104 9000/9.81
Ns/m2
Force = [0.03 104 9000/9.81] (4.0/0.001) 0.475 0.475 = 2.484 N.
5. A conical bearing of outer radius 0.5 m and inner radius 0.3 m and height 0.2 m
runs on a conical support with a uniform clearance between surfaces. Oil with
viscosityof 30 cP is used. The support is rotated at 500 rpm. Determine the
clearance if the powerrequired was 1500 W.The angle is determined using the
difference in radius andthe length.
tan = (0.5 0.3)/0.2 = 1.0; So = 45.
Using equation 1.9.9 i.e.,
P = 3 n2 (R24 R14)/1800 h sin
( = 30 cP = 0.03 Ns/m2, n = 500 rpm, R2= 0.5 m, R1 = 0.3 m)

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1500 = 3 0.03 5002 (0.54 0.34)/1800 h sin 45

Solving for clearance, h = 6.626 103 m or 6.63 mm
6 . If the variation of velocity with distance from the surface, y is given by u = 10
y0.5 where u is in m/s and y is in m in a flow field up to y = 0.08 m, determine the
wall shear stress and the shear stress at y = 0.04 and 0.08 m from the surface.
u = 10y0.5, (du/dy) = 5/y0.5.
The substitution y = 0 in the above will give division by zero error. It has to be
approximated as (u2 u1)/(y2 y1) for near zero values of y.
Considering layers y = 0 and y =106, the velocities are 0.0 and 0.01 m/s
(using u = 10 y0.5), the difference in y value is 106.
So (u2 u1)/(y2 y1) = 0.01/106 = 10000,
At the wall, (du/dy) = 10000, = (du/dy) = 10000
At y = 0.04, (du/dy) = 5/0.040.5 = 25, = 25
At y = 0.08, (du/dy) = 5/0.080.5 = 17.68, = 17.68
In this case the clearance considered is large and so the assumption of linear velocity
Variation may lead to larger error. The concept that the torque along the radius should
be constant can be used to determine the torque more accurately.

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UNIT III
PART-A
1. What are the types of fluid flow?
Steady & unsteady fluid flow
Uniform & Non-uniform flow
One dimensional, two-dimensional & three-dimensional flows
Rotational & Irrotational flow
2. Name the different forces present in fluid flow
Inertia force
Viscous force
Surface tension force
Gravity force
3. When in a fluid considered steady?
In steady flow, various characteristics of following fluids such as velocity, pressure,
density, temperature etc at a point do not change with time. So it is called steady flow.
4. Give the Eulers equation of motion?
(dp/p)+gdz+vdv=0
5. What are the assumptions made in deriving Bernouillies equation?
1.The fluid is ideal
2.The flow is steady.
3.The flow is incompressible.
4.The flow is irrotational.
6. What is bernouillies equation for real fluid?
(p1/pg)+(v12/2g)+z1=(p2/pg)+(v22/2g)+z2+hl
where hl is the loss of energy (p/pg)-Pressure energy. (v2/2g)=Kinetic
energy. z-Datum energy.
7. State the application of Bernouillies equation ?
It has the application on the following measuring devices.
1.Orifice meter.
2.Venturimeter.
3.Pitot tube.
8. State the methods of dimensional analysis.
1. Rayleighs method
2. Buckinghams theorem
9. State Buckinghams theorem
It states that if there are n variables in a dimensionally homogeneous equation and if
these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M,L,T), then they are grouped
into (n-m), dimensionless independent -terms.
10. State the limitations of dimensional analysis.
1. Dimensional analysis does not give any due regarding the selection of variables.
2.The complete information is not provided by dimensional analysis.
3.The values of coefficient and the nature of function can be obtained only
by experiments or from mathematical analysis.
11. Define Similitude
Similitude is defined as the complete similarity
between the model and
prototype.
12. State Froudes model law
Only Gravitational force is more predominant force. The law states The Froudes
number is same for both model and prototype.

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PART-B
1. The Buckingham Pi theorem procedure:
The Buckingham Pi technique is a formal "cookbook" recipe for determining the
dimensionless parameters formed by a list of variables. There are six steps, which are
outlined below, followed by a couple of example problems. Other examples can be found
in the textbook and homework problems.
Step 1. All the variables are listed and counted - The total number of variables is assigned to
variable n. Note: The dependent variable as well as all the independent variables must
be included in n, even if they are dimensionless (angles, for example, are already
dimensionless, but still get counted in this first step).
Step 2. The primary dimensions of each of the n variables are listed. As discussed in the text,
either the force-length-time-temperature set or the mass-length-time-temperature set
of primary dimensions can be used. In this course, only the latter will be used. Table
5.1 in the text provides the dimensions of most of the variables needed in fluid
mechanics, and is useful in this step.
Step 3. The number of repeating variables, j, is found, where j is usually the number of
primary dimensions represented in the problem. There are more formal mathematical
ways to find j, but in most problems it is sufficient to simply count the number of
primary dimensions available from all the original variables. For example, if mass,
length, and time each appear in at least one variable, j is set to 3. As the Buckingham
Pi technique progresses, it sometimes becomes clear that things just are not working
out. In such cases, j should be reduced by 1 and Steps 4 through 6 should be repeated.
Once j is found, the number of dimensionless parameters (or "Pi" groups) expected is
k = n - j, where k is the number of Pi groups. This equation relating k to n and j is part
of the Buckingham Pi Theorem.
Step 4. A total of j "repeating variables" are chosen, which will be used to generate the Pi
groups. It is somewhat arbitrary which variables to pick here, especially when n is
large. The main thing that should be kept in mind is that these repeating variables may
appear in each of the Pi groups. Therefore, it is important which variables are chosen.
Some rules are helpful:

