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Sodium carbonate
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Sodium carbonate

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CAS number
PubChem
ChemSpider
EC number
RTECS number
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Odor
Density

Melting point
Boiling point

Solubility in water

Solubility
Basicity (pKb)
Refractive index (nD)

Other names[hide]
Soda ash
Washing soda
Soda crystals
Identifiers
497-19-8 ,
5968-11-6 (monohydrate)
6132-02-1 (decahydrate)
10340
9916
207-838-8
VZ4050000
Properties
Na2CO3
105.9884 g/mol (anhydrous)
124.00 g/mol (monohydrate)
286.14 g/mol (decahydrate)
White solid, hygroscopic
Odorless
2.54 g/cm3 (anhydrous)
2.25 g/cm3 (monohydrate)
1.46 g/cm3 (decahydrate)
851 C (anhydrous)
100 C (decomp, monohydrate)
34 C (decomp, decahydrate)
1600 C (anhydrous)
22 g/100 ml (20 C)
7 g/100 g (0 C)
21.6 g/100 g (20 C)
45 g/100 g (100 C)[1]
insoluble in alcohol, ethanol
3.67
1.495 (anhydrous)

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1.420 (monohydrate)
Structure
Coordination
geometry
MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases

trigonal planar
Hazards
Safety Data Sheet External MSDS
011-005-00-2
Irritant (Xi)
R36
(S2), S22, S26

NFPA 704
0
1
1
Flash point
Other anions
Other cations

Related compounds

Non-flammable
Related compounds
Sodium bicarbonate
Lithium carbonate
Potassium carbonate
Rubidium carbonate
Caesium carbonate
Ammonium carbonate
Natron
Sodium percarbonate

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda or soda ash), Na2CO3 is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most
commonly occurs as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate.
Sodium carbonate is domestically well known for its everyday use as a water softener. It has a cooling alkaline taste,
and can be extracted from the ashes of many plants. It is synthetically produced in large quantities from table salt in a
process known as the Solvay process.
The manufacture of glass is one of the most important uses of sodium carbonate. When it is combined with silica
(SiO2) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and heated to very high temperatures, then cooled very rapidly, glass is
produced. This type of glass is known as soda lime glass.
Sodium carbonate is also used as a relatively strong base in various settings. For example, sodium carbonate is used as
a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of developing agents.
[citation needed]
It is a common additive in municipal pools used to neutralize the acidic effects of chlorine and raise pH.[2]
In cooking, it is sometimes used in place of sodium hydroxide for lying, especially with German pretzels and lye rolls.
These dishes are treated with a solution of an alkaline substance in order to change the pH of the surface of the food
and thus improve browning.
In taxidermy, sodium carbonate added to boiling water will remove flesh from the skull or bones of trophies to create
the "European skull mount" or for educational display in biological and historical studies.
In chemistry, it is often used as an electrolyte. This is because electrolytes are usually salt-based, and sodium
carbonate acts as a very good conductor in the process of electrolysis. Additionally, unlike chloride ions which form
chlorine gas, carbonate ions are not corrosive to the anodes. It is also used as a primary standard for acid-base
titrations because it is solid and air-stable, making it easy to weigh accurately.

