He Who Is Possessed of Supreme Knowledge by Concentration of Mind

"He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must
have his senses under control, like spirited steeds controlled by a charioteer." says the
Katha Upanishad (iii, 6). From the Vedic age downwards the central conception of
education of the Indians has been that it is a source of illumination giving us a correct
lead in the various spheres of life. Knowledge, says one thinker, is the third eye of man,
which gives him insight into all affairs and teaches him how to act.
(Subhishitaratnasandhoha p. 194).
A single feature of ancient Indian or Hindu civilization is that it has been molded
and shaped in the course of its history more by religious than by political, or economic,
influences. The fundamental principles of social, political, and economic life were welded
into a comprehensive theory which is called Religion in Hindu thought. The total
configuration of ideals, practices, and conduct is called Dharma (Religion, Virtue or Duty)
in this ancient tradition. From the very start, they came, under the influence of their
religious ideas, to conceive of their country as less a geographical and material than a
cultural or a spiritual possession, and to identify, broadly speaking, the country with their
culture. The Country was their Culture and the Culture their Country, the true Country of
the Spirit, the 'invisible church of culture' not confined within physical bounds. India thus
was the first country to rise to the conception of an extra-territorial nationality and
naturally became the happy home of different races, each with its own ethno-psychic
endowment, and each carrying its social reality for Hindus is not geographical, not ethnic,
but a culture-pattern. Country and patriotism expand, as ideals and ways of life receive
acquiescence. Thus, from the very dawn of its history has this Country of the Spirit ever
expanded in extending circles, Brahmarshidesa, Brahmavarta, Aryavarta, Bharatvarsha,
or Jambudvipa, Suvarnabhumi and even a Greater India beyond its geographical
boundaries.
Learning in India through the ages had been prized and pursued not for its own
sake, if we may so put it, but for the sake, and as a part, of religion. (It was sought as
the means of self-realization, as the means to the highest end of life. viz. Mukti or
Emancipation. Ancient Indian education is also to be understood as being ultimately the
outcome of the Indian theory of knowledge as part of the corresponding scheme of life
and values. The scheme takes full account of the fact that Life includes Death and the
two form the whole truth. This gives a particular angle of vision, a sense of perspective
and proportion in which the material and the moral, the physical and spiritual, the
perishable and permanent interests and values of life are clearly defined and strictly
differentiated. Of all the people of the world the Hindu is the most impressed and
affected by the fact of death as the central fact of life. The individual's supreme duty is
thus to achieve his expansion into the Absolute, his self-fulfillment, for he is a potential
God, a spark of the Divine. Education must aid in this self-fulfillment, and not in the
acquisition of mere objective knowledge.
Introduction
Rigvedic Education
Education in the Epics
Period of Panini
Buddhist Education
Universities
Professional and Useful Education
Conclusion
Introduction
It may be said with quite a good degree of precision that India was the only
country where knowledge was systematized and where provision was made for its
imparting at the highest level in remote times. Whatever the discipline of learning,
whether it was chemistry, medicine, surgery, the art of painting or sculpture, or
dramatics or principles of literary criticism or mechanics or even dancing, everything was
reduced to a systematic whole for passing it on to the future generations in a brief and
yet detailed manner. University education on almost modern lines existed in India as
early as 800 B.C. or even earlier. The learning or culture of ancient India was chiefly the
product of her hermitages in the solitude of the forests. It was not of the cities. The
learning of the forests was embodied in the books specially designated as Aranyakas
"belonging to the forests." Indian civilization in its early stages had been mainly a rural,
sylvan, and not an urban, civilization.
The ideal of education has been very grand, noble and high in ancient India. Its
aim, according to Herbert Spencer is the 'training for completeness of life' and the
molding of character of men and women for the battle of life. The history of the
educational institutions in ancient India shows how old is her cultural history. It points to
a long history. In the early stage it is rural, not urban. British Sanskrit scholar Arthur
Anthony Macdonell (1854-1930) author of A History of Sanskrit Literature (Motilal
Banarsidass Pub. ISBN: 8120800354) says "Some hundreds of years must have been
needed for all that is found" in her culture. The aim of education was at the manifestation
of the divinity in men, it touches the highest point of knowledge. In order to attain the
goal the whole educational method is based on plain living and high thinking pursued
through eternity.
As the individual is the chief concern and center of this Education, education also
is necessarily individual. It is an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil.
The relationship is inaugurated by a religious ceremony called Upanayana. It is not like
the admission of a pupil to the register of a school on his payment of the prescribed fee.
The spiritual meaning of Upanayana, and its details inpsired by that meaning, are
elaborated in many texts and explained below in the proper place. By Upanayana, the
teacher, "holding the pupil within him as in a womb, impregnates him with his spirit, and
delivers him in a new birth." The pupil is then known as Dvija, "born afresh" in a new
existence, "twice born" (Satapatha Brahmana). The education that is thus begun is
called by the significant term Brahmacharya, indicating that it is a mode of life, a system
of practices.
This conception of education molds its external form. The pupil must find the
teacher. He must live with him as in member of his family and is treated by him in every
way as his son. The school is a natural formation, not artificial constituted. It is the
home of the teacher. It is a hermitage, amid sylvan surrounding, beyond the
distractions of urban life, functioning in solitude and silence. The constant and
intimate association between teacher and taught is vital to education as conceived in this
system. The pupil is imbibe the inward method of the teacher, the secrets of his
efficiency, the spirit of his life and work, and these things are too subtle to be taught. It
seems in the early Vedic or Upanishadic times education was esoteric. The word
Upanishad itself suggests that it is learning got by sitting at the feet of the master. The
knowledge was to be got, as the Bhagavad Gita says, by obeisance, by questioning and
serving the teacher.
The ascetic, clad in birch bark, with matted hair bound up into a knot, leaning and
grieving over his dead pet antelope.
The inscription: Dighatapasi sise anusasati, "the ascetic of long penance instructs the
pupils." Some of the pupils are female rishis. The position of the pupils' fingers show
counting called for in Sama Veda chanting.
(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji).
***
India has believed in the domestic system in both Industry and Education, and
not in the mechanical methods of large production in institutions and factories
turning out standardized articles.
It is these sylvan schools and hermitages that have built up the thought and civilization
of India. As has been pointed out in the graphic words of the poet and Nobel prize
laureate, Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941):
"A most wonderful thing was notice in India is that here the forest, not the town, is the
fountain head of all its civilization. Wherever in India its earliest and most wonderful
manifestations are noticed, we find that men have not come into such close contact as to
be rolled or fused into a compact mass. There, trees and plants, rivers and lakes, had
ample opportunity to live in close relationship with men. In these forests, though there
was human society, there was enough of open space, of aloofness; there was no jostling.
Still it rendered it all the brighter. It is the forest that nurtured the two great ancient ages
of India, the Vaidic and the Buddhist. As did the Vaidic Rishis, Buddha also showered his
teaching in the many woods of India. The current of civilization that flowed from its
forests inundated the whole of India."
"The very word 'aranyaka' affixed to some of the ancient treatises, indicates that they
either originated in, or were intended to be studied in, forests."
(source: India: Bond Or Free? - By Annie Besant p. 94-95).
"In order to preserve the continuity of this national heritage and add to its richness, India
built large institutions of higher learning from time to time. They served as the
repositories of her spiritual, philosophical, scientific, artistic and literary achievements
and as the media of transmission of this heritage to the future generations. But it was
realized by the early Vedic seers that the educational institutions could only discharge
their functions properly if they were isolated from the conflicting demands of the rough
and tumble of the world. They, therefore, built their universities in forests, or in places of
natural beauty. Nature softens the instincts of body and mind, which otherwise become
harsh and aggressive when man lives in houses of brick and mortar. When man lives in
the lap of nature, his emotional and mental life becomes pure and harmonious; he grows
as a part of life that surrounds him. His inner strains and stresses are reduced to
minimum, his mind is alert, his intuition awake. Ancient India, therefore, selected
spots of natural beauty for locating its educational institutions."
(source: India: A synthesis of cultures by Kewal Motwani p. 131).
It is here, in these forest universities, as Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975)
has said, ' evolved the beginning of the sublime idealism of India.'
(source: Everyday Life in Ancient India - By Padmini Sengupta p. 161).
Top of Page
Rigvedic Education
The Rig Veda as the source of Hindu Civilization
The Rig Veda is established as the earliest work not merely of the Hindus, but of all IndoEuropean languages and humanity. It lays the foundation upon which Hindu Civilization
has been building up through the ages. Broadly speaking, it is on a foundation of plain
living and high thinking. Life was simple but though high and of farthest reach,
wandering through eternity. Some of the prayers of the Rig Veda, like the widely known
Gayatri mantram also found in Samaveda and Yajur veda touch the highest point of
knowledge and sustain human souls to this day.
The Rig Veda itself exhibits an evolution and the history of the Rigveda is a history of the
culture of the age. The Rig veda, in the form in which we have it now, is a compilation
out of old material, a collection and selection of 1,017 hymns out of the vast literature of
hymns which have been accumulating for a long period. When the Rigvedic texts was
thus fixed and appropriated for purposes of the Samhita, its editors had to think out the
principles on which the hymns could be best arranged. These show considerable literary
skill, originality of design, and insight into religious needs. First, it represents Rishis
were chosen and their works were utilized to constitute six different Mandalas. These
Rishis are Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atril, Kanva, Bharadvaja, and
Vasistha.
1. Vasishtha 2. Visvamitra 3. Vamadeva 4. Bharadvaja 5. Atri 6. Kanva 7. Gritsamada