The dependent variable should not be picked as a repeating variable. Otherwise, it

will appear in more than one Pi, which will lead to an implicit expression in Step 6
below.

The repeating variables must not be able to form a Pi group all by themselves.
Otherwise,

the procedure in Step 5 will be fruitless.

Each of the primary dimensions in the problem must be represented. For example, if
mass, length, and time appear in the original n variables, these three primary
dimensions must also each appear at least once in the repeating variables.

Variables which are already dimensionless (such as angles) should not be picked.
Such variables are already dimensionless Pi groups, and cannot contribute to
formulating the remaining Pi groups.

Two variables with the same dimensions or with dimensions differing by only an
exponent should never be picked. For example, if some area and some length are
among the list of variables, the length should be chosen as a repeating variable. It
would be incorrect to also select the area as a repeating variable, since its dimensions
are simply the square of the length, and can contribute nothing additional to the
formulation of the Pi groups.
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Variables with very basic dimensions and/or variables that are "common" should be
picked as repeating variables. This is perhaps the most difficult aspect of dimensional
analysis, especially for the beginning student. After much practice, it becomes more
or less obvious which variables to pick. For example, if there is a length, that length
should be picked as a repeating variable since it is very basic and desirable in the Pi
groups. Likewise, some velocity, mass, time, or density are also good choices. In most
fluid flow problems, other flow properties like viscosity or surface tension should not
be chosen if there are also more "basic" variables to choose from, such as a length,
velocity, time, mass, or density. Why?

Because it is usually not desirable to have viscosity or surface tension appear in each
of the Pi groups.
Step 5. The Pi groups are formulated by multiplying each of the remaining variables (those
that were not chosen as repeating variables) in turn by the repeating variables,
each in turn raised to some unknown exponent. The exponents are found
algebraically by forcing the Pi to be dimensionless. The convention is to form the
first Pi using the dependent variable. Note that Pi groups can be "adjusted" after
they are formed in order to agree with the dimensionless groups commonly used
in the literature. For example, a Pi can be raised to any exponent, including -1
which yields the inverse of the Pi. Also, the Pi group can be multiplied by any
dimensionless constant without altering its dimensions. (Often, factors of 2 or 1/2
are included in the standard Pi groups.) Table 5.2 in the text lists many of the
common dimensionless groups used in Fluid Mechanics. The Pi groups generated
in this step should be adjusted, if necessary, and named according to this table.
Step 6. The Pi groups are written in final functional form, typically as the first Pi as a
function of the remaining Pi groups. If only one Pi is found, it must be a constant,
since it is a function of nothing else.

2. Lift on a wing in incompressible flow

Consider the case of incompressible flow over an airplane wing, as discussed in
the previous lecture. Wing lift is known to depend on flow speed, angle of attack,
chord length of the wing, and density and viscosity of the fluid. Let's examine this
problem with the Buckingham Pi technique of dimensional analysis, following the
steps outlined above:
Step 1. n = number of variables in the problem, which is 6 here. n = 6.
Step 2. List dimensions of each variable:
Variable
L
V
c

Description

Dimensions
M(L)(t-2)

lift force

L(t-1)

velocity
chord length

LM(L-3)

density
viscosity

ML-3
M(L-1)(t-1)

angle of attack

1 (dimensionless)

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Step 3. Find j. Here, try first setting j = number of primary dimensions in

the problem. From the above table, mass, length, and time are the only
primary dimensions represented by the set of original variables. Thus, set j
= 3. This yields k = n - j = 6 - 3 = 3. I.e., we expect three Pi's from the
dimensional analysis.
Step 4. Choose j repeating variables. Here we need to pick 3 repeating
variables. Lift force is not a good choice since it is the dependent variable in
our problem setup. Angle of attack is not allowed since it is already
dimensionless. (Note that angle of attack will be shown to be a dimensionless
Pi all by itself!) Out of the remaining four, viscosity is the least "basic" or
"desirable" variable to be repeated in all the Pi groups. The best choice here is
thus density, velocity, and chord length.
Step 5. Construct the Pi groups. Let's pick the lift force first since it is the
dependent variable:

