Stress:: Strain

STRESS:
Stress is force acting on the unit area which produces

deformation.
STRAIN:
Strain is defined as the measurement of deformation
resulting from strain.
Linear strain is defined as change in length per unit
length.
It can be measured in m/m, cm/cm or in/in. or

simply in micro strain.
STRAIN GAUGE:
A strain gauge is a device used to measure
the strain of an object.
Measurement of strain of new alloys is very
important to test their strength to use them in
manufacturing mechanical parts.
Strain gauges are frequently used in mechanical
engineering research and development to measure
the stresses generated by machinery.
Page 1
Two popular types of strain gauges are used.

1. Bonded wire type.
2. Semiconductor type.
Both types produce a change in resistance in
response of strain.
BONDED WIRE STRAIN GAUGE:

It is most popular strain sensor. They are made of
thin wire or foil.
The wire strain gauge is cemented firmly to a paper
or Bakelite.
Metal foil gauge is photo etched on an epoxy resin
backing as a PCB.
It is bonded firmly with the object /material under
test. As force is applied the surface it deforms and so
does the gauge.
Page 2
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will

become skinnier and longer, both changes resulting
in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely, if a strip of conductive metal is placed
under compressive force (without buckling), it will
Page 3
broaden and shorten. If these stresses are kept

within the elastic limit of the metal strip (so that the
strip does not permanently deform), the strip can be
used as a measuring element for physical force, the
amount of applied force inferred from measuring its
resistance.
Any change in its resistance is given by:
Which can be written as R=RGF.
Above equation shows that change in resistance is
directly proportional to strain and initial resistance.
Strain gauges are also found in load cells, which are
used to measure force/ weight.
HOW TO CONVERT change in resistance in change

in voltage???
The rheostat arm of the bridge (R2 in the diagram) is set at

a value equal to the strain gauge resistance with no force
applied.
Page 4
The two ratio arms of the bridge (R1 and R3) are set equal
to each other. Thus, with no force applied to the strain
gauge, the bridge will be symmetrically balanced and the
voltmeter will indicate zero volts, representing zero force
on the strain gauge.
As the strain gauge is either compressed or tensed, its
resistance will decrease or increase, respectively, thus
unbalancing the bridge and producing an indication at the
voltmeter. This arrangement, with a single element of the
bridge changing resistance in response to the measured
variable (mechanical force), is known as a quarter-bridge
circuit.
TEMPERATURE COPENSATION:
Resistors R1 and R3 are of equal resistance value
and the strain gauges are identical to one another.
With no applied force, the bridge should be in a
perfectly balanced condition and the voltmeter
should register 0 volts. Both gauges are bonded to
the same test specimen, but only one is placed in a
position and orientation so as to be exposed to
physical strain (the active gauge). The other gauge
is
isolated
from all mechanical stress, and acts merely as a

temperature
Page 5
compensation device (the "dummy" gauge). If the

temperature changes, both gauge resistances will
change by the same percentage, and the bridge's
state of balance will remain unaffected. Only a
differential
resistance
(difference
of
resistance
between the two strain gauges) produced by

physical force on the test specimen can alter the
balance of the bridge.
SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE:

They are more sensitive. They exhibit piezo-resistive
effect.
Piezo-resistive effect is a change in resistance with
applied strain.
Semiconductor crystals are grown with a
controlled impurity concentration to make these
sensors.
They have higher sensitivity. Gauge factors are 20
to 90 times higher than those of foil gauge.
These sensors are very small in size. Around .
5mmx.25mm.
Page 6
Their resistance ranges are from 60 to 10,000

Ohm.
Then can be stressed more than 107 times without
damage.
Both positive and negative gauge factors are
available.
Some materials pos piezo-electric effect i. e they
produce voltage at their ends when force is applied
to them.
When crystal is strained an electric charge is
produced on the edges of crystal.
Output Voltage of Piezo-effect transducer are given
by
V=KFd
Where V=voltage produced, K=constant of material,
F is force applied and d is compression or expansion
ok material.
Page 7

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STRESS:

Stress is force acting on the unit area which produces

It can be measured in m/m, cm/cm or in/in. or

Two popular types of strain gauges are used.

BONDED WIRE STRAIN GAUGE:

If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will

broaden and shorten. If these stresses are kept

HOW TO CONVERT change in resistance in change

The rheostat arm of the bridge (R2 in the diagram) is set at

from all mechanical stress, and acts merely as a

compensation device (the "dummy" gauge). If the

between the two strain gauges) produced by

SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE:

Their resistance ranges are from 60 to 10,000

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