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In domestic use, it is used as a water softener during laundry. It competes with the ions magnesium and calcium in
hard water and prevents them from bonding with the detergent being used. Without using washing soda, additional
detergent is needed to soak up the magnesium and calcium ions. Called Washing Soda, Soda crystals or Sal Soda[3]
in the detergent section of stores, it effectively removes oil, grease, and alcohol stains. Sodium carbonate is also used
as a descaling agent in boilers such as found in coffee pots, espresso machines, etc. [citation needed]
In dyeing with fiber-reactive dyes, sodium carbonate (often under a name such as soda ash fixative or soda ash
activator) is used to ensure proper chemical bonding of the dye with the fibers, typically before dyeing (for tie dyes),
mixed with the dye (for dye painting), or after dyeing (for immersion dyeing). [4]
[edit] Other applications
Sodium carbonate is a food additive (E500) used as an acidity regulator, anti-caking agent, raising agent and stabilizer.
It is one of the components of kansui, a solution of alkaline salts used to give ramen noodles their characteristic flavor
and texture.[5][6] Sodium carbonate is also used in the production of sherbet powder. The cooling and fizzing sensation
results from the endothermic reaction between sodium carbonate and a weak acid, commonly citric acid, releasing
carbon dioxide gas, which occurs when the sherbet is moistened by saliva.
As a food additive (E500), it is used in the production of snus (Swedish style snuff) to stabilize the pH of the final
product.[7] In Sweden, snus is regulated as a food product because it is put into the mouth, requiring pasteurization and
only ingredients that are approved as food additives.
Sodium carbonate is used by the brick industry as a wetting agent to reduce the amount of water needed to extrude the
clay.[citation needed]
In casting, it is referred to as "bonding agent" and is used to allow wet alginate to adhere to gelled alginate.[8]
Sodium carbonate is used in toothpastes, where it acts as a foaming agent, an abrasive, and to temporarily increase
mouth pH.
Sodium carbonate is used to create the photo process known as reticulation.
Sodium carbonate may be used for safely cleaning silver. First, aluminium foil is added to a glass or ceramic
container, and covered with very hot water and some sodium carbonate. Silver items are dipped into this "bath" to
clean them, making sure the silver makes contact with the aluminium foil. Finally, the silver is rinsed in water and left
to dry.[9]
[edit] Occurrence
Sodium carbonate is soluble in water, but can occur naturally in arid regions, especially in the mineral deposits
(evaporites) formed when seasonal lakes evaporate. Deposits of the mineral natron, natural sodium carbonate
decahydrate, have been mined from dry lake bottoms in Egypt since ancient times, when natron was used in the
preparation of mummies and in the early manufacture of glass. Sodium carbonate has three known forms of hydrates:
sodium carbonate decahydrate (natron), sodium carbonate heptahydrate (not known in mineral form) and sodium
carbonate monohydrate (mineral thermonatrite). The anhydrous mineral form of sodium carbonate is quite rare and
called natrite. Sodium carbonate also erupts from Tanzania's unique volcano Ol Doinyo Lengai [10], and probably
erupted from other volcanoes in the past [11]. All three mineralogical forms of sodium carbonate, as well as trona
(trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate), are also known from ultra-alkaline pegmatitic rocks, i.e. from the Kola
Peninsula.
[edit] Production
[edit] Mining
Trona, trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate (Na3HCO3CO32H2O), is mined in several areas of the United States
and provides nearly all the domestic sodium carbonate. Large natural deposits found in 1938, such as the one near
Green River, Wyoming, have made mining more economical than industrial production in North America.
It is also mined out of certain alkaline lakes such as Lake Magadi in Kenya by using a basic dredging process and it is
also self-regenerating so will never run out in its natural source.
[edit] Barilla and kelp
Several "halophyte" (salt tolerant) plant species and seaweed species can be processed to yield an impure form of
sodium carbonate, and these sources predominated in Europe and elsewhere until the early 19 th Century. The land
plants (typically glassworts or saltworts) or the seaweed (typically Fucus species) were harvested, dried, and burned.
The ashes were then "lixiviated" (washed with water) to form an alkali solution. This solution was boiled dry to create
the final product, which was termed "soda ash"; this very old name refers to the archetypal plant source for soda ash,
which was the small annual shrub Salsola soda ("barilla plant").