***
When the highest knowledge was thus built up by these Seers and revealed and stored
up in the hymns, there were necessarily evolved the methods by which such knowledge
could be acquired, conserved, and transmitted to posterity. Thus every Rishi was a
teacher who would start by imparting to his son the texts of the knowledge he had
personally acquired and such texts would be the special property of his family. Each such
family of Rishis was thus functioning like a Vedic school admitting pupils for instruction in
the literature or texts in its possession. The relations between teacher and taught was
well established in the Rig Veda. The methods of education naturally varied with the
capacity of pupils. Self-realization by means of tapas would be for the few.
The Rig Veda shows a lively sense of the immutable laws governing Creation. Its
best expression is iii. 56, I, a hymn of Visvamitra. It means that the Vratas or Cosmic
Laws which are at the root of creation, operate for all time and regularly, which can never
be violated by anyone however clever or wise. There is no one in earth or heaven who by
his power or supreme knowledge can set them at naught. "They cannot bend like
mountains."
"Then at the beginning, before creation, there was neither Being nor non-Being. There
was neither the atmosphere nor the heavens beyond. What did it contain? Where? And
under whose direction? Were there waters, and the bottomless deep?"
***
Commenting on these Vedic hymns Count Maurice Maseterlinck in is book The
Great Secret (Citadel Pub ASIN: 0806511559) says:
"Is it possible to find, in our human annals, words more majestic, more full of
solemn anguish, more august in tone, more devout, more terrible? Where, from
the depths of an agnosticism, which thousands of years have augmented, can
we point to a wider horizon? At the very outset, it surpasses all that has been said,
and goes farther than we shall even dare to go. No spectacle could be more absorbing
than this struggle of our forefathers of five to ten thousand years ago with the
Unknowable, the unknowable nature of the causeless Cause of all Causes. But of this
cause, or this God, we should never have known anything, had He remained selfabsorbed, had He never manifested Himself." Thus it is, say the Laws of Manu, "that, by
an alternation of awakening and repose, the immutable Being causes all this assemblage
of creatures, mobile and immobile, eternally to return to life and to die." He exhales
Himself, or expels His breath, throughout the Universe, innumerable worlds are born,
multiply and evolve. He Himself inhales, drawing His breath, and Matter enters into
Spirit, which is but an invisible form of Matter: and the worlds disappear, without
perishing, to reintegrate the Eternal cause, and emerge once more upon the awakening
of Brahma - that is, thousands of millions of years later; to enter into Him so it has been
and ever shall be, through all eternity, without beginning, without cessation, without
end."
"When the world had emerged from the darkness," says the Bhagavata Puranam, "the
subtle elementary principle produced the vegetable seed which first of all gave life to the
plants. From the plants, life passed into the fantastic creatures which were born of the
slime in the waters; then, through a series of different shapes and animals, it came to
Man." They passed in succession by way of the plants, the worms, the insects, the
serpents, the tortoises, cattle, and the wild animals - such is the lower stage," says Manu
again, who adds, "Creatures acquired the qualities of those that preceded them, so that
the farther down its position in the series, the greater its qualities.
"Have we not here the whole of Darwinian evolution confirmed by geology and
foreseen at least 6,000 years ago? On the other hand, is this not the theory of Akasa
which we more clumsily call the ether, the sole source of all substances, to which our
science is returning? Is it true that the recent theories of Einstein deny ether, supposing
that radiant energy - visible light, for example - is propagated independently through a
space that is an absolute void. But the scientific ether is not precisely the Hindu Akasa
which is much more subtle and immaterial being a sort of spiritual element or divine
energy, space uncreated, imperishable, and infinite."
(source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji p. 17 and 49).
Women as Rishis
The history of the most of the known civilizations show that the further back we go into
antiquity, the more unsatisfactory is found to be the general position of women. Hindu
civilization is unique in this respect, for here we find a surprising exception to the general
rule. The further back we go, the more satisfactory is found to be the position of women
in more spheres than one; and the field of education is most noteworthy among them.
There is ample and convincing evidence to show that women were regarded as perfectly
eligible for the privilege of studying the Vedic literature and performing the sacrifices
enjoined in it down to about 200 B.C. This need not surprise us, for some of the hymns
of the Rig Veda are the composition of twenty sage-poetesses.
Women were then admitted to fulfill religious rites and consequently to complete
educational facilities. Women-sages were callee Rishikas and Brahmavadinis. The
Rig Veda knows of the following Rishikas 1.Romasa 2.Lopamudra 3.Apala 4. Kadru
5.Visvavara 6. Ghosha 7. Juhu 8. Vagambhrini 9. Paulomi 10 Jarita 11. SraddhaKamayani 12. Urvasi 12. Sarnga 14. Yami 15. Indrani 18. Savitri 19. Devajami 20.
Nodha 21 Akrishtabhasha 22. Sikatanivavari 23. Gaupayana.
Sculpture showing Vaishanava Guru and his royal discipline at Konark, holding in his
right hand a MS, with his attending guards shown below.
Now on display at the Victoria Albert Museum in London, England.
***
The Brahmavadinis were the products of the educational discipline of brahmacharaya for
which women also were eligible. Rig Veda refers to young maidens completing their
education as brahmacharinis and then gaining husbands in whom they are merged like
rivers in oceans. Yajurveda similarly states that a daughter, who has completed her
brahmacharya, should be married to one who is learned like her. A most catholic passage
occurs in YajurVeda (xxvi, 2) which enjoins the imparting of Vedic knowledge to all
classes, Brahmins and Rajanyas, Sudras, Anaryas, and charanas (Vaisyas) and
women. No one can recite Vedic prayers or offer Vedic sacrifices without having
undergone the Vedic initiation (Upanayana). It is, therefore, but natural that in the early
period the Upanayana of girls should have been as common as that of boys. The Arthava
Veda (xi. 5.8) expressly refers to maidens undergoing the Brahmacharya discipline and
the Sutra works of the 5th century B.C. supply interesting details in its connection. Even
Manu includes Upanayana among the sanskaras (rituals) obligatory for girls (II.66).
Music and dancing was also taught to them. Brahmavadins used to marry after their
education was over, some of them like Vedavati, a daughter of sage Kusadhvaja, would
not marry at all.
Women in Education
Radha Kumud Mookerji (1884 -1964) Indian historian, has noted: "An important
feature of this educational system should not be missed. The part taken in intellectual life
by women like Gargi who could address a Congress of philosophers on learned topics, or
like Maitreyi, who had achieved the highest knowledge, that of Brahma. The Rigveda
shows us some women as authors of hymns, such as Visvavara, Ghosha, and Apala."
(source: Hindu Civilization - By Radha Kumud Mookerji p. 111 Longmans, Green
and Co. London 1936).
The Vedic women received a fair share of masculine attention in physical culture and
military training. The Rigveda tells us that many women joined the army in those days. A
form of chariot race was one of the games most popular during the Vedic period. People
were fond of swinging. Ball games were in vogue in those days by both men and women.
Apart from this, a number of courtyard games like" Hide and seek" and "Run and catch"
were also played by the girls. Playing with dice became a popular activity. The dices were
apparently made of Vibhidaka nuts. From the Rigveda, it appears that the Vedic Aryans
knew the art of boxing.
Top of Page
Education in the Epics

Takshashila was a noted center of learning. The story is told of one of its teachers named
Dhaumya who, had three disciples named Upamanyu, Aruni, and Veda.
Hermitages
The Mahabharata tells of numerous hermitages where pupils from distant parts
gathered for instruction round some far-famed teachers. A full-fledged Asrama is
described as consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as following:

1. Agnisthana, the place for fire-worship and prayers
2. Brahma-sthana, the Department of Veda
3. Vishnusthana, the Department for teaching Raja-Niti, Arthaniti, and Vartta
4. Mahendrasthana, Military Section
5. Vivasvata-sthana, Department of Astronomy
6. Somasthana, Department of Botany
7. Garuda-sthana, Section dealing with Transport and Conveyances
8. Kartikeya-sthana, Section teaching military organization, how to form patrols,
battalions, and army.
9. The most important of such hermitage was that of the Naimisha, a forest which
was like a university. the presiding personality of the place was Saunaka, to
whom was applied the designation of Kulapati, sometimes defined as the
preceptor of 10,000 disciples.
10.The hermitage of Kanva was another famous center of learning, of which a full
description is given. It is situated on the banks of the Malini, a tributary of the
Sarayu River. It was not a solitary hermitage, but an assemblage of numerous
hermitages round the central hermitage of Rishi Kanva, the presiding spirit of the
settlement. There were specialists in every branch of learning cultivated in that
age; specialists in each of the four Vedas; in sacrificial literature and art; KalpaSutras; in the Chhanda (Metrics), Sabda (Vyakarana), and Nirukta. There were
also Logicians, knowing the principles of Nyaya, and of Dialectics (the art of
establishing propositions, solving doubts, and ascertaining conclusions). There
were also specialists in the physical sciences and art. There were, for example,
experts in the art of constructing sacrificial altars of various dimensions and
shapes (on the basis of a knowledge of Solid Geometry); those who had
knowledge of the properties of matter (dravyaguna); of physical processes and
their results of causes and their effect; and zoologists having a special knowledge
of monkeys and birds. It was thus a forest University where the study of every
available branch of learning was cultivated.
11.
12.
13.Hermitage of Rishi Bharadvaja at Prayaga, or at Atri at Chitrakuta; showing
Rama, Lakshmana and Sita standing before the Rishi.
14.(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji).
15.***
16.The hermitage of Vyasa was another seat of learning. There Vyasa taught the
Vedas to his disciples. Those disciples were highly blessed Sumantra,
vaisampayana, Jamini of great wisdom, and Paila of great ascetic merit." They
were afterwards joined by Suka, the famous son of Vyasa.
17.Among the other hermitages noticed by the Mahabharata may be mentioned
those of Vasishtha and Visvamitra and that in the forest of Kamyaka on the banks
of the Saraswati. But a hermitage near Kurkshetra deserves special notice for the
interesting fact recorded that it produced two noted women hermits. There
"leading from youth the vow of brahmacharya, a Brahmin maiden was crowned
with ascetic success and ultimately acquiring yogic powers, she became a
tapassiddha", while another lady, the daughter not of a Brahmin but a Kshatriya,
a child not of poverty but affluence, the daughter of a king, Sandilya by name,
came to live there the life of celibacy and attained spiritual pre-eminence.
18.Top of Page
20.Period of Panini
19.
21.When we study how these institutions grew we find that students approached the
learned souls for the acquisition of knowledge. Parents, too encouraged it and
sent their boys to the institutions. When their number began to increase the
institutions formed with these students began to grow gradually. With the lapse of
time these institutions turned into Universities and were maintained with the
munificent gift of the public and the state. In this way many institutions were
formed of which Taxila, Ujjain, Nalanda, Benares, Ballavi, Ajanta, Madura and
Vikramsila were very famous. Taxila was famous for medicine and Ujjain for
Astronomy. Both were pre-Buddhist. Jibaka the well known medical expert and
the state physician of the King of Magadha of the 6th century B.C. and Panini the
famous grammarian of the 7th century B.C. and Kautilya, the authority on
Arthasastra, of the 4th century B.C. were students of Taxila.
22.Education as revealed in the grammatical Sutras of Panini, together with the
works of Katyayana and Patanjali. The account of education in the Sutra period
will not be complete without the consideration of the evidence of the grammatical
literature as represented in the works of Panini and his two famous
commentators, Katyayana and Patanjali. Panini throws light on the literature of his
times. Four classes of literature are distinguished.
23.
24.
25.Bhagiratha in Meditation - Pallava relief of 7-8th century A.D. at Mamallapuram.
The Yogi (who was a king) appears to be petrified by his prolonged penance and
has become a part of the rocks round him. His penance moves Goddess Ganga
who melts and descends from Heaven to Earth, pouring out Her bounty in
streams of plenty.

