Iguana

Surgeries
Adapted from Lightfoot T, Bartlett L: Exotic Companion Animal Surgeries Vol 1 CD-ROM, Zoological Education Network, 1999

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy
Orchiectomy
Tail Amputation

Edited for print and updated by

Scott J. Stahl, DVM
Dipl. ABVP-Avian Practice
Lucy Bartlett, DVM
Dipl. ABVP-Avian Practice
Teresa Lightfoot, DVM
Dipl. ABVP-Avian Practice

IGUANA

Pre-surgery
PATIENT EVALUATION
A complete physical exam, serum chemistry profile,
complete blood count and fecal exam for parasites should
be performed to assist in evaluation of the overall
condition of the patient prior to anesthesia and surgery.
It should be noted that elevated blood calcium levels are
normal in gestating iguanas.
The caudal tail vein is the preferred venipuncture site for
most lizards. Initial medical treatment should be adjusted
as indicated by the blood work results.
If sepsis is suspected, aerobic and anaerobic blood
cultures are recommended, and antibiotics should be
initiated to treat infection prior to anesthesia and surgery.
Patients should be hydrated prior to surgery with balanced
electrolyte solutions.

Caudal tail vein

Subcutaneous fluid
administration

IGUANA

Instruments needed for

an ovariectomy or an
orchiectomy

Pre-surgery

INSTRUMENTATION
Surgical instruments appropriate for a small animal
procedure are adequate if there are several small
mosquito hemostats included. Curved iris scissors are
useful.
Hemostatic clips come in several sizes and are very useful
but not necessary for vessel ligation. A 3-0 to 4-0
synthetic absorbable suture material may also be used.
Clear plastic drapes allow better visualization of the
iguanas respiration and heartbeat during surgery.

Instruments needed
for a tail amputation

Instrumentation for tail amputation includes Metzenbaum

scissors, forceps, mosquito hemostats, needle holders, a
small Penrose drain, 2-0 nonabsorbable suture and
bandaging material.

IGUANA

Basking lamp provides

a heat source

Pre-surgery

ANESTHESIA
Removal of food and water is recommended for 12-24
hours prior to surgery.
Supplemental heat is used to maintain the patient at
approximately 85F (29.5C). It is important to keep this
temperature consistent throughout the anesthetic
induction, the surgical procedure, and the recovery
phase.

Anesthetic induction with propofol at 5-10 mg/kg IV is

recommended. Alternate approaches for anesthesia
include induction with ketamine at 20-40 mg/kg IM or
tiletamine with zolazepam (Telazol) at 2-5 mg/kg IM.
Note that the tiletamine and zolazepam combination has
a narrow safety margin compared to ketamine.
When the iguana is sedated, it may be further induced
with isoflurane by face mask to allow intubation.

Anesthetic induction

Face mask

IGUANA

Endotracheal tube

Tracheal
opening

Pre-surgery

The iguana is intubated. Note that the glottis is positioned

at the base of the tongue and is easily visualized. There is
no epiglottis.

Tongue
Tracheal
opening

Isoflurane gas anesthesia is maintained using a

nonrebreathing system.
An esophageal stethoscope or Doppler is useful for
anesthetic monitoring during surgery.

Ventilator

Nonrebreathing
system

Tape

Nonrebreathing
system

Scott Stahl, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

Esophageal
stethoscope

During a surgical plane of anesthesia, iguanas often

become apneic, as the muscles involved with respiration
are paralyzed. Therefore, assisted ventilation is usually
necessary during anesthetic procedures. Intermittent
positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) may be provided with
the use of an automated electric ventilator to offer
consistent and accurate ventilation for reptile patients.
Alternatively, IPPV can be provided manually with a
technician operating the breathing bag for the iguana
during the procedure.
For the adult green iguana, providing IPPV 4-6 times per
minute is a good starting point. This may vary based on
the depth of anesthesia and the animals voluntary
respiration.

