Biofuel

ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline
additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.
Current plant design does not provide for converting the
lignin portion of plant raw materials to fuel components
by fermentation.
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its
pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive
to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and
hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is
produced from oils or fats using transesterication and is
the most common biofuel in Europe.

A bus fueled by biodiesel

In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009,[1]
and biofuels provided 2.7% of the worlds fuels for road
transport, a contribution largely made up of ethanol and
biodiesel. Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United
States and Brazil as the worlds top producers, accounting together for 90% of global production. The worlds
largest biodiesel producer is the European Union, accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010.[1]
As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in
31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or
provinces.[2] The International Energy Agency has a goal
for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand
Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10%, for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on
petroleum and coal.[3] The production of biofuels also led
California
into a ourishing automotive industry, where by 2010,
with a hyA biofuel is a fuel that contains energy from geologically 79% of all cars produced in Brazil were made
[4]
brid
fuel
system
of
bioethanol
and
gasoline.
recent carbon xation, such as plants. These fuels are produced from living organisms. Examples of this carbon There are various social, economic, environmental and
xation occur in plants and microalgae. These fuels are technical issues relating to biofuels production and use,
made by a biomass conversion (biomass refers to recently which have been debated in the popular media and scienliving organisms, most often referring to plants or plant- tic journals. These include: the eect of moderating oil
derived materials). This biomass can be converted to con- prices, the "food vs fuel" debate, poverty reduction potenvenient energy containing substances in three dierent tial, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel producways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and bio- tion, deforestation and soil erosion, loss of biodiversity,
chemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result impact on water resources, rural social exclusion and inin fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can justice, shantytown migration, rural unskilled unemploybe used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in popular- ment, and nitrous oxide (NO2) emissions.
ity because of rising oil prices and the need for energy
security.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly
from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops 1 Liquid fuels for transportation
such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic
biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles
and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for usually require high energy density. This occurs naturally
1

2
in liquids and solids. High energy density can also be provided by an internal combustion engine. These engines
require clean-burning fuels. The fuels that are easiest to
burn cleanly are typically liquids and gases. Thus, liquids meet the requirements of being both energy-dense
and clean-burning. In addition, liquids (and gases) can
be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized,
and thus less laborious.

LIQUID FUELS FOR TRANSPORTATION

heat from the factories also is used in the district heating

grid.

Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for

gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage.
Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up
to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has
a smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this means
it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same
amount of work. An advantage of ethanol (CH
3CH
1.1 First-generation biofuels
2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free
gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an
'First-generation' or conventional biofuels are made from
increase of an engines compression ratio for increased
sugar, starch, or vegetable oil.
thermal eciency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations,
some states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as
a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emis1.1.1 Ethanol
sions.
Main article: Ethanol fuel
Ethanol is also used to fuel bioethanol replaces. As they
Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, do not require a chimney and are ueless, bioethanol
res[5] are extremely useful for newly built homes and
apartments without a ue. The downsides to these replaces is that their heat output is slightly less than electric
heat or gas res, and precautions must be taken to avoid
carbon monoxide poisoning.

Neat ethanol on the left (A), gasoline on the right (G) at a lling
station in Brazil

In the current corn-to-ethanol production model in the

United States, considering the total energy consumed
by farm equipment, cultivation, planting, fertilizers,
pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides made from
petroleum, irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of
feedstock to processing plants, fermentation, distillation,
drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps, the
net energy content value added and delivered to consumers is about 1.3 - 2 times higher than the total energy
input. The net climate benet (all things considered) was
in the early 2000s between 15 and 30% net savings,[6]
but have since improved and is now approaching the
European wheat and corn-based ethanol with typical
values of 65-67 % reduction of climate gasses. The best
European production lines are however reducing climate
emissions with 90-95 %.[7]

and less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced

by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the
fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose
(which is more dicult). Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement
for gasoline, because it can be used directly in a gasoline
Corn-to-ethanol and other food stocks has led to the deengines.
velopment of cellulosic ethanol. According to a joint
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, par- research agenda conducted through the US Department
ticularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermen- of Energy,[8] the fossil energy ratios (FER) for cellulosic
tation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, ethanol, corn ethanol, and gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and
sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch from which 0.81, respectively.[9][10][11]
alcoholic beverages such as whiskey, can be made (such
Ethanol has roughly one-third lower energy content per
as potato and fruit waste, etc.). The ethanol producunit of volume compared to gasoline. This is partly countion methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugteracted by the better eciency when using ethanol (in a
ars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars,
long-term test of more than 2.1 million km, the BEST
distillation and drying. The distillation process requires
project found FFV vehicles to be 1-26 % more energy
signicant energy input for heat (sometimes unsustainecient than petrol cars The BEST project), but the volable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as
umetric consumption increases by approximately 30%, so
bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to exmore fuel stops are required.
tract its juice, is the most common fuel in Brazil, while
pellets, wood chips and also waste heat are more common With current subsidies, ethanol fuel is slightly cheaper per
in Europe Waste steam fuels ethanol factory- where waste distance traveled in the United States.[12]

1.1
1.1.2

First-generation biofuels
Biodiesel

Main articles: Biodiesel and Biodiesel around the world

Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It

3
this date.
Electronically controlled 'common rail' and 'unit injector'
type systems from the late 1990s onwards may only use
biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These
engines have nely metered and atomized multiple-stage
injection systems that are very sensitive to the viscosity
of the fuel. Many current-generation diesel engines are
made so that they can run on B100 without altering the
engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. Since biodiesel is an eective solvent and cleans
residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine lters may
need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves
old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. It also eectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon
deposits, helping to maintain eciency. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and
is available at thousands of gas stations.[13][14] Biodiesel
is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning it contains a reduced
amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel. This improves the combustion
of biodiesel and reduces the particulate emissions from
unburnt carbon. However, using neat biodiesel may increase NOx-emissions Nylund.N-O & Koponen.K. 2013.
Fuel and Technology Alternatives for Buses. Overall Energy Eciency and Emission Performance. IEA Bioenergy Task 46. Possibly the new emission standards Euro
VI/EPA 10 will lead to reduced NOx-levels also when using B100.
Biodiesel is also safe to handle and transport because it
is non-toxic and biodegradable, and has a high ash point
of about 300 F (148 C) compared to petroleum diesel
fuel, which has a ash point of 125 F (52 C).[15]