27.***
28.There is evidence that girls have been admitted in Vedic schools or Charanas.
Panini refers to this specially. A Kathi is a female student of Katha school.
There are hostels for female students and they are known as Chhatrisala.
Each Charana or school has an inner circle of teachers known as Parisad. Their
decisions on doubts about the reading and the meaning of Vedic culture are
binding. Pratisakyas are said to be the product of such Parisad.
29.The academic year has several terms. Each term is inaugurated by a ceremony
called Upakarnmana and ends by the Utsarga ceremony. Holidays (Anadhyayas)
are regularly observed on two Astamis (eight day of the moon) two Chaturdasis
(fourteenth day of the moon), Amavasya, Purnima and on the last day of each of
the four seasons, called Chaturmasi. Besides these Nitya (regular) holidays there
are Naimittika (occasional) holidays due to accidental circumstances, eg. storms,
thunder, rain, fog, fire, eclipses etc.
30.Top of Page
31.
32.Buddhist Education
33.Buddhism as a phase of Hinduism
34.Buddhist education can be rightly regarded as a phase of the ancient Hindu
system of education. Buddhism, itself, especially in its original and ancient form,
is, as has been admitted on all hands, rooted deeply in the pre-existing Hindu
systems of thought and life.
35.Max Muller in Chips from a German Workshop i 434), "To my mind, having
approached Buddhism after a study of the ancient religion of India, the religion of
the Veda, Buddhism has always seemed to be, to a new religion, but a natural
development of the Indian mind in its various manifestations, religious,
philosophical, social, and political."
36.Auguste Barth (1834-1916) in The Religions of India, p. 101 calls Buddhism:
"a Hindu phenomenon, a natural product, so to speak, of the age and social circle
that witnessed its birth", and "when we attempt to reconstruct its primitive
doctrine and early history we come upon something so akin to what we meet in
the most ancient Upanishads and in the legends of Hinduism that it is not always
easy to determine what features belong peculiarly to it."
37.T. W. Rhys Davids (1843-1922) in Buddhism p. 34 calls Gautama Buddha "the
creature of his times", of whose philosophy it must not be supposed that "it was
entirely of his own creation." He wrote: "The fact we should never forget is that
Gautama was born and brought up and lived and died a Hindu. On the whole, he
was regarded by the Hindus of that time a Hindu. Without the intellectual work of
his predecessors, his work, however, original, would have been impossible. He
was the greatest and wisest and best of the Hindus and, throughout his career, a
characteristic India."
38.Edward Washburn Hopkins (1857-1932) goes so far as to assert (The

Religions of India p. 298) that "the founder of Buddhism did not strike out a
new system of morals; he was not a democrat; he did not originate a plot to
overthrow the Brahminic priesthood; he did not invent the order of monks."
39.Hermann Oldenberg (1854-1920): "For hundreds of years before Buddha's
time, movements were in progress in Indian thought which prepared the way for
Buddhism."
40.(source: Ancient India - By V. D. Mahajan p. 197).
41.
42.
43.The school is "in a verandah in his father's palace; Gautama Buddha being
instructed, with three other boys, by a Brahmin teacher. On their laps are
tablets...caged birds, musical instruments, a battle-axe, bows. Gautama, a
prince, was given, along with literary education, education in music and military
arts like archery.
45.***
46.The Buddha was a product of the Hindu System
47.The thesis also receives a most conclusive confirmation from the details of the
Buddha's own career as preserved in the traditional texts. The details show how
largely Buddha was himself the product of the then prevailing Hindu
educational systems. We see how in the very first step that he takes towards
the Buddhahood, the renunciation of the home and the world, the world of riches
to which he is born, he was not at all singular but following the path trodden by all
seekers after truth in all ages and ranks of society. Our ancient literature is full of
examples of the spirit of acute, utkata, vairagya under which the rich, the
fortunate, and the noble not less than the poor, the destitute and the lowly, the
young with a distaste for life before tasting it as much as the old who have had
enough of it, even women and maidens, as eagerly leave their homes and adopt
the ascetic life as a positive good as their dear ones entreat them to desist such a
step. The Buddha's next step was to place himself under the guidance of two
successive gurus. The first was the Brahmin, Alara Kalama, at Vesali, having a
following of 300 disciples who taught him the successive stages of meditation and
the doctrine of the Atman, from which the Buddha turns back dissatisfied on the
ground that it "does not lead to aversion, absence of passion, cessation,
quiescence, knowledge, supreme wisdom and Nirvana, but only as far as the
realm of nothingness". Next he attaches himself to the sage of Rajagaha with 700
pupils, Uddaka, the disciple of Rama but "he gained no clear understanding from
his treatment of the soul." As Rhys David points out "Gotama, either during this
period or before must have gone through a very systematic and continued course
of study in all the deepest philosophy of the time."
48.
49.
50.Gautama at School: practicing writing. Gautama at School: learning music
51.
52.Gautama at school: being instructed in Archery - Gandhara Sculptures - 2nd
century A.D.
54.***
55.In the Lalitavistara Sastra, the education of Buddha as a child, aged eight by
the Sage Vishvamitra, who says:
56.Let us turn to Numbers. Count after me
Until you reach lakh (= one hundred thousand):
One, two, three, four, up to ten
Then in tens, up to hundreds and thousands,
After which, the child named the numbers,
Then the decades and the centuries, without stopping.
And once he reached lakh, which he whispered in silence,
Then came koti, nahut, ninnahut, khamba,
viskhamba, abab, attata,
Up to kumud, gundhika, and utpala
Ending with pundarika (leading)
Towards paduma, making it possible to count
Up to the last grain of the finest sand
Heaped up in mountainous heights.
57.(source: The Universal History of Numbers - By Georges Ifrah p. 421 423).
Takshasila/Taxila - The Most Ancient University
58.Takkasila was the most famous seat of learning of ancient India. Takkasila was
also the capital of Gandhara and its history goes back into hoary antiquity. It was
founded by Bharata and named after his son Taksha, who was
established there as its ruler. Janamejaya's serpent sacrifice was performed at

this very place. As a center for learning the fame of the city was unrivalled in the
6th century B.C. Its site carries out the idea held by the ancient Hindus of the
value of natural beauty in the surroundings of a University. The valley is "a
singularly pleasant one, well-watered by a girdle of hills." The Jatakas tell us of
how teachers and students lived in the university and the discipline imposed on
the latter, sons of Kings and themselves future rulers though they might be! The
Jatakas (No. 252) thinks that this discipline was likely "to quell their pride and
haughtiness". It attracted scholars from different and distant parts of India.
Numerous references in the Jatakas show how thither flocked students from far
off Benares, Rajagaha, Mithila, Ujjain, from the Central region, Kosala, and Kuru
kingdoms in the North country. The fame of Takkasila as a seat of learning was of
course due to that of its teachers. They are always spoken of as being " world
renowned" being "authorities", specialists, and experts in the subject they
professed. Of one such teacher we read: "Youths of the warrior and brahmin
castes came from all India to be taught the art by him" Sending their sons a
thousand miles away from home bespeaks the great concern felt by their parents
in their proper education. As shown in the case of the medical student,
Jivaka, the course of study at Takila extended to as many as seven years.
Jataka No. 252 records how parents felt if they could see their sons return home
after graduation at Taxila. One of the archery schools at Taxila had on its roll call,
103 princes from different parts of the country. King Prasenajit of Kosala, a
contemporary of the Buddha, was educated in the Gandhara capital. Prince Jivaka,
an illegitimate son of Bimbusara, spent seven years at Taxila in learning medicine
and surgery.
59.Takshasila a Center for Higher Education: The students are always spoken of
as going to Takshasila to "complete their education and not to begin it." They are
invariably sent at the age of sixteen or when they "come of age".
60.Different Courses of Study
61."The Jatakas contain 105 references to Takshasila. "The fame of Takshasila as a
seat of learning was, of course, due to that of its teachers. They are always
spoken of as being 'world-renowned,' being authorities, specialists and experts in
the subjects they professed. It was the presence of scholars of such
acknowledged excellence and widespread reputation that caused a steady
movement of qualified students from all classes and ranks of society towards
Takshasila from different and distant parts of the Indian continent, making it the
intellectual capital of India of those days. Thus various centers of learning in the
different parts of the country became affiliated, as it were, to the educational
center or to the central University of Takshasila, which exercised a kind of
intellectual suzerainty over the world of letters in India." Takshashila was
destroyed by the Huns in 455 A.D."
62.(source: India: A synthesis of cultures by Kewal Motwani p. 133).
63.The Jatakas constantly refer to students coming to Takkasila to complete their
education in the three Vedas and the eighteen Sippas or Arts. Sometimes the
students are referred to as selecting the study of the Vedas alone or the Arts
alone. The Boddisatta (Buddha) is frequently referred to as having
learned the three Vedas by heart. Takshila was famous for military training,
wrestling, archery and mountain- climbing.

64.Science, Arts and Crafts: The Jatakas mention of subjects under scientific and
technical education. Medicine included a first hand study of the plants to find out
the medicinal ones. Takkasila was also famous for some of its special schools. One
of such schools was the Medical Schools which must have been the best of its kind
in India. It was also noted for its School of Law which attracted student from
distant Ujjeni. Its Military School were not less famous, which offered training in
Archery. Thus the teachers of Takkasila were as famous for their knowledge of the
arts of peace as for that of war. Much attention was paid to the development of
social and cultural activities in all possible ways. Dancing and dramatic groups,
singers and musicians and other artists were given encouragement and offered
employment. During the Sangam epoch in South India, the three principal arts,
Music, Dance and Drama were practiced intensively and extensively throughout
the country, and the epic of Silappadikaram contains many references to the
practice of these arts.
65.Next, to Takkasila ranks Benares as a seat of learning. It was, however, largely
the creation of the ex-students of Takkasila who set up as teachers at Benares,
and carried thither the culture of that cosmopolitan educational center which was
molding the intellectual life of the whole of India. There were again certain
subjects in the teaching of which Benares seems to have specialized. There is an
expert who was "the chief of his kind in all India."
66.
67.
68.Assembly of monks seated in three rows and addressed by their leader standing,
with a parasol, in his left hand indicating his rank. Pre - Gandhara period.