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/
Ovariosalpingectomy
Scott Stahl, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

CLINICAL SIGNS
Both pre- and post-ovulatory egg stasis (also called egg
binding) are common reproductive syndromes in captive
female iguanas. The causes are numerous and often
multifactorial. Lack of proper diet, less than optimal
environmental temperatures, handling stress, improper
light sources and inadequate nesting sites are some of
the common causes of egg stasis in captive iguanas.
Local or systemic disease may also lead to egg stasis.
True gestation time in the green iguana is thought to be
60-90 days. Gravid females will often stop eating for a
3-4 week period prior to egg laying but remain active. A
change in behavior and restlessness may occur as the
iguana seeks a nesting site.

Visible eggs
in oviduct

Loss of weight or muscle mass may be evident over the

pelvis, shoulders and limbs.
The abdomen may distend dramatically, and eggs will often
be palpable in the abdomen or visible on the body wall.
Radiographs will reveal lobulated space-occupying masses
in the caudal abdomen. Calcification of eggs may be
visible in cases of post-ovulatory egg stasis.
It is difficult to differentiate between a coelomic cavity filled
with enlarged ovarian follicles and one with oviductal eggs.
Ovarian follicles tend to be spherical and are located more
6

Scott Stahl, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

A quiet, depressed, gravid female indicates a problem.

Distended
abdomen

IGUANA

IM injection of oxytocin
to stimulate oviposition

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

dorsally in the abdomen, whereas oviductal eggs are

oblong and are found in a more ventral/caudal location.
Occasionally bladder stones may cause mechanical egg
binding, which can be diagnosed radiographically.

MEDICAL MANAGEMENT

Subcutaneous fluid
administration

In cases of suspected post-ovulatory egg binding, oxytocin

at a dose of 10-20 units/kg IM may be used in an
attempt to stimulate oviposition; however, prior to using
oxytocin for dystocia, the clinician must:
Confirm eggs in the oviduct by historical information
(iguana has already laid some eggs), radiography or
ultrasonography, as oxytocin is contraindicated for
pre-ovulatory egg stasis.
Confirm the dystocia is non-obstructive via radiography
or ultrasonography, as oxytocin is contraindicated for an
obstructive dystocia.
A very short window of opportunity exists for success with
oxytocin. It is most effective if given within 72-96 hours
after initial oviposition, attempt at oviposition or nesting
behavior. Eggs retained much longer will likely have
become adhered to the oviduct, and the use of oxytocin
in these cases may result in torsion or tearing of the
oviduct.
Before using oxytocin, the iguana should be hydrated,
and 10% calcium gluconate (100 mg/kg IM every 6-8
hours) should be administered if hypocalcemia is
suspected. If seizures or tremors are present, calcium
gluconate may be administered IV slowly PRN to effect.
7

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

INDICATIONS FOR SURGERY

If egg stasis fails to respond to correction of environmental or dietary factors or the use of oxytocin is inappropriate or is appropriate but nonresponsive, surgery should
be pursued.
Even if the eggs are safely passed during this season with
the use of oxytocin, a similar episode will likely follow in
future seasons, and surgery will eliminate these
potentially dangerous issues.
It is recommended that pet iguanas not intended for
breeding should be stabilized and scheduled immediately
for surgery, as ovariectomy and ovariosalpingectomy will
resolve future reproductive issues for these pets.

PATIENT PREPARATION

Xiphoid process

Pubis

The animal is placed in dorsal recumbency and secured

(masking tape works well).
The abdominal area is prepared for surgery in a routine
manner from the xiphoid to the pubis. Povidone iodine or
chlorhexidine surgical scrub may be used on reptiles.

Midline
8

Large ventral
abdominal vein is
usually within this area

Small initial incision

about 1 cm to the right
or left of midline to
avoid the ventral
abdominal vein

IGUANA

Initial paramedian
incision

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

SURGICAL STEPS
Iguanas and other lizards have a ventral
abdominal vein that is located caudal to the
umbilical scar along the ventral midline and is
suspended by a short mesentery from the
linea alba.
A paramedian incision is made 1-2 cm to the
right or left of the midline, depending on the
size of the iguana. The small initial incision is
used to identify the ventral abdominal vein and
reduce the likelihood of damaging it. This
incision can be made with a scalpel, then
extended with iris scissors. A large incision
should then be made to allow good
visualization.
Care should be taken to avoid incising the
bladder, which is often located just under the
linea alba.
If the ventral abdominal vein is damaged,
ligation of the vein may be needed to control
hemorrhage.
Once the surgeon has accessed the coelomic
cavity, the reproductive tract and position of
the eggs or ova can be evaluated.