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The sodium carbonate concentration in soda ash varied very widely, from 2-3% for the seaweed-derived form
("kelp"), to 30% for the best barilla produced from saltwort plants in Spain. Plant and seaweed sources for soda ash,
and also for the related alkali "potash", became increasingly inadequate by the end of the 18 th Century, and the search
for commercially-viable routes to synthesizing soda ash from salt and other chemicals intensified. [12]
[edit] Leblanc process
Main article: Leblanc process
In 1791, the French chemist Nicolas Leblanc patented a process for producing sodium carbonate from salt, sulfuric
acid, limestone, and coal. First, sea salt (sodium chloride) was boiled in sulfuric acid to yield sodium sulfate and
hydrogen chloride gas, according to the chemical equation
2 NaCl + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2 HCl
Next, the sodium sulfate was blended with crushed limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal, and the mixture was
burnt, producing calcium sulfide.
Na2SO4 + CaCO3 + 2 C Na2CO3 + 2 CO2 + CaS
The sodium carbonate was extracted from the ashes with water, and then collected by allowing the water to evaporate.
The hydrochloric acid produced by the Leblanc process was a major source of air pollution, and the calcium sulfide
byproduct also presented waste disposal issues. However, it remained the major production method for sodium
carbonate until the late 1880s.[12][13]
[edit] Solvay process

Main article: Solvay process

In 1861, the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay developed a method to convert sodium chloride to sodium
carbonate using ammonia. The Solvay process centered around a large hollow tower. At the bottom, calcium carbonate
(limestone) was heated to release carbon dioxide:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
At the top, a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia entered the tower. As the carbon dioxide bubbled
up through it, sodium bicarbonate precipitated:
NaCl + NH3 + CO2 + H2O NaHCO3 + NH4Cl
The sodium bicarbonate was then converted to sodium carbonate by heating it, releasing water and carbon dioxide:
2 NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Meanwhile, the ammonia was regenerated from the ammonium chloride byproduct by treating it with the lime
(calcium hydroxide) left over from carbon dioxide generation:
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 + 2 NH4Cl CaCl2 + 2 NH3 + 2 H2O
Because the Solvay process recycles its ammonia, it consumes only brine and limestone, and has calcium chloride as
its only waste product. This made it substantially more economical than the Leblanc process, and it soon came to
dominate world sodium carbonate production. By 1900, 90% of sodium carbonate was produced by the Solvay
process, and the last Leblanc process plant closed in the early 1920s.
[edit] Hou's process
Developed by Chinese chemist Hou Debang in 1930s, the first few steps are the same as the Solvay process. However,
instead of treating the remaining solution with lime, carbon dioxide and ammonia are pumped into the solution, then
sodium chloride is added until the solution saturates at 40 C. Next, the solution is cooled to 10 C. Ammonium
chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration, and the solution is recycled to produce more sodium carbonate.
Hou's process eliminates the production of calcium chloride and the byproduct ammonium chloride can be refined or
used as a fertilizer.
Natrium bikarbonat adalah senyawa kimia dengan rumus NaHCO3. Dalam penyebutannya kerap disingkat menjadi
bicnat. Senyawa ini termasuk kelompok garam dan telah digunakan sejak lama.
Senyawa ini disebut juga baking soda (soda kue), Sodium bikarbonat, natrium hidrogen karbonat, dan lain-lain.
Senyawa ini merupakan kristal yang sering terdapat dalam bentuk serbuk. Natrium bikarbonat larut dalam air.
Senyawa ini digunakan dalam roti atau kue karena bereaksi dengan bahan lain membentuk gas karbon dioksida, yang
menyebabkan roti "mengembang".