In the USA, more than 80% of commercial trucks and

city buses run on diesel. The emerging US biodiesel market is estimated to have grown 200% from 2004 to 2005.
is produced from oils or fats using transesterication By the end of 2006 biodiesel production was estimated
and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral to increase fourfold [from 2004] to more than 1 billion
diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl US gallons (3,800,000 m3 ).[16]
(or ethyl) esters (FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha,
mahua, mustard, ax, sunower, palm oil, hemp, eld 1.1.3 Other bioalcohols
pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel
(B100) currently reduces emissions with up to 60% com- Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a nonrenewable fossil fuel. In the future it is hoped to be propared to diesel Second generation B100.
duced
from biomass as biomethanol. This is technically
Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed
feasible,
but the economic viability is still pending[17] The
with mineral diesel. In some countries, manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for B100 methanol economy is an alternative to the hydrogen econuse, although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks omy, compared to todays hydrogen production from natdrivers to check by telephone with the VW environmental ural gas.
In some countries, biodiesel is less expensive than conventional
diesel.

services department before switching to B100. B100 may

become more viscous at lower temperatures, depending
on the feedstock used. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible with diesel engines from 1994 onwards, which use
'Viton' (by DuPont) synthetic rubber in their mechanical
fuel injection systems. Note however, that no vehicles are
certied for using neat biodiesel before 2014, as there was
no emission control protocol available for biodiesel before

Butanol (C
4H
9OH) is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol,
ethanol) and experimental modications of the process
show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as
the only liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned straight in existing
gasoline engines (without modication to the engine or

LIQUID FUELS FOR TRANSPORTATION

car),[18] and is less corrosive and less water-soluble than

ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. DuPont and BP are working together to help develop butanol. E. coli strains have also been successfully
engineered to produce butanol by modifying their amino
acid metabolism.[19]
1.1.4

Green diesel

Main article: Vegetable oil rening

Green diesel is produced through hydrocracking biological oil feedstocks, such as vegetable oils and animal
fats.[20][21] Hydrocracking is a renery method that uses
elevated temperatures and pressure in the presence of a
catalyst to break down larger molecules, such as those
found in vegetable oils, into shorter hydrocarbon chains
used in diesel engines.[22] It may also be called renewable
diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil[22] or hydrogen-derived
renewable diesel.[21] Green diesel has the same chemical properties as petroleum-based diesel.[22] It does not
require new engines, pipelines or infrastructure to distribute and use, but has not been produced at a cost that
is competitive with petroleum.[21] Gasoline versions are
also being developed.[23] Green diesel is being developed
in Louisiana and Singapore by ConocoPhillips, Neste Oil,
Valero, Dynamic Fuels, and Honeywell UOP.[21][24] and
also by Preem in Gothenburg, Sweden Evolution Diesel
1.1.5

Biofuel gasoline

In 2013 UK researchers developed a genetically modied strain of Escherichia coli (E.Coli), which could transform glucose into biofuel gasoline that does not need to
be blended.[25] Later in 2013 UCLA researchers engineered a new metabolic pathway to bypass glycolysis and
increase the rate of conversion of sugars into biofuel,[26]
while KAIST researchers developed a strain capable of
producing short-chain alkanes, free fatty acids, fatty esters and fatty alcohols through the fatty acyl (acyl carrier
protein (ACP)) to fatty acid to fatty acyl-CoA pathway in
vivo.[27] It is believed that in the future it will be possible to tweak the genes to make gasoline from straw or
Filtered waste vegetable oil
animal manure.
1.1.6

Vegetable oil

Main article: Vegetable oil used as fuel

Straight unmodied edible vegetable oil is generally not
used as fuel, but lower-quality oil can and has been used
for this purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of
water and particulates and used as a fuel.

tors atomize the vegetable oil in the correct pattern for

ecient combustion, vegetable oil fuel must be heated
to reduce its viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils or heat exchangers. This is easier in warm or
temperate climates. Big corporations like MAN B&W
Diesel, Wrtsil, and Deutz AG, as well as a number of
smaller companies, such as Elsbett, oer engines that are
compatible with straight vegetable oil, without the need
for after-market modications.

As with 100% biodiesel (B100), to ensure the fuel injec- Vegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel en-

1.1

First-generation biofuels

5
additives- 1. Dimethyl Ether (DME) 2. Diethyl Ether
(DEE) 3. Methyl Teritiary-Butyl Ether (MTBE) 4.
Ethyl ter-butyl ether (ETBE) 5. Ter-amyl methyl ether
(TAME) 6. Ter-amyl ethyl Ether (TAEE)[36]

Walmarts truck eet logs millions of miles each year, and the
company planned to double the eets eciency between 2005
and 2015.[28] This truck is one of 15 based at Walmarts Buckeye,
Arizona distribution center that was converted to run on a biofuel made from reclaimed cooking grease produced during food
preparation at Walmart stores.[29]

The European Fuel Oxygenates Association (aka EFOA)

credits Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether (MTBE) and Ethyl
ter-butyl ether (ETBE) as the most commonly used ethers
in fuel to replace lead. Ethers were brought into fuels in Europe in the 1970s to replace the highly toxic
compound.[37] Although Europeans still use Bio-ether additives, the US no longer has an oxygenate requirement
therefore bio-ethers are no longer used as the main fuel
additive.[38]
1.1.8 Biogas

gines that do not use common rail or unit injection electronic diesel injection systems. Due to the design of the
combustion chambers in indirect injection engines, these
are the best engines for use with vegetable oil. This system allows the relatively larger oil molecules more time
to burn. Some older engines, especially Mercedes, are
driven experimentally by enthusiasts without any conversion, a handful of drivers have experienced limited success with earlier pre-"Pumpe Duse VW TDI engines and
other similar engines with direct injection. Several companies, such as Elsbett or Wolf, have developed professional conversion kits and successfully installed hundreds
of them over the last decades.
Oils and fats can be hydrogenated to give a diesel substitute. The resulting product is a straight-chain hydrocarbon with a high cetane number, low in aromatics and
sulfur and does not contain oxygen. Hydrogenated oils
can be blended with diesel in all proportions. They have
several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at low temperatures, no storage stability problems
and no susceptibility to microbial attack.[30]
Pipes carrying biogas