70.***
71.Hermitages as Centers of Highest Learning
72.Lastly, it is to be noted that the educational system of the times produced men of
affairs as well as men who renounced the world in the pursuit of Truth. The life of
renunciation indeed claimed many an ex-student of both Takksila and Benares. In
the sylvan and solitary retreats away from the haunts of men, the hermitages
served as schools of higher philosophical speculation and religious training where
the culture previously acquired would attain its fruitage.
73.There are accounts of education written by eye witness who were foreigners, like
the pilgrims from China who regarded India, as its Holy Land. The very fact of
the pilgrimage of Chinese scholars like Fa-Hien or Hiuen Tsang to India
testifies to the tribute paid by China to the sovereignty of Indian thought
and culture which made its influence felt beyond the bounds of India
itself in distant countries which might well be regarded as then
constituting a sort of a Greater India. The duration of Fa-Hien's travel in
India was for fifteen years. "After Fa-Hien set out from Ch'ang-gan it took him six
years to reach Central India; and on his return took him three years to reach
Ts'ing-chow. A profound and abiding regard for the learning and culture of India
was needed to feed and sustain such a long continued movement. Indeed, the
enthusiasm for Indian wisdom was so intense, the passion for a direct contact
with its seats was so strong, that it defied the physical dangers and difficulties
which lay so amply in the way of its realization. Besides, Chinese scholars, I-tsing
refers to "the Mongolians of the North" sending students to India.
74.The teachers themselves were most exemplary. Hiuen Tsang says of the
Brahmins: "The teachers (of the Vedas) must themselves have closely studied the
deep and secret principles they contain, and penetrated to their remotest
meaning. They then explain their general sense, and guide their pupils in
understanding the words which are difficult. They urge them on and skillfully
conduct them. They add luster to their poor knowledge and stimulate the
desponding." Studies were pursued unremittingly, and Hiuen Tsang says: "The
day is not sufficient for asking and answering profound questions. From morning
till night they engage in discussion; the old and the young mutually help one
another."
75.(source: Life of Hiuen-Tsiang - by Samuel Beal vol. I p. 79 and vol II p. 170).
76.Attached to the university was a kind of post-graduate department, a group of
learned Brahmins known collectively as a parishad. A parishad seems usually to
have consisted of ten men; four 'walking encyclopedias' each of whom had learnt
all the four Vedas by heart, three who had specialized in one of the Sutras, and
representative of the three orders of brahmachari grihastha and vanaprastha student, householder and hermit. The parishad gave decisions on disputed points
of religion of learning. I-Tsing reports that at the end of their course of studies, 'to
try the sharpness of their wit' some men 'proceed to the king's court to lay down
before it the sharp weapon of their abilities: there they present their schemes and
show their talent, seeking to be appointed in the practical government..."
77.(source: Everyday Life in Ancient India - By Padmini Sengupta p. 162-169).

78.It is interesting to note that the study of Sanskrit was continued in Buddhist
monasteries. At the Pataliputra monastery Fa-Hien stayed for three years
"learning Sanskrit books and the Sanskrit speech and writing out the Vinaya
rules." Archery is found mentioned in the Jataka stories. The Bhimsena Jataka
tells that Boddhisatva learnt archery at Takshila. Wrestling was popular and
descriptions of such breath-holding bouts in wrestling are available in the Jataka
stories. Two kinds of games called Udyana Krida or garden games and Salila Krida
or water sports are also mentioned. Archery was also popular among the women
during this period, as can be seen from the Ahicchatra images. Hunting, elephant
fighting, Ram fighting, and Partridge fighting were the other important games of
this period.
79.Takshashila, the most ancient Hindu University, was destroyed by the barbarian
White Huns in 455 A.D. Sir John Marshall, Director General of Archaeology in
India, has given a most interesting account, but he says regretfully,
80."The monuments of Taxila were wantonly and ruthlessly devastated in the course
of the same (fifth) century. This work of destruction is almost certainly to be
attributed to the hordes of barbarian white Huns, who after the year 455 A.D.
swept down into India in ever increasing numbers carrying sword and fire
wherever they went, and not only possessed themselves of the kingdom of the
Kinshans, but eventually overthrew the great empire of the Guptas. From this
calamity Taxila never again recovered."
81.(source: India: Bond Or Free? - By Annie Besant p. 94-97).
82.Top of Page
83.
84.Universities of Ancient India
85.1. Takkasila - also known as Taxila - for information on this university, please
refer to the above passages.
86.2. Mithila - Mithila, was a stronghold of Brahminical culture at its best in the
time of the Upanishads, under its famous Philosopher-king Janaka who used to
send our periodical invitations to learned Brahmins of the Kuru-Panchala country
to gather to his court for purpose of philosophical discussions. Under him Eastern
India was vying with North-Western India in holding the palm of learning. In those
days, the name of the country was not Mithila but Videha. In the time of the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and Buddhist literature, Mithila retained the
renown of its Vedic days.
87.Its subsequent political history is somewhat chequered. When Vijaya Sen was
King of Bengal, Nanyadeva of the Karnataka dynasty was King of Mithila in A.D.
1097. King Vijaya defeated him but was defeated by his son Gangadeva who
recovered Mithila from him. This Karnataka Dynasty ruled Mithila for the period c.
A.D. 115-1395, followed by the Kamesvara Dynasty which ruled between c. A.D.
1350-1515. It was again followed by another dynasty of rulers founded by
Mahesvara Thakkura in the time of Akbar, and this dynasty has continued up to
the present time.

88.Mithila as a seat of learning flourished remarkably under these later kings. The
Kamesvara period was made famous in the literary world by the erudite and
versatile scholar, Jagaddhara, who wrote commentaries on a variety of texts, the
Gita, Devi-mahatmya, Meghaduta, Gita-Govinda, Malati-Madhava, and the like,
and original treatises on Erotics, such as Rasika-Sarvasva-Sangita-Sarvasva.
89.The next scholar who shed luster on Mithila was the poet Vidyapati, the author of
Maithili songs or Padavali generally. He has inspired for generations the later
Vaishava writers of Bengal.
90.Mithila made conspicious contributions in the realm of severe and scientific
subjects. It developed a famous School of Nyaya which flourished from the
twelfth to the fifteenth century A.D. under the great masters of Logic, Gangesa,
Vardhamana, Pakshadhara, and others. This School of New Logic (Navya Nyaya)
was founded by Gangesa Upadhyaya and his epoch-making work named
"Tattva Chinatmani", a work of about 300 pages whose commentaries make up
over 1,000,000 pages in three centuries of its study. Gangesa is supposed to have
lived after A.D. 1093-1150, the time of Ananada Suri and Amarachandra Suri,
whose opinions he has quoted.
91.By its scholastic activities Mithila in those days, like Nalanda, used to draw
students from different parts of India for advanced and specialized studies in
Nyaya or Logic, of which it was then the chief center.
92.3. Nalanda
93.Nalanda was the name of the ancient village identified with modern Baragaon, 7
miles north of Rajgir in Bihar. The earliest mention of the place is that in the
Buddhist scriptures which refer to a Nalanda village near Rajagriha with a
Pavarika Mango Park in Buddha's time. The Jain texts carry the history earlier
than the Buddhist. IT was the place where Mahavira had met Gosala and was
counted as a bahira or suburb of Rajagriha where Mahavira had spent as many as
fourteen rainy seasons. Nalanda, when Fa-hien visited it, was called Nala and was
known as the place "where Sariputta was born, and to which also he returned,
and attained here his pari-nirvana. Nalanda was not a sectarian or a religious
university in the narrow sense of the term, imparting only Buddhist thought.
Subjects other than Buddhism were taught as fervently. Almost all sciences,
including the science of medicine were taught. So were the Upanishads and the
Vedas. Paninis grammar, the science of pronunciation (Phonetics), etymology,
Indology and Yoga were all included in the curricula. Surprisingly, even archery
was taught at Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang himself learnt Yogasastra from Jayasena.
94.
95.
97.***
98.Knowledge of Sanskrit was essential for all entrants in spite of the fact that
Sakyamuni delivered his sermons in Pali. Knowledge of Sanskrit meant complete
mastery of Sanskrit grammar, literature and correct pronunciation, and was
compulsory to enter the portals of the university. On the authority of Hiuen Tsang,
we can safely say that the entrants to Nalanda were supposed to be well-versed in
"Beda" i.e. Veda, Vedanta, Samakhya, Nyaya and Vaisesika. I-Tsing also confirms
this in his accounts. Nalanda was an example of the Guru-Shishya parampara,
a great Indian tradition. The authority of the Guru (teacher) over the shishya
(student) was absolute, and yet, dissent was permitted in academic matters.Free
education: Out of the income of the estate. In Nalanda, swimming, breathing
exercises and yoga formed an integral part of the curriculum. Harshavardhana, of
the Gupta dynasty was a great sportsman and he encouraged his subjects as well.
Another great contemporary of Harsha, Narasimhan or Mamallah was also a great
wrestler. He belonged to the Pallava dynasty.

99.Yuan Chawang, a Chinese student at Nalanda, wrote: "In the establishment were
some thousand brethren, all men of great learning and ability, several hundreds
being highly esteemed and famous; the brethren were very strict in observing the
precepts and regulations of their order; learning and discussing, they found the
day too short. Day and night they admonished each other, juniors and seniors
mutually helping to perfection....Hence foreign students came to the institution to
put an end to their rounds and then become celebrated and those who shared the
name of Nalanda, were all treated with respect, wherever they went."
100.
(source: On Yuang-Chwang's Travels in India - By Thomas Watters
(1840-1901) volume 2 p. 165).
101.
Though Buddhism and Hinduism became arrayed in opposite philosophical
camps, they were both given their places in the university curriculum. There was
no intellectual isolationism of the type that characterizes modern sectarian
institutions of the Christian world. According to eminent Indian historian, R C
Dutt, "Buddhism never assumed a hostile attitude towards the parent religion of
India; and the fact that the two religions existed side by side for long centuries
increased their tolerance of each other. Hindus went to Buddhist monasteries and
universities, and Buddhist learnt from Brahmin sages."
102.
(source: Civilization in Ancient India - By R C Dutt p. 127).
103.
According to Alain Danielou (1907-1994) son of French aristocracy,
author of numerous books on philosophy, religion, history and arts of India:
"Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveler, stayed five years at Nalanda University, where
more than seven thousand monks lived. He mentions a very considerable
literature in Sanskrit and other works on history, statistics and geography, none of
which have survived. He also writes of officials whose job it was to write records
of all important events. At Nalanda, studies included the Vedas, the
Upanishads, cosmology (Sankhya), realist or scientific philosophy
(Vaisheshika), logic (Nyaya), to which great importance was attached,
and Jain and Buddhist philosophy. Studies also included grammar, mechanics,
medicine, and physics. Medicine was highly effective, and surgery was quite
developed. The pharmacopoeia was enormous, and astronomy was very
advanced. The earth's diameter had been calculated very precisely. In
physics, Brahmagupta had discovered the law of gravity."
104.
(source: A Brief History of India - By Alain Danielou p. 165-166).
4. Vallabi
105.
Valabhi in Kathiawad was also a great seat of Hindu and Buddhist learning.
It was the capital of an important kingdom and a port of international trade with
numerous warehouses full of rarest merchandise. During the 7th century,
however, it was more famous as a seat of learning. I-tsing informs us that its
fame rivaled with that of Nalanda in eastern India.
106.
5. Vikramasila
107.
Like Nalanda and Vallabhi, the University of Vikramsila was also the result
of royal benefactions. Vikramasila, found by king Dharmapala in the 8th century,