Ventral abdominal vein

9

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

Follicles on ovary

PRE-OVUL ATORY EGG STASIS

Pre-ovulatory egg stasis is characterized by
large yellow ovarian follicles that remain
attached to the ovaries like huge clusters of
grapes. There can be 20 or more follicles on
each ovary; each follicle may be approximately
2 cm in diameter. In some cases these
follicles are greenish in color, necrotic and
friable. Other cases may demonstrate an
associated peritonitis with large amounts of
purulent material within the coelomic cavity.
In cases of pre-ovulatory egg stasis, the
ovaries are removed. It is not necessary to
remove the oviducts, as they appear to
atrophy and are not readily susceptible to
infection.

Left ovary with follicles

The left ovary is gently exteriorized and the

vein and artery supplying the ovary are
identified. When ligating the vessels to the left
ovary, care must be taken to avoid damaging
the renal vein or the left adrenal gland. The
adrenal gland in the iguana will appear pink,
long and relatively flat. It is located on either
side of the renal vein and should not be
removed inadvertently.

Left adrenal gland

Renal vein
10

IGUANA

Hemostatic clips

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

Aperture

Left adrenal gland

Apertures are created in the avascular mesovarium, and the vessels are double ligated
close to the ovary to avoid the adrenal gland.
It is important to remove all ovarian tissue, as
any remnant tissue may regenerate. A 3-0 to
4-0 synthetic absorbable suture or vascular
clips are used.

Renal vein

Hemostatic clips

Once the vessels are ligated, the tissue is

transected between the clips or sutures.

Transect here
11

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

Right ovary
with follicle

The right ovary is gently exteriorized with care

to avoid damaging the vena cava. Anatomically
the right ovary is attached directly to the vena
cava. The right adrenal gland is located on the
opposite side of the vena cava.

Caudal vena cava

Right adrenal gland

As with the approach to the left ovary,

apertures are created through the avascular
areas of the mesovarium, and the vessels
supplying the ovary are double ligated.

Hemostatic clips
12

IGUANA

Hemostatic clip

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

The tissue between the ligatures is transected

and the ovary is removed. Any potential
bleeding is noted and corrected.

Vena cava

POST-OVUL ATORY EGG STASIS

Multiple eggs
in oviduct

In the case of post-ovulatory egg binding,

multiple, whitish-colored eggs are apparent
within the oviducts upon entering the coelomic
cavity. Oviducts with eggs are removed, and
the small inactive paired ovaries must be
identified and removed.

Bladder
13

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

Ligation placed at
the infundibulum

The cranial and caudal aspects of an oviduct

are exteriorized, and the vascular supply is
identified.

From the cranially aspect, the thin fimbria

(infundibulum) is ligated with suture or
hemoclips. Moving caudally, the small groups
of vessels in the mesosalpinx are also ligated
with suture material or hemoclips.

14

Applying
vascular clips

IGUANA

Ligature being
applied

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

At the distal end, the oviduct is double ligated

with suture or hemoclips close to the junction
with the urodeum. The tissue between the
ligatures is then transected and the entire
oviduct is removed. Any potential bleeding is
noted and corrected.

Ligation of
oviduct

The procedure is repeated with the opposite

oviduct.

Ligature on the
oviduct where it
joins the cloaca

Bladder
15

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

Vena cava

After removing both oviducts, the small paired

inactive (involuted) ovaries are identified
dorsally and along the midline. The ovarian
vascular supply is substantial, and the vessels
are short. Caution must be used when
attempting to elevate the ovaries. Often the
ovaries cannot be exteriorized, and the
surgeon must work within the coelom.

Right ovary

When removing the left ovary, care must be

taken not to damage the large renal vein or
the left adrenal gland, which is often located
between the renal vein and the ovary in the
mesovarium.
Anatomically the right ovary is situated very
close to the vena cava. The right adrenal gland
is usually found just medial to the vena cava.