1.1.7

Bioethers

Bioethers (also referred to as fuel ethers or oxygenated

fuels) are cost-eective compounds that act as octane
rating enhancers."Bioethers are produced by the reaction of reactive iso-olens, such as iso-butylene, with
bioethanol.[31] Bioethers are created by wheat or sugar
beet.[32] They also enhance engine performance, whilst
signicantly reducing engine wear and toxic exhaust
emissions. Though bioethers are likely to replace
petroethers in the UK, it is highly unlikely they will
become a fuel in and of itself due to the low energy
density.[33] Greatly reducing the amount of ground-level
ozone emissions, they contribute to air quality.[34][35]
When it comes to transportation fuel there are six ether

Main article: Biogas

Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic
digestion of organic material by anaerobes.[39] It can be
produced either from biodegradable waste materials or
by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters
to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate,
can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.
Biogas can be recovered from mechanical biological
treatment waste processing systems.
Note: Landll gas, a less clean form of biogas,
is produced in landlls through naturally occur-

1
ring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the
atmosphere, it is a potential greenhouse gas.

LIQUID FUELS FOR TRANSPORTATION

fuel is easier to transport and feed into thermal generation

systems, such as boilers.

Industry has used sawdust, bark and chips for fuel for
Farmers can produce biogas from manure from their decades, primary in the pulp and paper industry, and
cattle by using anaerobic digesters.[40]
also bagasse (spent sugar cane) fueled boilers in the sugar
cane industry. Boilers in the range of 500,000 lb/hr of
steam, and larger, are in routine operation, using grate,
1.1.9 Syngas
spreader stoker, suspension burning and uid bed combustion. Utilities generate power, typically in the range
Main article: Gasication
of 5 to 50 MW, using locally available fuel. Other industries have also installed wood waste fueled boilers and
Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and dryers in areas with low cost fuel.[42]
other hydrocarbons, is produced by partial combustion
of biomass, that is, combustion with an amount of oxygen One of the advantages of biomass fuel is that it is often a
that is not sucient to convert the biomass completely to byproduct, residue or waste-product of other processes,
[43]
In
carbon dioxide and water.[30] Before partial combustion, such as farming, animal husbandry and forestry.
theory,
this
means
fuel
and
food
production
do
not
comthe biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. The re[43]
sulting gas mixture, syngas, is more ecient than direct pete for resources, although this is not always the case.
combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy A problem with the combustion of raw biomass is that
contained in the fuel is extracted.
it emits considerable amounts of pollutants, such as
particulates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Even
Syngas may be burned directly in internal com- modern pellet boilers generate much more pollutants than
bustion engines, turbines or high-temperature fuel oil or natural gas boilers. Pellets made from agricultural
cells.[41] The wood gas generator, a wood-fueled residues are usually worse than wood pellets, producing
gasication reactor, can be connected to an internal much larger emissions of dioxins and chlorophenols.[44]
combustion engine.
In spite of the above noted study, numerous studies have
Syngas can be used to produce methanol, DME and
hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer-Tropsch process to produce a diesel substitute, or a mixture of
alcohols that can be blended into gasoline. Gasication normally relies on temperatures greater than
700 C.
Lower-temperature gasication is desirable when
co-producing biochar, but results in syngas polluted
with tar.
1.1.10

Solid biofuels

Examples include wood, sawdust, grass trimmings,

domestic refuse, charcoal, agricultural waste, nonfood
energy crops, and dried manure.
When raw biomass is already in a suitable form (such as
rewood), it can burn directly in a stove or furnace to
provide heat or raise steam. When raw biomass is in an
inconvenient form (such as sawdust, wood chips, grass,
urban waste wood, agricultural residues), the typical process is to densify the biomass. This process includes
grinding the raw biomass to an appropriate particulate
size (known as hogfuel), which, depending on the densication type, can be from 1 to 3 cm (0.4 to 1.2 in), which
is then concentrated into a fuel product. The current processes produce wood pellets, cubes, or pucks. The pellet
process is most common in Europe, and is typically a pure
wood product. The other types of densication are larger
in size compared to a pellet, and are compatible with a
broad range of input feedstocks. The resulting densied

shown biomass fuels have signicantly less impact on the

environment than fossil based fuels. Of note is the US
Department of Energy Laboratory, operated by Midwest
Research Institute Biomass Power and Conventional Fossil Systems with and without CO2 Sequestration Comparing the Energy Balance, Greenhouse Gas Emissions
and Economics Study. Power generation emits signicant
amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs), mainly carbon
dioxide (CO
2). Sequestering CO
2 from the power plant ue gas can signicantly reduce
the GHGs from the power plant itself, but this is not the
total picture. CO
2 capture and sequestration consumes additional energy,
thus lowering the plants fuel-to-electricity eciency. To
compensate for this, more fossil fuel must be procured
and consumed to make up for lost capacity.
Taking this into consideration, the global warming potential (GWP), which is a combination of CO
2, methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2 O) emissions,
and energy balance of the system need to be examined
using a life cycle assessment. This takes into account the
upstream processes which remain constant after CO
2 sequestration, as well as the steps required for additional
power generation. Firing biomass instead of coal led to a
148% reduction in GWP.
A derivative of solid biofuel is biochar, which is produced by biomass pyrolysis. Biochar made from agricultural waste can substitute for wood charcoal. As wood
stock becomes scarce, this alternative is gaining ground.
In eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, for exam-

7
ple, biomass briquettes are being marketed as an alter- France, Sweden and Germany. Russia also has 22% of
native to charcoal to protect Virunga National Park from worlds forest,[51] and is a big biomass (solid biofuels)
deforestation associated with charcoal production.[45]
supplier. In 2010, Russian pulp and paper maker, Vyborgskaya Cellulose, said they would be producing pellets
that can be used in heat and electricity generation from its
1.2 Second-generation (advanced) biofuels plant in Vyborg by the end of the year.[52] The plant will
eventually produce about 900,000 tons of pellets per year,
Main article: Second-generation biofuels
making it the largest in the world once operational.
Biofuels currently make up 3.1%[53] of the total road
transport fuel in the UK or 1,440 million litres. By 2020,
10% of the energy used in UK road and rail transport
must come from renewable sources this is the equivalent of replacing 4.3 million tonnes of fossil oil each year.
Conventional biofuels are likely to produce between 3.7
and 6.6% of the energy needed in road and rail transport,
First generation biofuels are made from the sugars and while advanced biofuels could meet up to 4.3% of the
[54]
vegetable oils found in arable crops, which can be easily UKs renewable transport fuel target by 2020.
extracted using conventional technology. In comparison,
second generation biofuels are made from lignocellulosic
biomass or woody crops, agricultural residues or waste,
which makes it harder to extract the required fuel.
Second generation biofuels, also known as advanced biofuels, are fuels that can be manufactured from various
types of biomass. Biomass is a wide-ranging term meaning any source of organic carbon that is renewed rapidly
as part of the carbon cycle. Biomass is derived from plant
materials but can also include animal materials.