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Senyawa ini juga digunakan sebagai obat antasid (penyakit maag atau tukak lambung). Karena bersifat alkaloid
(basa), senyawa ini juga digunakan sebagai obat penetral asam bagi penderita asidosis tubulus renalis (ATR) atau
rhenal tubular acidosis (RTA).
NaHCO3 umumnya diproduksi melalui proses Solvay, yang memerlukan reaksi natrium klorida, amonia, dan karbon
dioksida dalam air. NaHCO3 diproduksi sebanyak 100 000 ton/tahun (2001).[1]
Soda kue juga diproduksi secara komesial dari soda abu (diperoleh melalui penambangan bijih trona, yang dilarutkan
dalam air lalu direaksikan dengan karbon dioksida. Lalu NaHCO 3 mengendap sesuai persamaan berikut
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2 NaHCO3

Adapun cara-cara yang digunakan untuk menghasilkan soda Ash adalah dengan cara seperti flowsheet diatas. Dengan
penggunaan dari Kalsium Karbonat maka akan dihasilkan soda ash yang dapat digunakan untuk menetralisis air yang
telah tercemar ataupun untuk penggunaan yang lain.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate
Potassium sulfate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Potassium sulfate

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CAS number
PubChem
RTECS number
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
Solubility
Crystal structure
MSDS
EU Index
R-phrases
S-phrases
Flash point
LD50
Other anions

Other cations

Related compounds

Other names[hide]
Potassium sulphate
Identifiers
7778-80-5
24507
TT5900000
Properties
K2SO4
174.259 g/mol
White crystalline solid
2.66 g/cm3 [1]
1069 C, 1342 K, 1956 F
1689 C, 1962 K, 3072 F
111 g/L (20 C)
120 g/L (25 C)
240 g/L (100 C)
slightly soluble in glycerol
insoluble in acetone, alcohol, CS2
Structure
orthorhombic
Hazards
External MSDS
Not listed
R22
S36
Non-flammable
6600 mg/kg
Related compounds
Potassium selenate
Potassium tellurate
Lithium sulfate
Sodium sulfate
Rubidium sulfate
Caesium sulfate
Potassium hydrogen sulfate
Potassium sulfite
Potassium bisulfite
Potassium persulfate

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) (in British English potassium sulphate, also called sulphate of potash, arcanite, or
archaically known as potash of sulfur) is a non-flammable white crystalline salt which is soluble in water. The
chemical is commonly used in fertilizers, providing both potassium and sulfur.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Natural resources

3 Manufacture

4 Properties

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5 Uses

6 Potassium hydrogen sulfate

7 References

8 See also
[edit] History
Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) has been known since early in the 14th century, and it was studied by Glauber, Boyle and
Tachenius. In the 17th century, it was named arcanuni or sal duplicatum, as it was a combination of an acid salt with
an alkaline salt. It was also known as vitriolic tartar and Glaser's salt or sal polychrestum Glaseri after the
pharmaceutical chemist Christopher Glaser who prepared it and used medicinally.[2][3]
[edit] Natural resources
The mineral form of potassium sulfate, namely arcanite, is relatively rare. Natural resources of potassium sulfate are
minerals abundant in the Stassfurt salt. These are cocrystalisations of potassium sulfate and sulfates of magnesium
calcium and sodium. The minerals are