Equating exponents of
mass: 0 = 1 + c, or c = -1.
Equating exponents of
time: 0 = -2 - a, or a = -2.
Equating exponents of length: 0 = 1
+ a + b -3c, or b = -2. Thus,
Likewise, construct the second Pi group using viscosity and the repeating
variables:

Equating exponents of
mass: 0 = 1 + g, or g = -1.
Equating exponents of
time: 0 = -1 - e, or e = -1.
Equating exponents of length: 0 = -1
+ e + f -3g, or f = -1. Thus,

Note that this Pi group has been inverted in order to match the most well known
dimensionless
group in Fluid Mechanics, the Reynolds number. It would not be
mathematically incorrect to leave it "upside down," but it is, shall we say, not
"socially acceptable" to do so.
Step 6. Write the final functional relationship:

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Notice that instead of a dependent variable as a function of five independent

variables, the problem has been reduced to one dependent parameter as a
function of only two independent parameters. The dependent Pi group on the
left hand side is a lift coefficient (which normally has a factor of 2 thrown in
for convenience), while the first independent parameter on the right is the
Reynolds number, as discussed above.
Recall the principle of dynamic similarity. In this example, if a geometrically
scaled model wing is built, and that wing is tested at some angle of attack and
at some Reynolds number, the measured lift coefficient is guaranteed to equal
that of the full-scale prototype if operated at the same Reynolds number and
the same angle of attack. This is the case even if vastly different fluids are used
(air and water for example).
3. Dimensional analysis of a soap bubble
Consider a soap bubble. It is known that the pressure inside the bubble must be
greater than that outside, and that surface tension acts like a "skin" to support this
pressure difference. The pressure difference is then a function of surface tension and
bubble radius. No other variables are important in this problem. Let's examine this
problem with the Buckingham Pi technique of dimensional analysis, following the
steps outlined above:
Step 1. n = number of variables in the problem, which is 3 here. n = 3.
Step 2. List dimensions of each variable:
Variable

Description

Dimensions

pressure difference
surface tension

M(L-1)(t-2)
M(t-2)

bubble radius

Step 3. Find j. Here, try first setting j = number of primary dimensions in the
problem. From the above table, mass, length, and time are the only primary
dimensions represented by the set of original variables. Thus, set j = 3. This
yields k = n - j = 3 - 3 = 0. I.e., we expect zero Pi's from the dimensional
analysis. This makes no sense. When this happens, one of two reasons exists:
either we don't have enough variables in the original problem statement (not
enough physics is represented by the list of variables), or j is wrong. Here, the
latter is the case, and we must reduce j by 1 before continuing. Set j = 2, which
yields k = n - j = 3 - 2 = 1. I.e., we expect one Pi from the dimensional
analysis.
Step 4. Choose j repeating variables. Here we need to pick 2 repeating
variables. Pressure difference is not a good choice since it is the dependent

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variable in our problem setup. The best choice here is thus surface tension
and bubble radius.
Step 5. Construct the Pi groups. Here there is only one, and it is found by
combining the remaining variable with the two repeating variables to form a Pi
group, as follows:

Equating exponents of mass: 0

= 1 + a, or a = -1. Equating
exponents of time: 0 = -1 + b,
or b = 1. Equating exponents
of length: 0 = -2 -2a, or a = -1.
Fortunately here, the first and third equation yield the same value of exponent
a. If they did not, we would suspect either an algebra mistake or a non-physical
setup of the problem. Our result is:

Step 6. Write the final functional relationship:

Notice that instead of a dependent variable as a function of two independent

variables, the problem has been reduced to one dependent parameter as a function of
nothing. In cases like this where there is only one Pi group, that Pi must be a
constant. (If it is not a function of anything else, it must be a constant!)
4. Define The Dimensional Analysis Numbers?
During dimensional analysis several groups will appear again and again for
different problems. These often have names. You will recognize the Reynolds
number rad/m. Some common non-dimensional numbers (groups) are listed
below.

Reynolds
number
inertial, viscous force ratio Euler
number

pressure, inertial

force ratio Froude number

inertial, gravitational force ratio
Weber number

inertial, surface tension force ratio

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Mach number

Local velocity, local velocity of sound ratio

5. Taking the example discussed above of force F induced on a propeller blade, we

have the equation
0 = f ( F, d, u, r, N, m )
n = 3 and m = 6
There are m - n = 3 p groups, so
f ( p1 , p2 , p3 ) = 0
The choice of r, u, d as the repeating variables satisfies the criteria above. They are
measurable, good design parameters and, in combination, contain all the dimension
M,L and T. We can now form the three groups according to the 2nd theorem,
As the p groups are all dimensionless i.e. they have dimensions M0L0T0 we
can use the principle of dimensional homogeneity to equate the dimensions for
each p group.
For the first p group,
In terms of SI units
And in terms of dimensions
For each dimension (M, L or T) the powers must be equal on both sides of the equation, so
for M: 0 = a1 + 1
a1 = -1
for L: 0 = -3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1
0 = 4 + b1 + c1 for T: 0 = -b1 - 2 b1 = -2
c1 = -4 - b1 = -2
Giving p1 as