1.3

Sustainable biofuels

Biofuels in the form of liquid fuels derived from plant materials, are entering the market, driven mainly by the need
to reduce climate gas emissions, but also by factors such
as oil price spikes and the need for increased energy security. However, many of the biofuels that are currently
being supplied have been criticised for their adverse impacts on the natural environment, food security, and land
use.[46][47]
The challenge is to support biofuel development, including the development of new cellulosic technologies, with
responsible policies and economic instruments to help ensure that biofuel commercialization is sustainable. Responsible commercialization of biofuels represents an opportunity to enhance sustainable economic prospects in
Africa, Latin America and Asia.[46][47][48]

Biofuels by region

Main article: Biofuels by region

See also: Biodiesel around the world
There are international organizations such as IEA
Bioenergy,[49] established in 1978 by the OECD
International Energy Agency (IEA), with the aim of improving cooperation and information exchange between
countries that have national programs in bioenergy research, development and deployment. The UN International Biofuels Forum is formed by Brazil, China,
India, Pakistan, South Africa, the United States and
the European Commission.[50] The world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil, the United States,

3 Debates regarding the production and use of biofuel

Main article: Issues relating to biofuels
There are various social, economic, environmental and
technical issues with biofuel production and use, which
have been discussed in the popular media and scientic journals. These include: the eect of moderating oil prices, the "food vs fuel" debate, poverty reduction potential, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, loss of
biodiversity,[55] impact on water resources, the possible
modications necessary to run the engine on biofuel, as
well as energy balance and eciency. The International
Resource Panel, which provides independent scientic
assessments and expert advice on a variety of resourcerelated themes, assessed the issues relating to biofuel use
in its rst report Towards sustainable production and use
of resources: Assessing Biofuels.[56] Assessing Biofuels
outlined the wider and interrelated factors that need to
be considered when deciding on the relative merits of
pursuing one biofuel over another. It concluded that not
all biofuels perform equally in terms of their impact on
climate, energy security and ecosystems, and suggested
that environmental and social impacts need to be assessed
throughout the entire life-cycle.
Another issue with biofuel use and production is the US
has changed mandates many times because the production has been taking longer than expected. The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) set by congress for 2010 was
pushed back to at best 2012 to produce 100 million gallons of pure ethanol (not blended with a fossil fuel).[57]

Current research

CURRENT RESEARCH

duce cellulosic biofuels have begun operating. Multiple

pathways for the conversion of dierent biofuel feedstocks are being used. In the next few years, the cost
data of these technologies operating at commercial scale,
and their relative performance, will become available.
Lessons learnt will lower the costs of the industrial processes involved.[65]

Research is ongoing into nding more suitable biofuel

crops and improving the oil yields of these crops. Using
the current yields, vast amounts of land and fresh water
would be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage. It would require twice the land
area of the US to be devoted to soybean production, or In parts of Asia and Africa where drylands prevail, sweet
two-thirds to be devoted to rapeseed production, to meet sorghum is being investigated as a potential source of
current US heating and transportation needs.
food, feed and fuel combined. The crop is particularly
Specially bred mustard varieties can produce reasonably suitable for growing in arid conditions, as it only extracts
high oil yields and are very useful in crop rotation with one seventh of the water used by sugarcane. In India, and
cereals, and have the added benet that the meal left over other places, sweet sorghum stalks are used to produce
squeezing the juice and then fermenting into
after the oil has been pressed out can act as an eective biofuel by
[66]
ethanol.
[58]
and biodegradable pesticide.
The NFESC, with Santa Barbara-based Biodiesel Industries, is working to develop biofuels technologies for the
US navy and military, one of the largest diesel fuel users
in the world.[59] A group of Spanish developers working
for a company called Ecofasa announced a new biofuel
made from trash. The fuel is created from general urban
waste which is treated by bacteria to produce fatty acids,
which can be used to make biofuels.[60]

4.1

A study by researchers at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)
found that growing sweet sorghum instead of grain
sorghum could increase farmers incomes by US$40 per
hectare per crop because it can provide fuel in addition
to food and animal feed. With grain sorghum currently
grown on over 11 million hectares (ha) in Asia and on
23.4 million ha in Africa, a switch to sweet sorghum could
have a considerable economic impact.[67]

Ethanol biofuels

Main articles: Ethanol fuel and Cellulosic ethanol

commercialization

4.2 Algae biofuels

As the primary source of biofuels in North America, many organizations are conducting research in the
area of ethanol production. The National Corn-toEthanol Research Center (NCERC) is a research division of Southern Illinois University Edwardsville dedicated solely to ethanol-based biofuel research projects.[61]
On the federal level, the USDA conducts a large amount
of research regarding ethanol production in the United
States. Much of this research is targeted toward the eect
of ethanol production on domestic food markets.[62] A division of the U.S. Department of Energy, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), has also conducted various ethanol research projects, mainly in the
area of cellulosic ethanol.[63]
Cellulosic ethanol commercialization is the process of
building an industry out of methods of turning cellulosecontaining organic matter into fuel. Companies, such as
Iogen, POET, and Abengoa, are building reneries that
can process biomass and turn it into bioethanol. Companies, such as Diversa, Novozymes, and Dyadic, are
producing enzymes that could enable a cellulosic ethanol
future. The shift from food crop feedstocks to waste
residues and native grasses oers signicant opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to biotechnology
rms, and from project developers to investors.[64]
As of 2013, the rst commercial-scale plants to pro-