Exteriorized ovary
attached to dorsum
by mesovarium
16

IGUANA

Ovary

Vascular clip

Ovary

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

Apertures are created through the avascular

areas of mesovarium, and clips or ligatures are
carefully placed around the vessels supplying
the left ovary. It is important to remove all
ovarian tissue, as regeneration of any remnant
tissue can occur.
The tissue between the ligatures and the ovary
is transected and the ovary is removed.

Apertures or windows
in avascular areas of
mesovarium

The right ovary is removed in the same

manner, taking care not to damage the vena
cava. The right adrenal gland is usually found
on the opposite side of the vena cava.

Three vascular clips are visible

along the vena cava at the point
where the ovary was removed

Removing ovary
post-ligation

Tissues for histopathology and swabs for

bacterial cultures should be taken when
indicated. If ovarian follicles or purulent
material is present in the coelomic cavity,
copious irrigation is recommended followed by
appropriate use of antibiotics.
Before closing, the ovarian ligatures should be
checked for hemorrhage.

Vascular clip

Vena cava
17

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

Muscular layer
in place

The coelom/peritoneum is gently closed with a

simple continuous pattern using 4-0 absorbable suture. This closure is not the holding
layer but helps to seal the coelom. The fragile
coelom/peritoneum musculature is easy to
tear so this tissue must be handled with care
during suturing.

The primary holding layer is the skin layer.

Nonabsorbable suture material, such as 2-0 to
3-0 nylon or polypropylene should be used.
The tendency of iguana skin to invert is
discouraged with the use of an everting suture
pattern, such as a horizontal mattress pattern.
This allows the proper apposition of the edges
to promote faster healing.
In general, it is recommended that sutures be
removed in 6-8 weeks. Often skin sutures will
be shed out during this time frame.

18

Interrupted horizontal
mattress pattern

IGUANA

Ovariectomy/Ovariosalpingectomy

POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
Recovery is usually uneventful as long as the iguana
was in good condition prior to surgery and the proper
temperature of approximately 85F (29.5C) is
maintained throughout recovery.
Butorphanol (Torbutrol) at 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM and/or
meloxicam (Metacam) at 0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM q24h for
3-5 days may be used for pain management.
A slight serohemorrhagic discharge from the incision may
occur for the first 24 hours post surgery.
Post-surgical antibiotics, if necessary, should be selected
based on culture and sensitivity results.
Iguanas should not soak for 10-14 days following surgery.
Hydration can be maintained orally and by daily misting.

Scott Stahl, DVM, Dipl ABVP-Avian Practice

Oral or subcutaneous fluids may be warranted, depending

on the condition of the patient.
Additional supportive care postoperatively may include
assist-feeding or tube-feeding with a slurry of soaked
rabbit chow and strained green baby food or other high
fiber-based enterals.
The iguana is placed in an incubator to recover from
anesthesia; a hunched posture reflects abdominal
discomfort.
Return to normal activity and appetite should take
3-5 days.

19

IGUANA

Orchiectomy
INDICATIONS/CLINICAL SIGNS
As pet iguanas mature, they may display offensive
aggression towards owners or others, particularly during
the breeding season. These iguanas often have free roam
of the house and begin biting without provocation.

PRE-SURGICAL CONCERNS
Before recommending castration of adult male iguanas,
offensive aggression must be differentiated from
defensive aggression.
Environmental changes should be initiated. These include
decreasing the photoperiod and confining the iguana to a
smaller territory, especially during breeding season. If
these measures do not help resolve the problem, surgical
castration may be considered.

Xiphoid process

Pubis

Owners should be forewarned that castration may not

decrease the aggression. Behavioral changes postsurgery
do not occur immediately and may not be appreciable.
Castration is a more effective behavioral modifier in prepubescent iguanas than in mature male iguanas.