And a similar procedure is followed for the other p groups. Group

For each dimension (M, L or T) the powers must be equal on both

sides of the equation, so for M: 0 = a2
for L: 0 = -3a2 + b2 + c2
0 = b2 + c2
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for T: 0 = b2- 1 b2 = -1
c2 = 1 Giving p2 as

And for the third,

For each dimension (M, L or T) the powers must be equal on both
sides of the equation, so for M: 0 = a3 + 1,a3 = -1
For L: 0 = -3a3 + b3 + c3 -1 b3 + c3 = -2
For T: 0 = -b3 - 1 b3 = -1
c3 = -1

Giving p3 as

Thus the problem may be described by the following function of the three nondimensional p groups,

f ( p1 , p2 , p3 ) = 0,

This may also be written:

6. The discharge Q through an orifice is a function of the diameter d, the pressure

difference p, and the density

r, and the viscosity m, show that

, where f is
some unknown function. Write out the dimensions of the variablesr:
ML-3 u: LT-1 d: L m: ML-1T-1 p:(force/area) ML-1T2We are told
from the question that there are 5 variables involved in the problem: d,
p, r, m and Q. Choose the three recurring (governing) variables; Q, d,
r.
From Buckingham's p theorem we have m-n = 5 - 3 = 2 non-dimensional groups.

- 18
-

For the first group, p1:

M] 0 = c1 + 1 c1 = -1
L] 0 = 3a1 + b1 - 3c1 - 1-2 = 3a1 + b1
T] 0 = -a1 -1
b1 = 1

And the second group p2 :( note p is a pressure (force/area) with dimensions ML-1T-2)

M] 0 = c2 + 1 c2 = -1
L] 0 = 3a2 + b2 - 3c2 - 1-2 = 3a2 + b2
T] 0 = -a2 - 2
a= - 2
b2 = 4

So the physical situation is described by this function of non-dimensional numbers,

The question wants us to show :

- 19
-

Take the reciprocal of square root of p2:

, Convert p1 by multiplying by this new
group, p2a then we can say

Equating exponents of
mass: 0 = 1 + c, or c = -1.
Equating exponents of
time: 0 = -2 - a, or a = -2.
Equating exponents of length: 0 = 1
+ a + b -3c, or b = -2. Thus,
Likewise, construct the second Pi group using viscosity and the repeating
variables:

Equating exponents of
mass: 0 = 1 + g, or g = -1.
Equating exponents of
time: 0 = -1 - e, or e = -1.
Equating exponents of length: 0 = -1
+ e + f -3g, or f = -1. Thus,

Note that this Pi group has been inverted in order to match the most well known
dimensionless
group in Fluid Mechanics, the Reynolds number. It would not be
mathematically incorrect to leave it "upside down," but it is, shall we say, not
"socially acceptable" to do so.

- 20
-

Step 6. Write the final functional relationship:

Notice that instead of a dependent variable as a function of five independent

variables, the problem has been reduced to one dependent parameter as a
function of only two independent parameters. The dependent Pi group on the
left hand side is a lift coefficient (which normally has a factor of 2 thrown in
for convenience), while the first independent parameter on the right is the
Reynolds number, as discussed above.
Recall the principle of dynamic similarity. In this example, if a geometrically
scaled model wing is built, and that wing is tested at some angle of attack and
at some Reynolds number, the measured lift coefficient is guaranteed to equal
that of the full-scale prototype if operated at the same Reynolds number and
the same angle of attack. This is the case even if vastly different fluids are used
(air and water for example).
3. Dimensional analysis of a soap bubble
Consider a soap bubble. It is known that the pressure inside the bubble must be
greater than that outside, and that surface tension acts like a "skin" to support this
pressure difference. The pressure difference is then a function of surface tension and
bubble radius. No other variables are important in this problem. Let's examine this
problem with the Buckingham Pi technique of dimensional analysis, following the
steps outlined above:
Step 1. n = number of variables in the problem, which is 3 here. n = 3.
Step 2. List dimensions of each variable:
Variable

Description

Dimensions

pressure difference
surface tension

M(L-1)(t-2)
M(t-2)

bubble radius

Step 3. Find j. Here, try first setting j = number of primary dimensions in the
problem. From the above table, mass, length, and time are the only primary
dimensions represented by the set of original variables. Thus, set j = 3. This
yields k = n - j = 3 - 3 = 0. I.e., we expect zero Pi's from the dimensional
analysis. This makes no sense. When this happens, one of two reasons exists:
either we don't have enough variables in the original problem statement (not
enough physics is represented by the list of variables), or j is wrong. Here, the
latter is the case, and we must reduce j by 1 before continuing. Set j = 2, which
yields k = n - j = 3 - 2 = 1. I.e., we expect one Pi from the dimensional
analysis.
Step 4. Choose j repeating variables. Here we need to pick 2 repeating
variables. Pressure difference is not a good choice since it is the dependent
- 21
-

variable in our problem setup. The best choice here is thus surface tension
and bubble radius.
Step 5. Construct the Pi groups. Here there is only one, and it is found by
combining the remaining variable with the two repeating variables to form a Pi
group, as follows:

Equating exponents of mass: 0

= 1 + a, or a = -1. Equating
exponents of time: 0 = -1 + b,
or b = 1. Equating exponents
of length: 0 = -2 -2a, or a = -1.
Fortunately here, the first and third equation yield the same value of exponent
a. If they did not, we would suspect either an algebra mistake or a non-physical
setup of the problem. Our result is:

Step 6. Write the final functional relationship:

Notice that instead of a dependent variable as a function of two independent

variables, the problem has been reduced to one dependent parameter as a function of
nothing. In cases like this where there is only one Pi group, that Pi must be a
constant. (If it is not a function of anything else, it must be a constant!)
4. Define The Dimensional Analysis Numbers?
During dimensional analysis several groups will appear again and again for
different problems. These often have names. You will recognize the Reynolds
number rad/m. Some common non-dimensional numbers (groups) are listed
below.

Reynolds
number
inertial,viscous force ratio
Euler number
pressure, inertial force ratio
Froude number
inertial, gravitational force ratio
Weber number

inertial, surface tension force ratio

- 22
-

Mach number

Local velocity, local velocity of sound ratio

5. Taking the example discussed above of force F induced on a propeller blade, we

have the equation
0 = f ( F, d, u, r, N, m )
n = 3 and m = 6
There are m - n = 3 p groups, so
f ( p1 , p2 , p3 ) = 0
The choice of r, u, d as the repeating variables satisfies the criteria above. They are
measurable, good design parameters and, in combination, contain all the dimension
M,L and T. We can now form the three groups according to the 2nd theorem,
As the p groups are all dimensionless i.e. they have dimensions M0L0T0 we
can use the principle of dimensional homogeneity to equate the dimensions for
each p group.
For the first p group,
In terms of SI units
And in terms of dimensions
For each dimension (M, L or T) the powers must be equal on both sides of the equation, so
for M: 0 = a1 + 1
a1 = -1
for L: 0 = -3a1 + b1 + c1 + 1
0 = 4 + b1 + c1 for T: 0 = -b1 - 2 b1 = -2
c1 = -4 - b1 = -2
Giving p1 as

And a similar procedure is followed for the other p groups. Group

For each dimension (M, L or T) the powers must be equal on both

sides of the equation, so for M: 0 = a2
for L: 0 = -3a2 + b2 + c2

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-

0 = b2 + c2
for T: 0 = b2- 1 b2 = -1
c2 = 1 Giving p2 as

And for the third,

For each dimension (M, L or T) the powers must be equal on both
sides of the equation, so for M: 0 = a3 + 1,a3 = -1
For L: 0 = -3a3 + b3 + c3 -1 b3 + c3 -2
For T: 0 = -b3 - 1 b3 = -1
c3 = -1

Giving p3 as

Thus the problem may be described by the following function of the three nondimensional p groups,

f ( p1 , p2 , p3 ) = 0,

This may also be written:

6. The discharge Q through an orifice is a function of the diameter d, the pressure

difference p, and the density

r, and the viscosity m, show that ,where f is some unknown function. Write out the
dimensions of the variablesr: ML-3 u: LT-1 d: L m: ML-1T-1 p:(force/area) ML1T2We are told from the question that there are 5 variables involved in the
problem: d, p, r, m and Q. Choose the three recurring (governing) variables; Q, d,
r.
From Buckingham's p theorem we have m-n = 5 - 3 = 2 non-dimensional groups.
- 24
-

For the first group, p1:

M] 0 = c1 + 1 c1 = -1
L] 0 = 3a1 + b1 - 3c1 - 1-2 = 3a1 + b1
T] 0 = -a1 -1
b1 = 1

And the second group p2 :( note p is a pressure (force/area) with dimensions ML-1T-2)

M] 0 = c2 + 1 c2 = -1
L] 0 = 3a2 + b2 - 3c2 - 1-2 = 3a2 + b2
T] 0 = -a2 - 2
a= - 2
b2 = 4

So the physical situation is described by this function of non-dimensional numbers,

The question wants us to show :

- 25
-

Take the reciprocal of square root of p2 Convert p1 by multiplying by this new group,
p2a then we can say