was a famous center of international learning for more than four centuries. King
Dharmapala (c. 775-800 A. D) was its founder, he built temples and monasteries
at the place and liberally endowed them. He had the Vihara constructed after a
good design. He also erected several halls for the lecturing work. His successors
continued to patronize the University down to the 13th century. The teaching was
controlled by a Board of eminent teachers and it is stated that this Board of
Vikramsila also administered the affairs at Nalanda. The University had six
colleges, each with a staff of the standard strength of 108 teachers, and a Central
Hall called the House of Science with its six gates opening on to the six Colleges.
It is also stated that the outer walls surrounding the whole University was
decorated with artistic works, a portrait in painting of Nagarjuna adorning the
right of the principal entrance and that of Atisa on the left. On the walls of the
University were also the painted portraits of Pandits eminent for their learning and
character.
108.
Grammar, logic, metaphysics, ritualism were the main subjects specialized
at the institution.
109.
Destruction of Vikramsila by Moslems: In 1203, the University of
Vikramasila was destroyed by the Mahomadens under Bakhtyar Khilji. As
related by the author of Tabakat-i-Nasari:
110.
"the greater number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmins and
the whole of these Brahmins had their heads shaven; and they were all slain.
There were a great number of books on religion of the Hindus (Buddhists) there;
and when all these books came under the observation of the Musalmans, they
summoned a number of Hindus that they might give them information respecting
the import of these books; but the whole of the Hindus had been killed. On
becoming acquainted (with the contents of those books), it was found that the
whole of that fortress and city was a college, and, in the Hindu tongue, they call a
college a Bihar (Vihara)."
111.
After the destruction of the Vikramsila University, Sri Bhadra repaired to
the University of Jagadala whence he proceeded to Tibet, accompanied by many
other monks who settled down there as preachers of Buddhism.
112.
6. Jagaddala
113.
Its foundation by King Rama Pala. According to the historical Epic
Ramacharita, King Ram Pala, of Bengal and Magadha, who reigned between A.D.
108-1130, founded a new city which he called Ramavati on the banks of the rivers
Ganga and Karatoya in Varendra and equipped the city with a Vihara called
Jagadala. The University could barely work for a hundred years, till the time of
Moslem invasion sweeping it away in A.D. 1203. But in its short life it has made
substantial contributions to learning through its scholars who made it famous by
their writings.
114.
7. Odantapuri
115.
Very little is known of this University, although at the time of
Abhayakaragupta there were 1,000 monks in residence here. Odanatapuri is now
known for the famous scholar named Prabhakara who hailed from Chatarpur in
Bengal. It appears that this University had existed long before the Pala kings
came into power in Magadha. These kings expanded the University by endowing it
with a good Library of Brahmanical and Buddhist works. This Monastery was taken
as the model on which the first Tibetan Buddhist Monastery was built in 749 A.D.
under King Khri-sron-deu-tsan on the advice of his guru, Santarakshita.
116.
117.
118.
A typical Brahmin with a high chignon, beard, short garments, seat of mat,
round leafy hut; four fellow denizens of his hermitage, a dow, a crow, a kneeling
doe, and a coiled snake, all living at peace as friends in the atmosphere of nonviolence.
119.
(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud

Mookerji).
120.
121.
***
8. Nadia
122.
Nadia is the popular name of Navadvipa on the Bhagirathi at its confluence
with Jalangi. Once it was a center of trade borne by the Bhagirathi between
Saptframa )on the river Sarasvati near Hoogly) and the United Provinces, and in
the other direction by the Jalangi between Saptagrama and Eastern Bengal.
123.
9. Madura Sangham - was another seat of learning. The Sangham was
known for its learning and academic prestige. Writing about the Tamil institutions,
Dr. Krishnaswami Aiyangar (1871-1947) remarks: "There are two features
with regard to these assemblies that call for special remark. The first, the
academics were standing bodies of the most eminent men among the learned
men of the time in all branches of knowledge. The next, it was the approval of this
learned body that set the seal of authority on the works preserved to it." Scholars
were honored irrespective of sex. Aiyangar continues: "A Ruler of Tanjore, poet,
musician, warrior, and administrator, did extraordinary honor to a lady of Court,
by name Ramachandramha, who composed an epic on the achievements of her
patron, Raghunatha Nayaka of Tanjore. It appears that she was accorded honor of
Kanaka-Ratna Abhisheka (bath in gold and gems). She was, by assent of the
Court, made to occupy the position of "Emperor of Learning."
124.
(source: India: A synthesis of Culture - By Kewal Motwani p. 138).
10. Benares - Benares has always been a culture center of all India fame and
even in the Buddha's day it was already old. Though not a formal university, it is a
place unique in India, which has throughout the ages provided the most suitable
atmosphere for the pursuit of higher studies. The method of instruction as also
the curriculum followed there in early times was adopted from Taxila. Benares
University was famous for Hindu culture. Sankaracharya as a student was
acquainted with this university. Benares is the only city in India which has its
schools representing every branch of Hindu thought. And there is no spiritual path
which has not its center in Benares with resident adherents. Every religious sect
of the Hindus has its pilgrimage there. In ancient days, Sarnath figured as a
recognized seat of Buddhist learning. Rightly, therefore, it is this holy city the very
heart of spiritual India. Alberuni, the noted Arabian historian, mentioned Benares
as a great seat of learning and Bernier, who visited India, described it "as a
kind of university, but it resembled rather the school of ancients, the masters
being spread over different parts of the town in private houses."
125.
11. Kachipuram was another such institution of learning in South India.
It came to be known as Dakshina Kasi, Southern Kashi. Huien Tsang visited it
about 642. A.D. and found Vaishnavite and Shaivite Hindus, Digambara Jain and
Mahayan Buddhists studying together.
126.
12. Navadvip belonged to comparatively recent times and was founded
by Sena Kings of Bengal in about 1063 A.D. and soon rose to be a great center of
learning. It imparted instruction in Vedas, Vedangas, Six Systems especially
Nyaya. Chaitanya was a product of Navadvipa. It had 500-600 students, when A.
H Wilson visited it in 1821, drawn from Bengal, Assam, Nepal and South India.
127.
In 1867, Edward B Cowell (1826-1903) professor of Sanskrit in
Cambridge and author of The aphorisms of Sandilya or The Hindu doctrine
of faith, recorded his opinion in these words: "I could not help looking at these
unpretending lecture-halls with a deep interest, as I thought of the pundits
lecturing there to generation after generation of eager, inquisitive minds. Seated
on the floor with his 'corona' of listening pupils round him, the teacher expiates
on those refinements of infinitesmal logic which makes a European's
brain dizzy to think of, but whose labyrinth a trained Nadia student will
thread with unfaltering precision."
128.
(source: India: A synthesis of Culture - By Kewal Motwani p. 134-145
and Indian Education in Ancient and Later Times - By Key p.145).
129.
130.
Libraries in Ancient India
The great seats of learning in ancient India like Nalanda, Vikramasila,
Pataliputra, and Tamralipti are said to have contained libraries of their own and
striven hard for the promotion of education and learning in the country, the
evidence for which comes from the writings of Hieun-Tsang and It-Sing who spent
some time in some of the centers and studied the Buddhist philosophy. They were
given all facilities to copy down the manuscripts which they wanted from the
libraries. Each of these institutions must have maintained a well equipped library
for the use of teachers and students. The library in ancient times was called either
Saraswati-bhandara or Pustaka bhandara. Many libraries were located in temples.
In South India, records contain references to Nagai, Srirangam, Sermadevi and
Cidambaram, Kacipuram and Sringeri. In this connection it may be mentioned
that libraries in ancient Cambodia were all located in temples and the inscriptions
from some temples in the area bear evidence to that. Library is mentioned for the
first time in the inscriptions of the king Indravarman at Preah Ko and Bakong
(Cambodia). They were rectangular with gabled ends and at first with a single
vaulted hall. The temples of Prasat Bantay Pir Chan, and Angkor Wat
contained libraries in which the main deity of the temples were oriented.
It is also interesting to note that the walls of the library were sculptured
with panels depicting scenes from the epics, the Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
131.
"India has lost much of its great treasures of ancient texts during
the successive invasions by foreign rulers. Our great libraries at Nalanda and
other places were burnt to ashes. Sachan who collected and edited Al Beruni's
works said: "It was like a magic island of quiet and impartial research, in the
midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundered temples. The
work of many eminent scholars contained thousands of volumes of translations of
Indian texts, whose original were lost in India owing to the depredations of
Mohammedan iconoclasts who destroyed hundreds of Hindu and Buddhist seats of
learning, in India including the world famous Nalanda University." "The Christian
missionaries in the West coast took away and burnt many valuable manuscripts.
Many great scholars died without passing down their knowledge to the
descendents. In their quest for livelihood during the nine hundred years of foreign
rule, the descendents did not care to preserve their knowledge."
132.
(source: Hindu Superiority - Har Bilas Sarda p. 150 and Vision of

India - By Sisir Kumar Mitra p. 186 and The Temple Empire - By
Vidyavisarada Garimella Veeraraghuvulu. Printed in Sri Gayathri press.
Kakinada. India 1982 p. 136-137)..
133.
***
134.
(Note: The fall of Nalanda at the hands of the Turks is a story too deep
for tears. Like Nero, Bakhtiar Khilji, its destroyer in 1205 A.D., laughed while
Nalanda burnt. The City of Knowledge, which took several centuries to build, took
only a few hours to be destroyed. Legend has it that when some monks fell at the
feet of the invader to spare at least its world-famed library, Ratnabodhi, he kicked
them and had them thrown in the fire along with the books. The monks fled to
foreign lands, citizens became denizens and Nalanda was relegated to a memory.
135.
(source: Nalanda - The City of Knowledge).
136.
Many of these universities were sacked, plundered, looted by the
Islamic onslaught. They destroyed temples and libraries and indulged in most
heinous type of vandalism. These were particularly heinous crimes. The burning of
the Library of Nalanda ranks with the destruction of the Library of Alexandria as
the two most notorious acts of vandalism in the course of Islamic expansion.
Nalanda, Vikramshila, Odantapura, and Jagddala as the universities destroyed by
Mohammed Bakhtiar Khilji around 1200 A.D. For more refer to The Sack of
Nalanda).
137.
Gertrude Emerson Sen ( - 1982) historian and journalist and Asia
specialist, wrote on the plight of the universities: "Night was to descend on all the
great centers of traditional Indian learning, however, when the untutored Muslims
of Central Asia poured into India with fire and sword at the beginning of the 11th
century."
138.
(source The Pageant of India's History - By Gertrude Emerson Sen
p. 275 - 276).
139.
140.
141.
142.
Hermitage scene