Main articles: Algaculture and Algal fuel

From 1978 to 1996, the US NREL experimented with
using algae as a biofuels source in the "Aquatic Species
Program".[68] A self-published article by Michael Briggs,
at the UNH Biofuels Group, oers estimates for the realistic replacement of all vehicular fuel with biofuels by
using algae that have a natural oil content greater than
50%, which Briggs suggests can be grown on algae ponds
at wastewater treatment plants.[69] This oil-rich algae can
then be extracted from the system and processed into biofuels, with the dried remainder further reprocessed to create ethanol. The production of algae to harvest oil for
biofuels has not yet been undertaken on a commercial
scale, but feasibility studies have been conducted to arrive at the above yield estimate. In addition to its projected high yield, algaculture unlike crop-based biofuels does not entail a decrease in food production,
since it requires neither farmland nor fresh water. Many
companies are pursuing algae bioreactors for various purposes, including scaling up biofuels production to commercial levels.[70][71] Prof. Rodrigo E. Teixeira from the
University of Alabama in Huntsville demonstrated the extraction of biofuels lipids from wet algae using a simple
and economical reaction in ionic liquids.[72]

4.6

4.3

Greenhouse gas emissions

Jatropha

9
use in creating biofuels from bamboo and other plant
materials.[81]

Main article: Jatropha curcas

Several groups in various sectors are conducting research
on Jatropha curcas, a poisonous shrub-like tree that produces seeds considered by many to be a viable source of
biofuels feedstock oil.[73] Much of this research focuses
on improving the overall per acre oil yield of Jatropha
through advancements in genetics, soil science, and horticultural practices.

4.6 Greenhouse gas emissions

Some scientists have expressed concerns about land-use
change in response to greater demand for crops to use
for biofuel and the subsequent carbon emissions.[82] The
payback period, that is, the time it will take biofuels to
pay back the carbon debt they acquire due to land-use
change, has been estimated to be between 100 and 1000
years, depending on the specic instance and location of
land-use change. However, no-till practices combined
with cover-crop practices can reduce the payback period
to three years for grassland conversion and 14 years for
forest conversion.[83]

SG Biofuels, a San Diego-based jatropha developer, has

used molecular breeding and biotechnology to produce
elite hybrid seeds that show signicant yield improvements over rst-generation varieties.[74] SG Biofuels also
claims additional benets have arisen from such strains,
including improved owering synchronicity, higher resis- A study conducted in the Tocantis State, in northern
tance to pests and diseases, and increased cold-weather Brazil, found that many families were cutting down
tolerance.[75]
forests in order to produce two conglomerates of oilseed
Plant Research International, a department of the plants, the J. curcas (JC group) and the R. communis
Wageningen University and Research Centre in the (RC group). This region is composed of 15% AmaNetherlands, maintains an ongoing Jatropha Evalua- zonian rainforest with high biodiversity, and 80% Certion Project that examines the feasibility of large- rado forest with lower biodiversity. During the study, the
scale jatropha cultivation through eld and labora- farmers that planted the JC group released over 2193 Mg
tory experiments.[76] The Center for Sustainable Energy CO2, while losing 53-105 Mg CO2 sequestration from
Farming (CfSEF) is a Los Angeles-based nonprot re- deforestation; and the RC group farmers released 562 Mg
search organization dedicated to jatropha research in the CO2, while losing 48-90 Mg CO2 to be sequestered from
areas of plant science, agronomy, and horticulture. Suc- forest depletion.[84] The production of these types of biocessful exploration of these disciplines is projected to in- fuels not only led into an increased emission of carbon
crease jatropha farm production yields by 200-300% in dioxide, but also to lower eciency of forests to absorb
the gases that these farms were emitting. This has to do
the next 10 years.[77]
with the amount of fossil fuel the production of fuel crops
involves. In addition, the intensive use of monocropping
agriculture requires large amounts of water irrigation, as
4.4 Fungi
well as of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides. This does
A group at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow, not only lead to poisonous chemicals to disperse on water
in a 2008 paper, stated they had isolated large amounts of runo, but also to the emission of nitrous oxide (NO2)
lipids from single-celled fungi and turned it into biofuels as a fertilizer byproduct, which is three hundred times
in an economically ecient manner. More research on more ecient in producing a greenhouse eect than car[85]
this fungal species, Cunninghamella japonica, and others, bon dioxide (CO2).
is likely to appear in the near future.[78] The recent discov- Biofuels made from waste biomass or from biomass
ery of a variant of the fungus Gliocladium roseum points grown on abandoned agricultural lands incur little to no
toward the production of so-called myco-diesel from cel- carbon debt.[86]
lulose. This organism was recently discovered in the rainforests of northern Patagonia, and has the unique capability of converting cellulose into medium-length hydrocar5 See also
bons typically found in diesel fuel.[79]
Aviation biofuel

4.5

Animal Gut Bacteria

Microbial gastrointestinal ora in a variety of animals

have shown potential for the production of biofuels.
Recent research has shown that TU-103, a strain of
Clostridium bacteria found in Zebra feces, can convert
nearly any form of cellulose into butanol fuel.[80] Microbes in panda waste are being investigated for their

Sustainable aviation fuel

BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport
Biofuels Center of North Carolina
Biofuelwatch
Biogas powerplant

10

Bioheat, a biofuel blended with heating oil.

Biomass briquettes
Cellulosic ethanol
Clean Cities
Biomass to liquid bio-oil
Dimethyl ether
Energy forestry
Ecological sanitation
Energy content of biofuel
Environmental impact of aviation
Green crude
IRENA

[8] see Breaking the Biological Barriers to Cellulosic

Ethanol
[9] Brinkman, N. et al., Well-to-Wheels Analysis of Advanced/Vehicle Systems, 2005.
[10] Farrell, A.E. et al. (2006) Ethanol can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals, Science, 311, 506-8.
[11] Hammerschlag, R. 2006. Ethanols Energy Return on Investment: A Survey of the Literature 1999-Present, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 1744-50.
[12] http://www.e85prices.com/.
(help)

Missing or empty |title=

[13] ADM Biodiesel: Hamburg, Leer, Mainz. Biodiesel.de.

Retrieved 2010-07-14.
[14] RRI Limited for Biodiesel Filling Stations. Welcome to
Biodiesel Filling Stations. Biodieselllingstations.co.uk.
Retrieved 2010-07-14.

Life cycle assessment

[15] Biofuels Facts. Hempcar.org. Retrieved 2010-07-14.