PATIENT PREPARATION
The animal is placed in dorsal recumbency and secured
(masking tape works well).
The abdominal area is prepared for surgery in a routine
manner from the xiphoid to the pubis. Povidone iodine or
chlorhexidine surgical scrub may be used on reptiles.
20

Midline

Large ventral
abdominal vein is
usually within this area

Small initial incision

about 1 cm to the right
or left of midline to
avoid the ventral
abdominal vein

IGUANA

Initial paramedian
incision

Orchiectomy

SURGICAL STEPS
Iguanas and other lizards have a ventral
abdominal vein that is located caudal to the
umbilical scar along the ventral midline and is
suspended by a short mesentery from the
linea alba.
A paramedian incision is made 1-2 cm to the
right or left of the midline, depending on the
size of the iguana. The small initial incision is
used to identify the ventral abdominal vein and
reduce the likelihood of damaging it. This
incision can be made with a scalpel, then
extended with iris scissors. A large incision
should then be made to allow good
visualization.
Care should be taken to avoid incising the
bladder, which is often located just under the
linea alba.
If the ventral abdominal vein is damaged,
ligation of the vein may be needed to control
hemorrhage.

Ventral abdominal vein

21

IGUANA

Orchiectomy

Coelomic contents

Care should be taken to avoid damaging the

coelomic organs beneath the incision.

Ventral abdominal vein

The fat pads will be first noted upon entering

the coelomic cavity. The testicles are located
deep in the coelom along the dorsal midline
and under the gastrointestinal tract.

Colon

Testicles
22

IGUANA

Orchiectomy
Testicle
Stay suture

The testicles are covered by a capsule and

must be gently elevated to expose the vessels.
The left testicle receives its blood supply from
the testicular vein and artery, which are
supplied by the large renal vein and artery. The
left adrenal gland is located between the left
testicle and these vessels and should be kept
intact if at all possible.

Left adrenal gland

Renal vein

Medium hemostatic clips or absorbable suture

material are used to double ligate the vessels
running through the transparent capsule.

Hemostatic clip applied

Adrenal gland
23

IGUANA

Orchiectomy

The testicle is removed and the area is

checked for bleeding.

The right testicle is attached to the vena cava

by extremely short vessels. The right adrenal
gland is located on the opposite side of the
vena cava and is therefore easy to avoid.

Stay suture

Right testicle

Caudal vena cava

Right adrenal gland

24

IGUANA

Testicle

Orchiectomy

Apertures are placed through the capsule

and each vessel is double clipped or double
ligated.

Aperture

Vascular clip

Double clamped

A small hemostat is placed above the clips,

and the capsule is transected.

Vascular clip
25

IGUANA

Orchiectomy

Vascular clips

Abdominal musculature

The testicle is removed and the ligatures are

checked for bleeding prior to closing the
coelom.
The coelom/peritoneum is gently closed with a
simple continuous pattern using 4-0
absorbable suture. This closure is not the
holding layer but helps to seal the coelom. The
fragile/peritoneum musculature is easy to tear
so be gentle with suturing this tissue.

Vena cava

The primary holding layer is the skin layer.

Nonabsorbable suture material, such as 2-0 to
3-0 nylon or polypropylene should be used.
The tendency of iguana skin to invert is
discouraged with the use of an everting suture
pattern such as a horizontal mattress pattern.
This allows the proper apposition of the edges
to promote faster healing.
In general, it is recommended that sutures be
removed in 6-8 weeks. Often skin sutures will
be shed out during this time frame.

26

Interrupted horizontal
mattress pattern

IGUANA

Basking lamp
provides heat source

Orchiectomy

POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
Recovery is usually uneventful as long as the iguana was
in good condition prior to surgery and the proper temperature of approximately 85F (29.5C) is maintained
throughout recovery.
Butorphanol (Torbutrol) at 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM and/or
meloxicam (Metacam) at 0.2-0.3 mg/kg IM q24h for
3-5 days may be used for pain management.
A slight serohemorrhagic discharge from the incision may
occur for the first 24 hours post surgery.
Post-surgical antibiotics, if necessary, should be selected
based on culture and sensitivity results.
Iguanas should not soak for 10-14 days following surgery.
Hydration can be maintained orally and by daily misting.
Oral or subcutaneous fluids may be warranted, depending
on the condition of the patient.
Additional supportive care postoperatively may include
assist-feeding or tube-feeding with a slurry of soaked
rabbit chow and strained green or other high fiber-based
enterals.
The iguana is placed in an incubator to recover from
anesthesia; a hunched posture reflects abdominal
discomfort.
Return to normal activity and appetite should take
3-5 days.
The owners should be reminded that behavioral changes
may not be noticed until the following breeding season.
27

IGUANA

Tail Amputation
INDICATIONS/CLINICAL SIGNS
Iguana tail amputation may be necessary in cases of
trauma or necrosis.
Tail necrosis may progress from the tip cranially. When
this is the case, it is important to determine the extent of
devitalized tissue prior to selecting the site for amputation.