Mookerji).
***
143.
144.
Arrival of the British in India
Later when the British came there was, throughout India, a system of communal
schools, managed by the village communities. The agents of the East India
Company and the Christian missionaries destroyed these village community
schools, and took steps to replace education by introducing English and western
system of education. In October 1931 Mahatma Gandhi made a statement at
Chatham House, London, that created a furor in the English press.
145.
He said, "Today India is more illiterate than it was fifty or a
hundred years ago, and so is Burma, because the British administrators,
when they came to India, instead of taking hold of things as they were,
began to root them out. They scratched the soil and left the root exposed
and the beautiful tree perished".
146.
Mr. Ermest Havell (formerly Principal of the Calcutta school of Art) has
rightly said, the fault of the Anglo-Indian Educational System is that, instead of
harmonizing with, and supplementing, national culture, it is antagonist to, and
destructive, of it.
147.
Sir George Birdwood says of the system that it has destroyed in
Indians the love of their own literature, the quickening soul of a people, and their
delight in their own arts, and worst of all their repose in their own traditional and
national religion, has disgusted them with their own homes, their parents, and
their sisters, their very wives, and brought discontent into every family so far as
its baneful influences have reached."
148.
(source: Bharata Shakti: Collection of Addresses on Indian Culture By Sir John Woodroffe p 75-77).
149.
As Max Mueller, the propagator of the Aryan invasion theory, wrote to his
wife, "It took only 200 years for us to Christianise the whole of Africa, but
even after 400 years India eludes us, I have come to realize that it is
Sanskrit which has enabled India to do so. And to break it I have decided
to learn Sanskrit." The soul of India lies in Sanskrit. And Lord Macaulay
saw to it that the later generations are successfully cut off from their
roots.
150.
151.
(source: Assaulting India's pluralist ethos - by D. Harikumar The

Hindu).
Dalits and Indigenous System of Educaiton
152.
Dharampal (The Beautiful Tree) has effectively debunked the myth
that Dalits had no place in the indigenous system of education. Sir Thomas
Munro, Governor of Madras, ordered a mammoth survey in June 1822, whereby
the district collectors furnished the caste-wise division of students in four
categories, viz., Brahmins, Vysyas (Vaishyas), Shoodras (Shudras) and other
castes (broadly the modern scheduled castes). While the percentages of the
different castes varied in each district, the results were revealing to the extent
that they showed an impressive presence of the so-called lower castes in the
school system.
Thus, in Vizagapatam, Brahmins and Vaishyas together accounted for 47% of the
students, Shudras comprised 21% and the other castes (scheduled) were 20%;
the remaining 12% were Muslims. In Tinnevelly, Brahmins were 21.8% of the
total number of students, Shudras were 31.2% and other castes 38.4% (by no
means a low figure). In South Arcot, Shudras and other castes together
comprised more than 84% of the students!

In the realm of higher education as well, there were regional variations. Brahmins
appear to have dominated in the Andhra and Tamil Nadu regions, but in the
Malabar area, theology and law were Brahmin preserves, but astronomy and
medicine were dominated by Shudras and other castes. Thus, of a total of 808
students in astronomy, only 78 were Brahmins, while 195 were Shudras and 510
belonged to the other castes (scheduled). In medicine, out of a total of 194
students, only 31 were Brahmins, 59 were Shudras and 100 belonged to the other
castes. Even subjects like metaphysics and ethics that we generally associate with
Brahmin supremacy, were dominated by the other castes (62) as opposed to
merely 56 Brahmin students. It bears mentioning that this higher education was
in the form of private tuition (or education at home), and to that extent also
reflects the near equal economic power of the concerned groups.
As a concerned reader informed me, the Survey of Indigenous Education in the
Province of Bombay (1820-1830) showed that Brahmins were only 30% of the
total students there. What is more, when William Adam surveyed Bengal and
Bihar, he found that Brahmins and Kayasthas together comprised less than 40%
of the total students, and that forty castes like Tanti, Teli, Napit, Sadgop, Tamli
etc. were well represented in the student body. The Adam report mentions that in
Burdwan district, while native schools had 674 students from the lowest thirty
castes, the 13 missionary schools in the district together had only 86 students
from those castes. Coming to teachers, Kayasthas triumphed with about 50% of
the jobs and there were only six Chandal teachers; but Rajputs, Kshatriyas and
Chattris (Khatris) together had only five teachers.
Even Dalit intellectuals have questioned what the British meant when
they spoke of education and learning. Dr. D.R. Nagaraj, a leading Dalit
leader of Karnataka, wrote that it was the British, particularly Lord
Wellesley, who declared the Vedantic Hinduism of the Brahmins of
Benares and Navadweep as the standard Hinduism, because they
realized that the vitality of the Hindu dharma of the lower castes was a
threat to the empire. Fort William College, founded by Wellesley in 1800, played
a major role in investing Vedantic learning with a prominence it probably hadn't
had for centuries. In the process, the cultural heritage of the lower castes was
successfully marginalized, and this remains an enduring legacy of colonialism.
Examining Dharampal's Indian science and technology in the eighteenth century,
Nagaraj observed that most of the native skills and technologies that perished as
a result of British policies were those of the Dalit and artisan castes. This
effectively debunks the fiction of Hindu-hating secularists that the so-called lower
castes made no contribution to India's cultural heritage and needed deliverance
from wily Brahmins.
Indeed, given the desperate manner in which the British vilified the Brahmin, it is
worth examining what so annoyed them. As early as 1871-72, Sir John
Campbell objected to Brahmins facilitating upward mobility: the Brahmans are
always ready to receive all who will submit to them The process of
manufacturing Rajputs from ambitious aborigines (tribals) goes on before our
eyes.
Sir Alfred Lyall (1796 - 1865) was unhappy and he wrote:

153.
more persons in India become every year Brahmanists than all
the converts to all the other religions in India put together... these
teachers address themselves to every one without distinction of caste or
of creed; they preach to low-caste men and to the aboriginal tribes in
fact, they succeed largely in those ranks of the population which would
lean towards Christianity and Mohammedanism if they were not drawn
into Brahmanism
154.
So much for the British public denunciation of the exclusion practiced by
Brahmins!
(source: The Brahmin and the Hindu - By Sandhya Jain - dailypioneer.com
- December 14 2004).
155.
156.
157.
158.
Sage Vasistha

Mookerji).
159.
***
160.
Dharampal ( - 2006) was a Gandhian in ceaseless search of truth like his
preceptor Gandhi himself. He has demolished the myth that India was backward
educationally or economically when the British entered. Citing the Christian
missionary William Adams report on indigenous education in Bengal and Bihar in
1835 and 1838, Dharampal established that at that time there were
100,000 schools in Bengal, one school for about 500 boys; that the
indigenous medical system that included inoculation against small-pox.
He also proved by reference to other materials that Adams record was no
legend. He relied on Sir Thomas Munroes report to the Governor at about the
same time to prove similar statistics about schools in Madras. He also found that
the education system in the Punjab during the Maharaja Ranjit Singhs rule was
equally extensive. He estimated that the literary rate in India before the British
was higher than that in England.
Citing British public records he established, on the contrary, that British had no
tradition of education or scholarship or philosophy from 16th to early
18th century, despite Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Newton, etc. Till then
education and scholarship in the UK was limited to select elite. He cited Alexander
Walkers Note on Indian education to assert that it was the monitorial system of
education borrowed from India that helped Britain to improve, in later years,
school attendance which was just 40, 000, yes just that, in 1792. He then
compared the educated peoples levels in India and England around 1800. The
population of Madras Presidency then was 125 lakhs and that of England in 1811
was 95 lakhs. Dharampal found that during 1822-25 the number of those in
ordinary schools in Madras Presidency was around 1.5 lakhs and this was after
great decay under a century of British intervention.
As against this, the number attending schools in England was half - yes just half of Madras Presidencys, namely a mere 75,000. And here to with more than half
of it attending only Sunday schools for 2-3 hours! Dharampal also established that
in Britain elementary system of education at peoples level remained unknown
commodity till about 1800! Again he exploded the popularly held belief that
most of those attending schools must have belonged to the upper castes
particularly Brahmins and, again with reference to the British records,
proved that the truth was the other way round.
During 1822-25 the share of the Brahmin students in the indigenous schools in
Tamil-speaking areas accounted for 13 per cent in South Arcot to some 23 per
cent in Madras while the backward castes accounted for 70 per cent in Salem and
Tirunelveli and 84 per cent in South Arcot.
The situation was almost similar in Malayalam, Oriya and Kannada-speaking
areas, with the backward castes dominating the schools in absolute numbers.
Only in the Telugu-speaking areas the share of the Brahmins was higher and
varied from 24 to 46 per cent. Dharampal's work proved Mahatma Gandhis
statement at Chatham House in London on October 20, 1931 that "India today
is more illiterate than it was fifty or hundred years ago" completely right.
(source: Not many know the Indian past he had discovered! - by S
Gurumurthy - newindpress.com).
161.
Watch video - Brahmins in India have become a minority
162.
The present education system is, in effect, a legacy of the colonial rule. For
more on this tragic destruction of ancient education, please refer to the chapters
Islamic Onslaught, FirstIndologists and European Imperialism. Also refer
to Education: A Beautiful Tree - Indiatogether.com and The Beautiful Tree Shri Dharampal - an associate of Mahatma Gandhi (Biblia Impex, Delhi, 1983).
163.
***
164.
In India, our goddess of learning is Saraswati. She who is seated on a
white lotus, wearing a beautiful white garment; she who holds a lute in her hand
and has a garland of fresh white jasmine buds around her neck; she who is
worshipped even by Brahma, Shiva and all gods may that Saraswati,
Goddess of Learning, remove my ignorance. It is significant that these
ideas of beauty and grace, purity, simplicity, and holiness are associated
with the goddess of learning. In the traditional Indian scheme of values,
scholarship is not regarded as an end in itself, and education is looked upon as
the molding of the complete man. The educational system established by the
British in India was one-sided, and came in for sharp criticism from
Rabindranath Tagore and Sri Aurobindo.
165.
Rabindranath Tagore wrote: "The Western system of education is
impersonal...It dwells in the cold-storage compartments of lessons and the icepacked minds of the schoolmasters...It represented an artificial method of
training specially calculated to produce the carriers of the white man's
burden." Mans intellect has a natural pride in its own aristocracy, which is the
pride of its culture. When this pride succumbs to some compulsion of necessity or
lure of material advantage, it brings humiliation on to the intellectual man.
Modern India, through her education, has been made to suffer this
humiliation. There was a time when India provided her children with a culture
which was the product of her own thought and creation. But this culture was
brushed aside by the educationists under the British rule." "Our educated
community is not a cultured community but a community of qualified candidates."
166.
(source: The Spirit of Modern India - Edited by Robert A McDermont
and V. S. Naravane p. 169 - 171and 182-185).
167.
Top of Page
169.
168.
Professional and Useful Education
170.
Medical science
171.
Medical science is no doubt of hoary antiquity in India. The Vedic literature
refers to the healing feats of Asvins, who though originally human beings, were
later deified by a grateful posterity. This science was fairly well developed by the
4th century B.C., for the Greeks, who had accompanied Alexander, were very well
impressed by the skill of Indian doctors in curing the cases of serpent bites. The
Jatakas refer to the medical students at Taxila treating for cranial abscesses and
intestinal displacement. Medical education was usually imparted by private
teachers. The student had to be well versed in Sanskrit, for most of the books on
medicine were written in that language. Practical training in surgery and
pharmacy and constant discussion were some of the important features of the
training.
172.
Training in Surgery: The beginners were taught how to hold and use the
surgical instruments by practicing upon pumpkins, water melons etc. under the
teacher's direction. Puncturing was demonstrated on the veins of dead animals,
the manner of holding the probe on dry Alabu fruits, application of bandages on
stuffed human figures and the use of caustics on soft pieces of flesh. Susruta
emphasizes on the importance of dissection for perfecting the student's
knowledge; and points out that mere book learning cannot give a clear idea of the
actual internal constituents of the human body. Corpses used to be decomposed
in water and students were then required to dissect them and visualize the nature
of skin, muscles, arteries, bones, internal organs, etc. Anatomical knowledge that
was imparted was fairly high when compared with the contemporary standards
elsewhere.
173.
174.
175.
176.
Image in stone of Pingala, attendant of Surya, holding pen in his right