List of biofuel companies and researchers

[16] THE FUTURIST, Will Thurmond. JulyAugust 2007

List of emerging technologies

[17] Brjesson.P. et al. 2013, REPORT f3 2013:13, p 170

List of vegetable oils section on oils used as biodiesel

[18] ButylFuel, LLC Main Page. Butanol.com. 2005-08-15.

Retrieved 2010-07-14.

Low-carbon economy
Sustainable transport
Syngas
Table of biofuel crop yields
Vegetable oil economy

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PMID 18957585.

7 FURTHER READING

[80] Kathryn Hobgood Ray (August 25, 2011). Cars Could

Run on Recycled Newspaper, Tulane Scientists Say. Tulane University news webpage. Tulane University. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
[81] USA (2013-09-10). Panda Poop Might Help Turn Plants
Into Fuel. News.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved
2013-10-02.
[82] Searchinger, Timothy; Ralph Heimlich, R.A. Houghton,
Fengxia Dong, Amani Elobeid, Jacinto Fabiosa, Simla
Tokgoz, Dermot Hayes, Tun-Hsiang Yu (2011). Use of
U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases
Through Emissions from Land-Use Change. Science 319
(5867). pp. 12381240. doi:10.1126/science.1151861.
Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[83] Kim, Hyungtae; Seungdo Kim; Bruce E. Dale (2009).
Biofuels, Land Use Change, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Some Unexplored Variables. Environmental Science 43 (3). pp. 961967. doi:10.1021/es802681k.
[84] Alves Finco, Marcus V., and Werner Doppler. Bioenergy and Sustainable Development: The Dilemma of
Food Security and Climate Change in the Brazilian
Savannah. Energy for Sustainable Development 12
(2010): 194-199. Accessed October 30, 2014. doi:
10.1016/j.esd.2010.04.006
[85] Runge, Ford, and Benjamin Senauer. How Biofuels
Could Starve the Poor Foreign Aairs 86 (2007): 4153. Accessed October 30, 2014. from: http://www.jstor.
org/stable/20032348
[86] fargione, Joseph; Jason Hill; David Tilman; Stephen Polasky; Peter Hawthorne (2008). Land Clearing and
the Biofuel Carbon Debt. Science 319 (5867). pp.
12351238. doi:10.1126/science.1152747. Retrieved 12
November 2011.

7 Further reading
Caye Drapcho, Nhuan Ph Nghim, Terry Walker
(August 2008). Biofuels Engineering Process Technology. [McGraw-Hill]. ISBN 978-0-07-148749-8.
IChemE Energy Conversion Technology Subject
Group (May 2009). A Biofuels Compendium.
[IChemE]. ISBN 978-0-85295-533-8.
Fuel Quality Directive Impact Assessment
Biofuels Journal
James Smith (November 2010). Biofuels and the
Globalisation of Risk. [Zed Books]. ISBN 978-184813-572-7.
Mitchell, Donald (2010). Biofuels in Africa: Opportunities, Prospects, and Challenges (Available in
PDF). The World Bank, Washington, D.C. ISBN
978-0-8213-8516-6. Retrieved 2011-02-08.

13
Li, H.; Cann, A. F.; Liao, J. C. (2010). Biofuels:
Biomolecular Engineering Fundamentals and Advances. Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering 1: 1936. doi:10.1146/annurevchembioeng-073009-100938. PMID 22432571.

External links
EFOA
Alternative Fueling Station Locator (EERE)
Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels by the United Nations
Environment Programme, October 2009.
Biofuels guidance for businesses, including permits
and licences required on NetRegs.gov.uk
How Much Water Does It Take to Make Electricity?Natural gas requires the least water to produce
energy, some biofuels the most, according to a new
study.
International Conference on Biofuels Standards European Union Biofuels Standardization
International Energy Agency: Biofuels for Transport
- An International Perspective
Biofuels from Biomass: Technology and Policy
Considerations Thorough overview from MIT
The Guardian news on biofuels
The U.S. DOE Clean Cities Program - links to all of
the Clean Cities coalitions that exist throughout the
U.S. (there are 87 of them)
Biofuels Factsheet by the University of Michigan's
Center for Sustainable Systems
Learn Biofuels - Educational Resource for Students

14

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Biofuel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel?oldid=644104178 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Timo Honkasalo, Youssefsan,