- 26
-

UNIT IV
PART-A
1.
What is meant by
Pump?
It is defined as the hydraulic machine in which converts the mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy, which is mainly in the form of pressure energy.
2.
Mention main components of Centrifugal
pump.
Casing, Impeller Suction pipe, strainer & Foot valve
Delivery pipe & Delivery valve
3.W hat is the slip in reciprocating pump?
Slip is the difference between the theoretical discharge and actual discharge of the
pump.
Slip= Qth-Qact.
4.
What is meant by
Priming?
The delivery valve is closed and the suction pipe, casing and portion of the delivery pipe
up to delivery valve are completely filled with the liquid so that no air pocket is left. This
is called as priming.
5. What are the main parts of reciprocating
pump?
A cylinder with a piston, Piston rod, connecting rod and a crank.
Suction pipe, Delivery pipe, and Suction valve and Delivery valve
6.
How will you classify the reciprocating
pump?
The reciprocating pump may be classified as,
1. According to the water in contact with one side or both sides of the
piston.
2. According to the number of cylinders
provided. Classification according to the
contact of water is (1) Single acting (2)
Double acting.
7.
Define Mechanical
efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of the power actually delivered by the impeller to the power
supplied to the shaft.
8.
Define overall
efficiency.
It is the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the
pump.
9.
Define speed ratio, flow
ratio.

Speed ratio: It is the ratio of peripheral speed at outlet to the theoretical velocity
of jet corresponding to manometric head.
Flow ratio: It is the ratio of the velocity of flow at exit to the theoretical
velocity of jet corresponding to manometric head.
10.
Mention main components of Reciprocating
pump.
Piton or Plunger
Suction and delivery pipe
Crank and Connecting rod
11.
Define Slip of reciprocating pump. When the negative slip does
occur?
The difference between the theoretical discharge and actual discharge is called slip of the
pump.
But in sometimes actual discharge may be higher then theoretical discharge, in such a case
coefficient of discharge is greater then unity and the slip will be negative called as
negative slip.
12. Why negative slip occurs in reciprocating
pump?
If actual discharge is more than the theoretical discharge the slip of the pump will be
negative. Negative slip occurs only when delivery pipe is short, Suction pipe is long and
pump is running at high speed.
13.
What
is
indicator
diagram?
Indicator diagram is nothing but a graph plotted between the pressure head in the cylinder
and the distance traveled by the piston from inner dead center for one complete revolution
of the crank.
14.
What
is
meant
by
Cavitations?
It is defined phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region
where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure and the sudden collapsing
of theses vapor bubbles in a region of high pressure.
15. What are rotary
pumps?
Rotary pumps resemble like a centrifugal pumps in appearance. But the working
method differs. Uniform discharge and positive displacement can be obtained by using
these rotary pumps; It has the combined advantages of both centrifugal and reciprocating
pumps.

P A R T- B
1.
A single acting reciprocating pump has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke of 350
mm and runs at 45 rpm. The suction head is 8 m and the delivery head is 20
m. Determine the theoretical discharge of water and power required. If slip is 10%,
what is the actual flow rate?

2.
A double acting reciprocating pump has a bore of 150 mm and stroke of 250
mm and runs at 35 rpm. The piston rod diameter is 20 mm. The suction head is 6.5 m
and the delivery head is 14.5 m. The discharge of water was 4.7 l/s. Determine the slip
and the power required.

3. In a reciprocating pump delivering water the bore is 14 cm and the stroke is 21

cm.
The suction lift is 4 m and delivery head is 12 m. The suction and delivery pipe are
both 10 cm diameter, length of pipes are 9 m suction and 24 m delivery. Friction
factor is 0.015. Determine the theoretical power required. Slip is 8 percent. The
pump speed is 36 rpm

4. A single acting reciprocating of pump handles water. The bore and stroke of the
unit are 20 cm and 30 cm. The suction pipe diameter is 12 cm and length is 8 m.
The delivery pipe diameter is 12 cm and length is 24 m. f = 0.02. The speed of
operation is 32 rpm. Determine the friction power with and without air vessels.

5. The following details refer to a centrifugal pump. Outer diameter : 30 cm. Eye
diameter : 15 cm. Blade angle at inlet : 30. Blade angle at outlet : 25. Speed
1450 rpm. The flow velocity remains constant. The whirl at inlet is zero.
Determine the work done per kg. If the manometric efficiency is 82%,
determine the working head. If width at outlet is 2 cm, determine the power
o = 76%.

7. Explain about Reciprocating pumps

Diagrammatic view of single acting reciprocating pump

The action is similar to that of reciprocating engines. As the crank moves outwards,
the piston moves out creating suction in the cylinder. Due to the suction water/fluid is
drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The delivery valve will beclosed during
this outward stroke. During the return stroke as the fluid is incompressible pressure will
developed immediately which opens the delivery valve and closes the inlet valve. During
the return stroke fluid will be pushed out of the cylinder against the delivery side
pressure. The functions of the air vessels will be discussed in a later section. The volume
delivered per stroke will be the product of the piston area and the stroke length. In a single
acting type of pump there will be only one delivery stroke per revolution. Suction takes
place during half revolution and delivery takes place during the other half. As the piston

speed is not uniform (crank speed is uniform) the discharge will vary with the position of
the crank.