hand and an Ink-pt in his left. Gupta period.
Mookerji).
177.
***
178.
Smallpox inoculation is an ancient Indian tradition and was

practiced in India before the West.
179.
In ancient times in India smallpox was prevented through the tikah
(inoculation). Kurt Pollak (1968) writes, "preventive inoculation against the
smallpox, which was practiced in China from the 11th century, apparently came
from India". This inoculation process was generally practiced in large part of
Northern and Southern India, but around 1803-04 the British government banned
this process. It's banning, undoubtedly, was done in the name of 'humanity', and
justified by the Superintendent General of Vaccine (manufactured by Dr. E. Jenner
from the cow for use in the inoculation against smallpox).
180.
Dharmapal has quoted British sources to prove that inoculation in India

was practiced before the British did. In the seventeenth century, smallpox
inoculation (tikah) was practiced in India. A particular sect of Brahmins employed
a sharp iron needle to carry out these practices. In 1731, Coult was in Bengal and
he observed it and wrote (Operation of inoculation of the smallpox as performed
in Bengall from Re. Coult to Dr. Oliver Coult in 'An account of the diseases of
Bengall' Calcutta, dated February 10, 1731):
181.
" The operation of inoculation called by the natives tikah has been known
in the kingdom of Bengall as near as I can learn, about 150 years and according
to the Bhamanian records was first performed by one Dununtary, a physician of
Champanagar, a small town by the side of the Ganges about half way to
Cossimbazar whose memory in now holden in great esteem as being through the
another of this operation, which secret, say they, he had immediately of God in a
dream.'
182.
(source: Indian Science And Technology in the Eighteenth Century;
some contemporary European accounts - By Dharampal 1971. An Account of
the manner of inoculating for the Smallpox in the East Indies. Mapusa, Goa: Other
India Press. Chapter VIII p. 142 -164. The Healers, the Doctor, then and now
- By Pollack, Kurt 1968.English Edition. p. 37-8).
183.
184.
185.
186.
Sage Vasistha

Mookerji).
187.
***
188.
The Hindus were the first nation to establish hospitals, and for centuries
they were the only people in the world who maintained them. The Chinese
traveler, Fa-hien, speaking of a hospital he visited in Pataliputra says: "Hither
come all poor and helpless patients suffering from all kinds of infirmities. They are
well taken care of, and a doctor attends them; food and medicine being supplied
according to their wants. Thus they are made quite comfortable, and when they
are well, they may go away."
189.
Excavations at Kumrahar near Patna have revealed in 1953 the existence
of one university-cum hospital named Arogyavihara. Indian hospitals were well
organized, for Hindu doctors were invited by the Abbaside Khalifas to supervise
their own hospitals in the 8th century A.D. The medical course at Taxila was fairly
long, for his physician Jivaka was permitted to go home very reluctantly by his
teacher, though he had spent seven years at that University. The completion of
the course was followed by an examination. This is implied by the observation of
Charaka and Susruta that it is the king's fault, if incompetent doctors practice as a
doctor without possessing king's license.
190.
India continued to be famous for its medical skills throughout the ancient
period. Her doctors could perform surgical operations for cataract, hydrocele,
abscesses, extraction of dead embryos etc. They were in demand in Mesopotamia
and Arabia for guiding and training the physicians there. Khalifa Harun sent
several scholars to India to study Hindu medicine and pharmacology and induced
about 20 doctors to come to Baghdad to become chief medical officers of state
hospitals and to translate Sanskrit medical works into Arabic. Most celebrated
among them was Manaka (Manikya) who was originally invited to cure an ailment
of Sultan Harun, which defied the sill of Arabian physicians. He succeeded in his
treatment and was later induced to become the director of state hospitals and
translate the work of Susruta into Arabic. Arabic system of medicine owes a great
deal to the Ayurvedic system. (refer to S. K. Nadvi - Arab aur Bharat ke
sambandha. p. 103-123).
191.
Veterinary Education had been developed in India fairly early. Since
animals were regarded as a part of the same cosmos as humans, it is not
surprising that animal life was keenly protected and veterinary medicine was a
distinct branch of science with its own hospitals and scholars. Salihotra is its
traditional founder and two of the Pandava heroes, Nakula and Sahadeva are said
to have been experts in it. Numerous texts, especially of the postclassical period,
Visnudharmottara Mahapurana for example, mention veterinary medicine.
Megasthenes refers to the kind of treatment which was later to be incorporated in
Palakapyamuni's Hastya yur Veda and similar treatises. Salihotra was the most
eminent authority on horse breeding and hippiatry. Juadudatta gives a detailed
account of the medical treatment of cows in his Asva-Vaidyaka.
192.
(source: Indian and World Civilization - By D. P. Singhal p.187-188).
193.
194.
195.
196.
Hermitage of Kapila, who gives it away to four exiled Ikshvaku princes.

Mookerji).
197.
***
198.
According to Stanley Wolpert, " Veterinary science had developed into an
Indian medical specialty by that early era, and India's monarchs seem to have
supported special hospitals for their horses as well as their elephants. Hindu faith
in the sacrosanctity of animals as well as human souls, and belief in the partial
divinity of cows and elephants helps explain perhaps what seems to be far better
care lavished on such animals... A uniquely specialized branch of Indian medicine
was called Hastyaurveda ("The Science of Prolonging Elephant Life").
199.
(source: An Introduction to India - By Stanley Wolpert p. 193-194).
200.
Military Education
201.
In modern times military training is usually given only by the state
authorities when recruits join the army. Such was not the case in ancient India.
The average citizen and villager was expected to be able to defend his own hearth
and home: The Arthasastra expressly lays down that every village ought to be
able to defend itself. That such was actually the case in several parts of India
would become quite clear from the accounts of Alexander's invasion, as given by
the Greek historians. In several places the Macedonian was opposed not so much
by state forces as by the whole population in arms. There can be no doubt that in
many of the republican states of the Punjab, the Kathas, the Malavas, the Sibis,
etc. every adult used to receive military training of a fairly high order.
202.
Military Training: There were also some cities in the country, famous as
centers of military training. Taxila, situated in the north-west, had naturally
become a center of military training. Kshatriyas and Brahmins from all over the
country used to go to this frontier city for getting mastery in the military
profession. In one military college of the city there were 103 princes receiving
training in the different branches of the military art, which included elephant-lore,
horsemanship, and cavalry training, and the instructions in the use of the different
weapons then in use.
203.
Commercial Education
204.
There was considerable inter provincial and foreign trade going on in the
ancient times. The maritime activity of ancient India were considerable, and the
trade with South East Asia, Egypt, Greek and Rome was very profitable to India
during the early centuries.
205.
Top of Page
207.
Conclusion
208.
The Hindu Synthesis of the Transcendental and Education:
206.
209.
Author Benoy Kumar Sarkar writes: "The ideal of realizing the infinite in
the finite, the transcendental in the positive, manifested itself also in the
educational system of Hindu India. The graduates trained under the 'domestic
system' of the Gurukulas or preceptors' homes were competent enough to found
and administer states, undertake industrial and commercial enterprises; they
were builders of empires and organizers of business concerns. It was because of

this all-round and manly culture that the people of India could organize vast
schemes of colonization and conquest, and not content with being simply confined
within the limits of mother India, could build up a Greater India beyond the seas,
and spread culture, religion and humanity among the subject and hospitable
races. It it is not for education, how else can we account for the remarkable
progress of the nation in architecture, sculpture, medicine, dyeing, weaving,
mathematics, ship building, chess, navigation, military tactics, and implements
and all such aspects of socio-economic and economico-political life as have to
depend on the help of physical and natural sciences?"
210.
(source: Creative India - By Benoy Kumar Sarkar p. 60-63).
211.
The majestic Saraswati River ran through northwestern India till it dried up
4,000 years ago. The goddess of learning is Saraswati.
212.
Only a nation who had highly educated people would call a river - a
goddess of learning.
213.
Louis Revel ( ? ) French author of The Fragrance of India : landmarks

for the world of tomorrow has observed:
214.
"India, in her glorious past, has understood that the greatness of a

nation, its virility, its moral value, depend entirely on the system of
education that is given to it. Ancient India furnished us examples of
schools, universities, Brahmanic or Buddhist, which brought to this
nation most glorious harvests harvests fallen, alas! today into oblivion. Let
us take such centers of culture as Taxila, Ujjain, and Nalanda. These universities
where thousands of students came from all parts of Asia to drink at the source of
learning based their system of education on individual contacts between master
and pupil, but the masters themselves were pupils in the great University of Life.
What they gave to their students was the honey of their moral and intellectual
experiences received through masters still more experienced in spiritual science,
in the true knowledge of the laws of life. Do we not see the famous Chinese
pilgrim, Hiuen-Tsang, coming to perfect himself at Nalanda in the study of Yogasastra, the knowledge of the laws of being? Did he not have, at Nalanda, the
celebrated vision of the vicissitudes through which India would have to go? Thus,
there passed through these universities great winds of free Spirit and free
Intelligence which swept away the miasms of false conceptions, which formed real
men, noble men, in whom joy sparkled."
215.
(source: The Fragrance of India : landmarks for the world of