Rmhermen, Toby Bartels, Roadrunner, ChangChienFu, Jdpipe, Rickyrab, Chris Q, Edward, Gabbe, Ixfd64, SebastianHelm, 168..., Mkweise, Ellywa, Mac, Ronz, Jebba, Glenn, Ciphergoth, Djnjwd, Susurrus, Andres, Paperdgy, Ec5618, Stone, Lfh, Ike9898, Zoicon5, Silvonen, Maximus Rex, Taxman, SEWilco, Phoebe, Dbabbitt, Raul654, Jwpurple, Sappe, RedWolf, Securiger, Lowellian, Tualha, HaeB,
Pengo, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, DocWatson42, MPF, Quasarstrider, Akadruid, Wolfkeeper, BenFrantzDale, Wwoods, Everyking, Jorge
Stol, Kravietz, Brockert, JeremyCherfas, Gadum, Confuzion, Utcursch, Pgan002, Alexf, R. end, Subsailor, Antandrus, BozMo, Onco
p53, OverlordQ, Jossi, PFHLai, Ary29, Sam Hocevar, MementoVivere, Punchi, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, EagleOne, DanielCD, RossPatterson, Rich Farmbrough, Supercoop, Vsmith, Xezbeth, Azikala, Tirthajyoti, Kenb215, Bender235, Kbh3rd, Swid, JoeSmack, Stebbiv,
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Gerfriedc, Sillybilly, Severa, Stephenb, Alex Ramon, Mike Young, CambridgeBayWeather, Txuspe, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Noamse, Anog,
Wiki alf, Mipadi, Bachrach44, Grafen, NickBush24, Joel7687, Dureo, Daniel Mietchen, Luis1972, Molobo, Epipelagic, Zouden, Jhinman,
Black Falcon, WAS 4.250, Zzuuzz, Open2universe, Closedmouth, NHSavage, Josh3580, Belgrano, Dspradau, GraemeL, Chriswaterguy,
Georey.landis, JLaTondre, ArielGold, Tsiaojian lee, Johnpseudo, Sveinhorn, NeilN, Asterion, ChemGardener, SmackBot, Unschool,
Chodges, KnowledgeOfSelf, Lawrencekhoo, Vald, Rokfaith, Stepa, WookieInHeat, Pandion auk, Delldot, Hardyplants, Canthusus, Milimetersquared, Warfvinge, Edgar181, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Betacommand, Skizzik, Lodp, Bluebot, Headwes, Ksenon, SchftyThree, Deli
nk, TheFeds, Colonies Chris, A. B., Chendy, Zsinj, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Fotoguzzi, OrphanBot, Rohawn, Chan Yin Keen,
Kcordina, Edivorce, GVnayR, Theanphibian, Thomaslau, Decltype, Dreadstar, RandomP, Nrcprm2026, Smokefoot, Impu1se, The PIPE,
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Javier Odom, SilkTork, Gobonobo, Soumyasch, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Luiclemens, Joelo, Olin, Thomas Gilling, Ben
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Canadian-Bacon, Golgofrinchian, MikeLynch, Res2216restar, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Dan D. Ric, MER-C, Hydro, TR is a lunatic, Optimism.rll, Greg Comlish, Barney Gumble, Tim333, SiobhanHansa, A12n, Karlhahn, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, JNW, Albmont,
Think outside the box, MediaReport, Lkleinjans, Brusegadi, Vinceslas, Ozonevibe, Midgrid, Gr1st, Indon, Heywoodg, Nposs, BluGill,
Babakmomen, Beagel, Schumi555, Sustainableyes, TheRealOzzy, Cpl Syx, NiN, Memotype, DerHexer, JaGa, TheBusiness, Mschier,
MarthaHolley, Gwern, TMSTKSBK, Leaderofearth, MartinBot, APT, GTZ-44-ecosan, Jack007, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Zack Holly Venturi, Spotsilver, Huzzlet the bot, Tickerhead, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Brastein, Trusilver, Darin-0,
Gathall, Rgoodermote, EscapingLife, Ali, Rlsheehan, Bogey97, Hans Dunkelberg, Ananbo, Eliz81, Smite-Meister, Acalamari, Enuja,
Ncmvocalist, Oldboltonian, Pimort, Man2392, Skier Dude, M albertson, AntiSpamBot, Berserkerz Crit, Harrypeterfrog, DodgeTheBullet,
GIREMO, Kshpitsa, Jumanous, SJP, Franchez3, Cobi, Touch Of Light, Kraftlos, FJPB, Changerofthings, Cometstyles, C. Foultz, Ddelpercio, Bonadea, Pdcook, Nscott.odi, S, WLRoss, CA387, MonkeyW004, Lejasonman, Idioma-bot, Xenonice, X!, 28bytes, VolkovBot,
Johnfos, Je G., DarkArcher, AlnoktaBOT, Philip Trueman, Marekzp, Childhoodsend, TXiKiBoT, Zidonuke, Vipinhari, Tro95, Rei-bot,
ClintonKu, Omegawarrior, Qxz, OlavN, Anna Lincoln, Pathean, Jameswkb, Sladuuch, Cataclasite, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Raymondwinn,
SierraSkier, BotKung, Ilyushka88, Steve3849, Joshua Dorr, P M Yonge, Rjgodoy, Enigmaman, Kilmer-san, Lamro, Synthebot, Altermike, Gipolage, Falcon8765, Djhyperman, Theabzero, Typ932, Insanity Incarnate, YordanGeorgiev, GavinTing, Logan, Jimmiller5417,
Tucano2, Legoktm, Imperfection, HybridBoy, SylviaStanley, Morrisonfoto, Worldthoughts, Scrippsnews, Biscuittin, Saneeta, KarlHouseknecht, Andersneld, Erguvan7, Johnpauljones2007, Tresiden, Fan2foot2003, E8, Scarian, Dan Dreadless, Alanvonlanthen, Winchelsea,
Brazzouk, Burbaum, Caltas, Doctor Biofuel, Brad Kenney, Xymmax, Baran07, HealthySkepticism, Yintan, Calabraxthis, EnergyIndependence, TrulyBlue, Andrewjlockley, Bamkin, Gabethenerd, David DuByne, Grundle2600, Svenjense, Dvamax, Keilana, Chmyr, Jack
campion, Western arch, Flyer22, Radon210, MaynardClark, NiteSensor23, Nopetro, Yerpo, Cornstoves, Rborghese, Oxymoron83, Antonio
Lopez, Nuttycoconut, Steven Zhang, JamesGiant, Lightmouse, Lectron7, Nskillen, Sibenson, X5frt, Dagvidur, Fourjustice9, Kudret abi,
Dialecticator, Nancy, Dsmith7707, Streaks102, Gilesclark, Envirocorrector, Thatotherdude, Mygerardromance, BfMGH, Geo Plourde,
Florentino oro, Asdirk, Alpha Centaury, Der Rabe Ralf, POVpushee, Opsterics, Mrfebruary, Tattery, Tenthrst, Jonathanstray, Jgoverly,
Jamez124, Loren.wilton, Grantrowe, Drf1, ClueBot, Mariordo, Avenged Eightfold, Dazal2005, Snigbrook, Dem393, Incrediblehunk, The
Thing That Should Not Be, Blackangel25, ImperfectlyInformed, Kamlavati, Fraaj, El barto8, TheOldJacobite, Akhilkadway, Info0409,
CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Eboner, Blanchardb, Dylan620, Plenaluz, Scrapper doo, Rprpr, Auntof6, Rockfang, Ashashyou, Excirial, Carlcarlcarl, DOHill, Oupi, Mgdurand, Disbala, Sepeople, Vkvladman, Arjayay, A3camero, Etip, Tigg23e4, SchreiberBike, Knowz,
Nukeless, Ark25, Adrian0808, Thehelpfulone, Plfx, Thingg, Cincaipatrin, ThisMunkey, NJGW, TJFox, Party, Trulystand700, Crowsnest,
Masonfree40, Petercasier, DumZiBoT, Daven brown, Jshapira, Escientist, Ptbeale, Ldbio130, XLinkBot, Georgeiiird, Jytdog, Oldekop,
Kauymatty2, Alvestonian, David.Boettcher, Avoided, Mifter, Staygold2, Noctibus, Zodon, Urbangarden, Dagloman19, Chalms89, Cyclonebiskit, Eae, Hakuin, Addbot, Cxz111, Willking1979, DOI bot, Element16, Ttamers, Betterusername, Thomas888b, Landon1980,
Captain-tucker, Bushcutter, CanadianLinuxUser, NjardarBot, Cst17, MrOllie, Download, Drbjorn, Glane23, Jakeschode, Koppas, LemmeyBOT, SamatBot, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, Kiel2274, Numbo3-bot, Craigsjones, Flajt, Delphi234, Jonnysonthespot, Tide rolls,
William S. Saturn, Lightbot, Acschwim, Teles, Gail, TeH nOmInAtOr, Wireless friend, Jarble, Pomie, Blablablob, Economyweb, Ben Ben,
PlankBot, Astropata, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, AzureFury, GGByte, Fraggle81, Les boys, Legobot II, PMLawrence, THEN WHO