Diagrammatic view of a double action

pum p
In this case the piston cannot be connected directly with the connecting rod. A gland
and packing and piston rod and cross-head and guide are additional components.
There will be nearly double the discharge per revolution as compared to single acting
pump. When one side of the piston is under suction the other side will be delivering the
fluid under pressure. As can be noted, the construction is more complex.
8. Explain about rotary positive displacement pumps
Gear
Pump

These are used more often for oil pumping. Gear pumps consist of two identical mating
gears in a casing as shown in fig. The gears rotate as indicated in the sketch. Oil is trapped in
the space between the gear teeth and the casing. The oil is then carried from the lower
pressure or atmospheric pressure and is delivered at the pressure side. The two sides are
sealed by the meshing teeth in the middle. The maximum pressure that can be developed
depends on the clearance and viscosity of the oil. The operation is fairly simple. One of the
gear is the driving gear directly coupled to an electric motor or other type of drives. These
pumps should be filled with oil before starting. The sketch shows an external gear pump.
There is also another type of gearpumpcalledinternal gear pump. This is a little more
compact but the construction is more complex and involved and hence used in special cases
where space is a premium.

Lobe Pump

This type is also popularly used with oil. The diagramatic sketch of a lobe pump is
shown in fig.. This is a three lobed pump. Two lobe pumps is also possible. The gear teeth
are replaced by lobes. Two lobes are arranged in a casing. As the rotor rotates, oil is
trapped in the space between the lobe and the casing and is carried to the pressure
side. Helical lobes along the axis are used for smooth operation. Oil has to be filled before
starting the pump. Lobe types of compressors are also in use. The constant contact
between the lobes makes a leak tight joint preventing oil leakage from the pressure side.
The maximum pressure of operation is controlled by the back leakage through the
clearance. This type of pump has a higher capacity compared to the gear pump.
Vane
Pump
This is another popular type not only for oil but also for gases. A rotor is eccentrically
placed in the casing as shown in fig. The rotor carries sliding vanes in slots along the
length. Springs control the movement of the vanes and keep them pressed on the casing.
Oil is trapped between the vanes and the casing. As the rotor rotates the trapped oil
is
carried
to
the
pressure
side.
The
maximum
operatingpressureiscontrolledbythebackleakage.

Vane Pump
.

UNIT V

TURBINES

PART-A
1. Define hydraulic machines.
Hydraulic machines which convert the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy.
2. Give example for a low head, medium head and high head turbine.
Low head turbine Kaplan turbine
Medium head turbine Modern Francis turbine
High head turbine Pelton wheel
3. What is impulse turbine? Give example.
In impulse turbine all the energy converted into kinetic energy. From these the
turbine will develop high kinetic energy power. This turbine is called impulse turbine.
Example:
Pelton turbine.
4. What is reaction turbine? Give example.
In a reaction turbine, the runner utilizes both potential and kinetic energies.
Here portion of potential energy is converted into kinetic energy before entering into
the turbine.
Example: Francis and Kaplan
turbine.
5. What is axial flow turbine?
In axial flow turbine water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine
shaft. Example: Kaplan turbine
6. What is mixed flow turbine?
In mixed flow water enters the blades radially and comes out axially, parallel to
the turbine shaft. Example: Modern Francis turbine.
7. What is the function of spear and nozzle?
The nozzle is used to convert whole hydraulic energy into kinetic energy. Thus the
nozzle delivers high speed jet. To regulate the water flow through the nozzle and to
obtain a
good jet of water spear or nozzle is
arranged.
8. Define gross head and net or effective head.
Gross Head: The gross head is the difference between the water level at the
reservoir and the level at the tailstock.

Effective Head: The head available at the inlet of the

turbine.
9. Define hydraulic efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of power developed by the runner to the power supplied by
the water jet.
10. Define mechanical efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of power available at the turbine shaft to the
power developed by the turbine runner.
11. Define volumetric efficiency.
It is defied as the volume of water actually striking the buckets to the total
water supplied by the jet.

PART-B
1. At a location for a hydroelectric plant, the head available (net) was 335 m. The
power availability with an overall efficiency of 86% was 15500 kW. The unit is
proposed to run at 500 rpm. Assume Cv = 0.98, = 0.46, Blade velocity
coefficient is 0.9. If the bucket outlet angle proposed is 165 check for the
validity of the assumed efficiency.

2. The jet velocity in a pelton turbine is 65 m/s. The peripheral velocity of the runner
is 25 m/s. The jet is deflected by 160 by the bucket. Determine the power
developed and hydraulic efficiency of the turbine for a flow rate of 0.9 m 3/s. The blade
friction coefficient is 0.9.