tomorrow - By Louis Revel p. 99 - 114).
216.
The percentage of literary people in India was more than that at present.
At least up to the 7th century A.D. this system worked most satisfactorily. People
showed brilliancy in all departments. eg. Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine,
Chemistry, Poetry, Drama, Grammar and Philosophy. No nation could excel these
people at that time. From the 4th century B.C. to the 11th century A.D. all
foreigners who came in contact with India and studied her civilization critically
were very much impressed by it. They spoke highly of Indian character specially
their truthfulness, honesty, and sense of justice. The influence of the system of
education was very great among the people in general. Megasthenes, the Greek
ambassador who came to India in the 4th century B.C. remarked " for whereas
among other nations it is usual in the contests of war, to ravage the soil, among
the Indians it is on the contrary. They never use the conquered as slaves." Idrisi,
the Arabian traveler and scholar in his Geography written in the 11th century A.D.
says, "The Indians are naturally inclined to justice and never depart from it in
action. Their good faith, honesty and fidelity to their engagement were well known
and they were so famous for their qualities that people came to their country from
every side." Abul Fazl, the author of Aini Akbar, in the 16th century notes, "The
Hindus are admirers of truth and showed unbounded fidelity in all dealings."
217.
The Hindus were conscious about their ideal. Though spirituality is their
goal they never neglected the material affairs. They were in the words of
Wordsworth, "true to the kindred points of heaven and home' and knew fully that
matter and spirit are interrelated, one cannot be conceived without the other.
This ideal is maintained by the system of education which is based on a
sound method.'
218.
Dwelling on this wonderful effect of this system of education unparalleled
in history Sir Monier Williams says, "And here I may observe circumstances in
the history of India is more worthy of investigation than the antiquity and
perseverance of her institutions. It has existed almost unaltered since the
description of its organization in Manu's code two or three centuries before
Christian era. It has survived all religious, political and physical convulsions from
which India suffered from time immemorial. Invader after invader has
ravaged the country with fire and sword but the simple self-contained
township has preserved its constitution intact, its customs, precedents, and
peculiar institutions unchanged and unchangeable amid all other changes."
(source: Brahmanism and Hinduism p. 455).
219.
The realization of the ultimate Reality was the ideal of India. Material
progress was never the end in itself but was considered as a means to the
realization of the end. Apara Vidya dealing with material progress could never
bring peace. From all these it appears that the aim of education was not only
material progress but also spiritual growth. Regarding the system of education in
ancient India it is known from the account of Ewan Chowang, the Chinese traveler,
that boys at the age of seven began studying grammar, arts, painting, logic and
scriptures and Brahmin and Buddhist teachers were highly efficient and
persevering. The doors of education was open to all whether they belonged to the
order of monks or of householders.
220.
Ramesh Chandra Dutt, in his Civilization in Ancient India, p. 127,
writes: Buddhism had never assumed a hostile attitude towards the parent
religion of India; and the fact that the two religions existed side by side for long
centuries increased their toleration of each other. In every country Buddhists and
orthodox Hindus lived side by side. Hindus went to Buddhist monasteries and
Universities, and Buddhists learned from Brahmins sages. The same Kings
favored the followers of both religions. The Gupta Emperors were often
worshippers of Shiva and Vishnu, but loaded Buddhists and Buddhist monasteries
with gifts, presents and favors. One king was often a Buddhist and his son an
orthodox Hindu; and often two brothers followed or favored the two religions
without fighting. Every Court had learned men belonging to both the religions,
and Vikramaditya s Court was no exception to the rule.

221.
Mr. Ernest Binfield Havell says that the system of education during the
seventh century was very much improved and better than was under the British.
Even up to the fifteenth century, the educational institutions in every Hindu village
were maintained either from the income of some temple or from the produce of
land set aside for the purpose in villages.
222.
From this, a picture of the educational system of ancient India can be
derived and also come idea of the high standard of civilization then prevailing in
the society.
223.
***
224.
Books Used for this Chapter
225.
1. Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji
2. Education in Ancient India - By Dr. A. S. Altekar
3. Ancient Indian Culture at a Glance - By Swami Tattwananda
4. Creative India - By Benoy Kumar Sarkar
5. Education in South India - By S. Gurumurthy - New Era publication - 1979
Madras
6. Hindu Civilization - By Radha Kumud Mookerji Longmans, Green and Co.
London 1936
226.
Top of Page
227.
228.
Did You Know?
229.
England's debt to India in Pedagogics - The So-called BellLancasterian Pedagogics
230.
During the formative period of the modern educational systems in Europe
and America, the pedagogy of the Hindus, especially on its elementary side, has
played an important part.
231. It is well-known that
primary education was
grossly neglected in
America during the first
half-century of her
independence. In England
even so late as 1845, 3.2
percent of men and 49 per
cent of women had to sign
their names on the
marriage register with a
cross. In the age of paucity
of "public schools" private
educational efforts naturally
elicited the people's
admiration. And none drew more sympathy and support than Andrew Bell's
(1775-1823) "mutual-tuition" or "pupil teacher" or "monitorial" system of school
management.
232.
What, now, is the origin of this much-applauded mutual instruction or
monitorial system, the so-called Bell-Lancasterain "discovery" in pedagogy.
233.
Historians of education are familiar with the fact that the plan of
making one boy teach others has been indigenous to India for centuries.
234.
Bell, himself, in his Mutual Tuition (pt. I. ch. I, V). describes how in
Madras he came into contact with a school conducted by a single master or
superintendent through the medium of the scholars themselves. And, in fact, in
England the monitorial system or the method of making every boy at once a
master and a scholar is known as the
"Madras system."
235. Bell, a Christian missionary in Madras took the Indian
system of education back to England, and introduced it there.
Until then, only the children of the nobles were given
education there and he started education for the masses in
England. So, we gather that it is from India that the British
adopted the system for educating the masses.
236. England's debt to India in pedagogies has been fitly
acknowledged in the tablet in Warminister Abbey, which
describes Andrew Bell as
237. "the eminent founder of the Madras System of Education,
which has been adopted within the British empire, as the national system of
education for the children of the poor."
238.
(source: Creative India: From Mohenjo Daro to The Age of
Ramakrsna-Vivekananda - By Benoy Kumar Sarkar p. 108-110 and
Education in India Under The Rule of the East India Company - By Major
B. D. Basu 1934 2nd edition. Calcutta and The Destruction of The Indian
System of Education).
239.
For more on education under the British Rule, refer to chapter European
Imperialism)
240.
***
241.
242.
Did You Know?
Link between Myths of the Scandinavians and the Hindus:
243.
The Scandinavians are the descendants of the Hindu Kshatriyas. The term
Scandinavian and the Hindu Kshatriya or the Warrior caste are identical, the
former being a Sanskrit equivalent for the latter: Scanda Nabhi (Scanda Navi)
signifies Scanda Chiefs (Warrior Chiefs).
244.
Colonel James Tod says: The Aswas were chiefly of the Indu race, yet a
branch of the Suryas also bore this designation. In the Edda we are informed that
the Getes or Jits who entered Scandinavia were termed Asi, and their first
settlement was Asigard (Asi garh, fortress of the Asi).
245.
John Pinkerton says: Odin came into Scandinavia in the time of Darius
Hystaspes, 500 years before Christ, and that his successor was Gotama. This is
the period of the last Buddha or Mahavira, whose era is 477 before Vikrama, or
533 before Christ. Gotama was the successor of Mahavira.
246.
In the martial mythology and warlike poetry of the Scandinavians a wide

field exists for assimilation.
247.
We can scarcely question, says Count Bjornstjerna, the derivation of

the Edda (the religious books of ancient Scandinavia) from the Vedas.
248.
The principle on which the seven days of the week are named in India is
the same on which it has been done in Scandinavia:
1. Sunday is called by the Hindus Aditwaram, after Addit, the sun, after which also
the Scandinavians call the day Sondag.
2. Monday is called by the Hindus Somawaram, from Soma, the moon. Among the
Scandinavians it is called Mondag.
3. Tueday is called Mangalwaram in India after the Hindu hero, Mangla. It bears the
name Tisdag amongst the Scandinavians, after their hero, This.
4. Wednesday is termed Boudhawaram by the Hindus, after Boudha; by the
Scandinavians, it is denominated after Odin (Wodan, Bodham, Budha), Onsdag.
5. Thursday is called Brahaspativaram by the Hindus, after Brahspati, or Brahma,
their practical god; it bears the name Thorsdag amongst the Scandinavians, after
the principal god, Thor.
6. Friday is called by the Hindus Sucrawaram, after Sucra, the goddess of beauty; it
is named by the Scandinavians after Freja, the goddess of beauty, Frejdag.
7. Saturday is called Sanivaram by the Hindus after Sanischar, the god who cleanses
spiritually; it is named Lordag by the Scandinavians from loger, bathing.
8. We have here, says Count Bjornstjerna (author of The Theogony of the
Hindoos with their systems of Philosophy and Cosmogony p. 169), himself
a Scandinavian gentleman, another proof that the Myths of the Scandinavians
are derived from those of the Hindus.
9. (source: Hindu Superiority - By Har Bilas Sarda p. 173 - 174).
10.
11.
12.
13. Top of Page
14.
15.
16.
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"He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must

1. Vasishtha 2. Visvamitra 3. Vamadeva 4. Bharadvaja 5. Atri 6. Kanva 7. Gritsamada

(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji).

Education in the Epics

described as consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as following:

26.(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji).

38.Edward Washburn Hopkins (1857-1932) goes so far as to assert (The

established there as its ruler. Janamejaya's serpent sacrifice was performed at

wrestling, archery and mountain- climbing.

69.(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud Mookerji).

77.(source: Everyday Life in Ancient India - By Padmini Sengupta p. 162-169).

the present time.

wrestler. He belonged to the Pallava dynasty.

(source: Civilization in Ancient India - By R C Dutt p. 127).

(source: A Brief History of India - By Alain Danielou p. 165-166).

of royal benefactions. Vikramasila, found by king Dharmapala in the 8th century,

(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud

(source: India: A synthesis of Culture - By Kewal Motwani p. 138).

Libraries in Ancient India

The great seats of learning in ancient India like Nalanda, Vikramasila,

(source: Hindu Superiority - Har Bilas Sarda p. 150 and Vision of

(source: Nalanda - The City of Knowledge).

(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud

Arrival of the British in India

(source: Assaulting India's pluralist ethos - by D. Harikumar The

comprised more than 84% of the students!

Sir Alfred Lyall (1796 - 1865) was unhappy and he wrote:

(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud

Watch video - Brahmins in India have become a minority

Image in stone of Pingala, attendant of Surya, holding pen in his right

Smallpox inoculation is an ancient Indian tradition and was

Dharmapal has quoted British sources to prove that inoculation in India

(image source: Ancient Indian Education - By Radha Kumud

(source: Indian and World Civilization - By D. P. Singhal p.187-188).

Hermitage of Kapila, who gives it away to four exiled Ikshvaku princes.

(source: An Introduction to India - By Stanley Wolpert p. 193-194).

The Hindu Synthesis of the Transcendental and Education:

were builders of empires and organizers of business concerns. It was because of

(source: Creative India - By Benoy Kumar Sarkar p. 60-63).

Louis Revel ( ? ) French author of The Fragrance of India : landmarks

"India, in her glorious past, has understood that the greatness of a

(source: The Fragrance of India : landmarks for the world of

and Vikramaditya s Court was no exception to the rule.

Books Used for this Chapter

Did You Know?

Did You Know?

Link between Myths of the Scandinavians and the Hindus:

In the martial mythology and warlike poetry of the Scandinavians a wide

We can scarcely question, says Count Bjornstjerna, the derivation of

Copyright 2006 - All

Updated - October 28, 2008

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