9.2

Images

15

WAS PHONE?, Pganas, SwisterTwister, Food&fuel, Zozzie 9t9, Hontonikawaiidesu, Alexkin, Thameshead, Vesco77, AnomieBOT, Jane
187, DemocraticLuntz, Four Doors, Darrell Smith1010, Jim1138, IRP, Petercascio, Darking764, Jamescp, Kingpin13, Gordino0, Flewis,
Bolling1, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Gatorfuel, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, Clark89, Aarnjb, Htomelds, LilHelpa, Photonyte,
Stlwebs, Em0299, Mio, Goc sk, Sionus, Capricorn42, Tomsperoni, Gigemag76, Benny7820, NFD9001, J04n, GrouchoBot, MarieEuro,
RibotBOT, SassoBot, H falcon, Shattered Gnome, Enigmatist23, Tonydomrep, Centonup, Linkman21, Cedric Briens, MLauba, Sewblon,
Shadowjams, Jkander59, Azxten, Niljay, Appeltree1, FrescoBot, AlexSun123, Illustria, Lac10528, Docdik, Mikima, Sambhar, Silvert89,
NadimChaudhry, Julpics, Muissus, Finalius, BenzolBot, Roycombya, Coltsfan126, Fiddler on the green, Citation bot 1, SuperJew, SwineFlew?, Mikal42, NachshonR, Biker Biker, Ussbham, Pinethicket, Mr Who 0, Edderso, Okbicknell, ThePillock, Rushbugled13, Whentann,
Mikershniker, Mistapopsicle, Brian Everlasting, Geronimo2k, Saayiit, Ambarprakashan, Elekhh, Trappist the monk, Zhernovoi, Solntsa,
Vrenator, Intern8, Lanza33, Waynersampson69, Rebekah Hamrick, Infobios, Reaper Eternal, TheGrimReaper NS, Cookiemonsterhat,
A4MES1, Beno795, Marissa leitman, Reach Out to the Truth, Derild4921, Keegscee, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Civic Cat, RjwilmsiBot,
Emilio lopez king, Djkhalad, Ccrazymann, Salvio giuliano, Jrsandor, EmausBot, Energy Dome, John of Reading, JereyLMason, Looktothisday, Gfoley4, Willwin0001, Heracles31, Katherine, ScottyBerg, Awatten, Dewritech, Amandawutnn, NoisyJinx, K6ka, Greenzen,
Oakmedia, Its snowing in East Asia, Peter reimers, Lberghmans, Darkman101, Josve05a, Buckston, Bisi77, Ihatedylan, KuduIO, Everard
Proudfoot, Potassium-39, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, Michellebentham, L Kensington, Greentechguru, Orange Suede Sofa, Rangoon11, G9th,
VictorianMutant, Longshevius, Rocketrod1960, Ncbiofuels, Arunesh85, Cgtdk, Farmjustice2010, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, MIKHEIL,
Coastwise, Georgina31Green, Monsoon Waves, Skubeska, Widr, Nmabraha, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatsh2, Skierno1tiger, BG19bot,
Mohamed CJ, Vagobot, Jon.sry, Fedor Babkin, Northamerica1000, Cyberpower678, Wiki13, Mark Arsten, SamC1404, CitationCleanerBot, Clarikaa, NotWith, Blonder1, Glacialfox, Fgmartinelli, Gcarrosio, TBrandley, SexyJeeves1, ArticLeaf, Klilidiplomus, Rutebega,
Garkhedkar, Lovetousewiki, BattyBot, Ehr1Ros2, Riley Huntley, Minionice, StarryGrandma, Wikiukleeds, Editzzz, Pariswikiuser, Xcar71,
Gilborrego, Lkjpoiuytrewq, Sha-256, MKR125188, Cambiaelmundo, Haby87, Sminthopsis84, Lca css, Tobijane2000, TwoMartiniTuesday, Terencedavidw, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Diego Meneses, Cupco, The Triple M, Kjtermaat, Kevin12xd, Ross Hill, MrSpetsnaz,
Magnolia677, Thoandgue, Mudassarhusain01, Tonymatthewsboy, Tyoii88, Nugey14, Gargcoolboy2117, CensoredScribe, Hannah.dimich,
Hetrop, Ginsuloft, Tommcgowanwiki, Quenhitran, Manul, AddWittyNameHere, Adattaway, Sophoclesmm, Man of Steel 85, Bradydcallahan, Timothymich99, Monkbot, Indiamonsoon, Jacksonclifton14, Clifton00101, Bumbbb, LetsGetNerdy, Scarlettail, Kiskanamjoker,
Zman1383, Wikiman1981, Mexican Undertaker, Milkboy237, Mrislam.che, Poonreply, Rrocketeer, AesopSmart, Whoisjoking, Gyokeeg,
Meme123123, Sanchezpatterson, Camilogil and Anonymous: 1465

9.2

Images

File:Biogas_pipes.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Biogas_pipes.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Vortexrealm at en.wikipedia
File:Corn_3different_types.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Corn_3different_types.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors: File:Earth ag PD.jpg, File:The Earth seen from Apollo 17 with transparent background.png Original artist: NASA (Earth
photograph)
SiBr4 (ag image)
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File:Sao_Paulo_ethanol_pump_04_2008_74_zoom.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Sao_Paulo_
ethanol_pump_04_2008_74_zoom.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz
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was Vincecate at en.wikipedia
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File:Sustainable_development.svg Source:
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg Li-

Inspired from Developpement durable.jpg Original artist:

original: Johann Dro (talk contribs)
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16

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
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3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lukipuk
File:Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Windmills_D1-D4_-_
Thornton_Bank.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hans Hillewaert

9.3

Content license

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