3. A Pelton turbine is to produce 15 MW under a head of 480 m when running at

500 rpm. If D/d = 10, determine the number of jets required.

4. The outer diameter of a Francis runner is 1.4 m. The flow velocity at inlet is 9.5
m/s. The absolute velocity at the exit is 7 m/s. The speed of operation is

430 rpm. The power developed is 12.25 MW, with a flow rate of 12 m3/s.
Total head is 115 m. For shockless entry determine the angle of the inlet guide
vane. Also find the absolute velocity at entrance, the runner blade angle at inlet
and the loss of head in the unit. Assume zero whirl at exit. Also fluid the
specificspeed.

5. A Francis turbine works under a head of 120 m. The outer diameter and width
are 2 m and 0.16 m. The inner diameter and width are 1.2 m and 0.27 m. The
flow velocity at inlet is 8.1 m/s. The whirl velocity at outlet is zero. The outlet
blade angle is 16. Assume H = 90%. Determine, power, speed and blade angle at
inlet and guide blade angle.

6. In an inward flow reaction turbine the working head is 10 m. The guide vane
outlet angle is 20. The blade inlet angle is 120. Determine the hydraulic
efficiency assuming zero whirl at exit and constant flow velocity. Assume no losses
other than at exit.

7. A Kaplan turbine plant develops 3000 kW under a head of 10 m. While running

at 62.5 rpm. The discharge is 350 m3/s. The tip diameter of the runner is 7.5
mand the hub to tip ratio is 0.43. Calculate the specific speed, turbine
efficiency, the speed ratio and flow ratio.

8. A Kaplan turbine delivers 30 MW and runs at 175 rpm. Overall efficiency is

85% and hydraulic efficiency is 91%. The tip diameter 5 m and the hub
diameter is 2 m. determine the head and the blade angles at the mid radius.
The flow rate is140 m3/s.

9. A Kaplan turbine delivers 10 MW under a head of 25 m. The hub and

tip diameters are 1.2 m and 3 m. Hydraulic and overall efficiencies are
0.90 and
0.85. If both velocity triangles are right angled triangles, determine the
speed, guide blade outlet angle and blade outlet angle.

10. Explain about pelton wheel, Francis and Kaplan turbines

PELTON TURBINE

The rotor or runner consists of a circular disc, fixed on suitable shaft, made of cast or
forged steel. Buckets are fixed on the periphery of the disc. The spacing of the buckets is
decided by the runner diameter and jet diameter and is generally more than 15 in number.
These buckets in small sizes may be cast integral with the runner. In larger sizes it is bolted
to the runner disc. The buckets are also made of special materials and the surfaces are well
polished. A view of a bucket is shown in fig. with relative dimensions indicated in the
figure. Originally spherical buckets were used and pelton modified the buckets to the
present shape. It is formed in the shape of two half ellipsoids with a splilter
connecting the two. A cut is made in the lip to facilitate all the water in the jet to usefully
impinge on the buckets. This avoids interference of the incoming bucket on the jet
impinging on the previous bucket.
Francis
Turbines

The main components are (i) The spiral casing (ii) Guide vanes (iii) Runner (iv) Draft tube
and (v) Governor mechanism. Most of the machines are of vertical shaft arrangement while
some smaller units are of horizontal shaft type.The spiral casing surrounds the runner
completely. Its area of cross section decreases gradually around the circumference. This
leads to uniform distribution of water all along the circumference of the runner. Water
from the penstock pipes entersthespiralcasing and is distributed uniformly to the guide
blades placed on the periphery of a circle. The casing should be strong enough to
withstand the high pressure.
kaplan Turbine

The popular axial flow turbines are the Kaplan turbine and propeller turbine. In
propeller turbine the blades are fixed. In the Kaplan turbines the blades are mounted in the
boss in bearings and the blades are rotated according to the flow conditions by a
servomechanism maintaining constant speed. In this way a constant efficiency is achieved
in these turbines. The system is costly and where constant load conditions prevail, the
simpler propeller turbines are installed.There are many locations where large flows are
available at low head. In such a case the specific speed increases to a higher value.
In such situations axial flow turbines are gainfully employed. A sectional view of a
kaplan turbines in shown in fig. These turbines are suited for head in the range 5 80 m
and specific speeds in the range 350 to 900. The water from supply pipes enters the spiral
casing as in the case of Francis turbine. Guide blades direct the water into the chamber
above the blades at the proper direction. The speed governor in this case acts on the guide
blades and rotates them as per load requirements. The flow rate is changed without any
change in head. The water directed by the guide blades enters the runner which has much
fewer blades (3 to 10) than the Francis turbine. The blades are also rotated by the
governor to change the inlet blade angle as per the flow direction from the guide
blades, so that entry is without shock. As the head is low, many times the draft tube may
have to be elbow type. The important dimensions are the diameter and the boss diameter
which will vary with the chosen speed. At lower specific speeds the boss diameter may be
higher.
---------ALL THE BEST--------