EVALUATION/PRE-SURGICAL CONCERNS
A complete physical examination, serum chemistry profile
and complete blood count should be performed to assist
in the evaluation of the overall condition of the iguana
prior to anesthesia and removal of the tail.
Additionally, radiographs are important to determine the
extent of bone involvement in the infected tail and to rule
out associated metabolic diseases.
If the iguana is in renal failure or has other metabolic
diseases, these issues should be addressed prior to
proceeding with tail amputation.

Necrotic tail

Area of necrosis
dorsal to visible line
of demarcation

Tail necrosis can occur as a result of septicemia leading

to vascular thrombosis.
Dysecdysis, or abnormal shed, may constrict the tail and
result in ischemia that necessitates amputation.

PATIENT PREPARATION
The chosen area of tail separation is aseptically prepared.
A wide margin between the amputation site and devitalized
tissue is recommended when tail necrosis is progressive.
28

Devitalized area

Area prepared
for amputation

IGUANA

Tail Amputation

SURGICAL STEPS
The tail of an iguana is designed to break
away when needed to protect the lizard from
capture by predators. This feature allows the
tail to break at a natural point, and very little
bleeding takes place. The surgeon holds the
tail with one hand cranial and one hand
caudal to the area chosen for the break.
The tail is bent and twisted at the same time.
The combined forces applied are lateral and
dorsoventral with some rotation. On a large
iguana, a fair amount of force is necessary to
separate the tail.
Audible popping will precede separation.
Muscle tissue will extend from both ends as
the tail separates. Bleeding is minimal to
nonexistent.
The protruding tissue may be trimmed flush
with the skin or left as is.

29

IGUANA

Tail Amputation

Two pieces of Penrose drain are cut and

placed on either side of the remaining tail.
Nonabsorbable 2-0 suture material is placed
in a simple interrupted pattern through the
skin and the Penrose drain on each side.
The Penrose drain and sutures are used to
decrease the area of exposed muscle tissue
and pull the edges of the skin closer together
without directly apposing them. The tail will
grow back more slowly if the skin is closed
over the amputated end.

A gauze pad with antibiotic ointment applied

is placed on the end of the tail to absorb
drainage.

Vetrap

The tail is bandaged to prevent contamination.

Antibiotic ointment
on gauze pad
30

IGUANA

Tail Amputation

POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
The bandage is changed every 2-3 days. The sutures and
drain material are removed in 7-10 days.
Postoperative antibiotics are used at the surgeons
discretion.
The tail remains bandaged until a smooth layer of pink
granulation tissue covers the amputated area.
The tail will begin to regrow 3-6 weeks after surgery.

Healthy granulation

Tail regrowth

The regrown tail will be slightly smaller in diameter than

the original tail, and the scales will be smaller and darker.
The regenerated section of tail will lack the ventral tail
vein and bones.

Regrown tail

31

 Zoological Education Network 2006

Photographs copyrighted by Teresa Lightfoot, Lucy Bartlett and Zoological Education Network except photos by Scott Stahl and Stephen Hernandez-Divers where noted.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Frye F: Biomedical and Surgical Aspects of Captive
Reptile Husbandry 2nd ed. Melbourne, FL, Krieger
Publishing Co, 1991.
2. Johnson-Delaney CA: Exotic Companion Medicine
Handbook. Lake Worth, FL, Zoological Education
Network, 2000.

3. Mader DR (ed): Reptile Medicine and Surgery 2nd ed.

Philadelphia, PA, WB Saunders Co, 2006.

5. Stahl S: Surgical resolution of reproductive disorders

in female green iguanas. Exotic DVM 1(0):5-9, 1998.

4. Stahl S: Reproductive diseases in the green iguana.

Proc No Am Vet Conf, 1998, pp 810-813.

6. Stahl S: Reptile Obstetrics. Proc No Am Vet Conf,

2006, pp 1680-1683.