Kainite, MgSO4KClH2O

Schnite, K2SO4MgSO46H2O

Leonite, K2SO4MgSO44H2O

Langbeinite, K2SO42MgSO4

Glaserite, K3Na(SO4)2

Polyhalite, K2SO4MgSO42CaSO42H2O
From some of the minerals like kainite, the potassium sulfate can be separated, because the corresponding salt is less
soluble in water.
With potassium chloride kieserite MgSO42H2O can be transformed and then the potassium sulfate can be dissolved in
water.
[edit] Manufacture
The process for manufacturing potassium sulfate is similar to that used for the manufacture of sodium sulfate.
Potassium sulfate can be synthesised by reaction of potassium chloride with sulfuric acid according to the Leblanc
process. Potassium sulfate is produced according to the following reaction:
2 KCl + H2SO4 2 HCl + K2SO4
The Hargreaves process uses sulfur dioxide, oxygen and water and potassium chloride as the starting materials to
produce potassium sulfate. Hydrochloric acid evaporates off. SO 2 is produced through the burning of sulfur.
[edit] Properties
The anhydrous crystals form a double six-sided pyramid, but are in fact classified as rhombic. They are transparent,
very hard and have a bitter, salty taste. The salt is soluble in water, but insoluble in solutions of potassium hydroxide
(sp. gr. 1.35), or in absolute ethanol. It melts at 1078 C.
[edit] Uses
The principal use of potassium sulfate is as a fertilizer. The crude salt is also used occasionally in the manufacture of
glass.
[edit] Potassium hydrogen sulfate
Potassium hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate, KHSO4, is readily produced by mixing K2SO4 with an equivalent number of
moles of sulfuric acid. It forms rhombic pyramids, which melt at 197 C. It dissolves in three parts of water at 0 C.
The solution behaves much as if its two congeners, K2SO4 and H2SO4, were present side by side of each other
uncombined; an excess of ethanol the precipitates normal sulfate (with little bisulfate) with excess acid remaining.
The behavior of the fused dry salt is similar when heated to several hundred degrees; it acts on silicates, titanates, etc.,
the same way as sulfuric acid that is heated beyond its natural boiling point does. Hence it is frequently used in
analytical chemistry as a disintegrating agent. For information about other salts that contain sulfate, see sulfate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_sulphate
Teknologi Proses Produksi Pupuk ZK (Bagian 2)
Wednesday, August 5th, 2009

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Panjing Hengxing Chemicals Co., Ltd. Salah satu produsen pupuk ZK yang berdomisili di Cina
Furnace Mainnheim
Proses ini menggunakan furnace Mannheim yang berupa bejana silindris yang memiliki 2 ruang bakar, yaitu
combustion chamber dan reaction chamber. Temperatur operasi furnace Mannheim adalah sebesar 800C.
Karakteristik dari proses ini yaitu:
1.
2.
3.

Temperatur tinggi
Banyak problem pada material (tingkat korosi, dll)
Diperoleh by-product HCl

Reaksi yang terjadi adalah:

KCl + H2SO4 -> KHSO4 + HCl
KCl + KHSO4 -> K2SO4 + HCl
Reaksi tahap pertama bersifat eksotermis dan terjadi pada temperatur yang rendah, sedangkan reaksi tahap kedua
bersifat endotermis dan berlangsung pada temperatur 550 600C. Produk ZK selanjutnya didinginkan di cooling
drum. Residu H2SO4 dinetralkan dengan penambahan Ca(OH)2 dan CaCO3 sedangkan by-product HCl yang
terbentuk didinginkan di graphite heat exchanger dan selanjutnya dilakukan absorbsi 2 tahap dengan air.

Diagram alir proses Mannheim

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Spesifikasi produk yang dihasilkan adalah sebagai berikut:

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Emisi yang dihasilkan dikontrol dengan

batasan HCl maksimum 5 ppm dan SO2
maksimum 800 ppm. Beberapa negara di
dunia yang telah mendirikan pabrik ZK
dengan proses Mannheim antara lain
Belgia, Amerika Serikat, Indonesia, dan
Cina.
IUPAC name[hide]
Sodium chromate
Other names[hide]
Chromic acid, (Na2CrO4), disodium salt
Chromium disodium oxide
Rachromate
Identifiers
CAS number
7775-11-3
PubChem
24488
EC number
231-889-5
UN number
3288
RTECS number
GB2955000
Properties
Molecular formula Na2CrO4
Molar mass
161.97 g/mol
Appearance
yellow crystals
Density
2.698 g/cm3
Melting point
762 C
Solubility in water 53 g/100 ml (20 C)
Structure
Crystal structure orthorhombic (hexagonal above 413 C)
Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy of
1329 kJ/mol
formation fHo298
Hazards
MSDS
ICSC 1370
EU Index
024-018-00-3
Carc. Cat. 2
Muta. Cat. 2
Repr. Cat. 2
EU classification Very toxic (T+)
Harmful (Xn)
Corrosive (C)
Dangerous for the environment (N)
R45, R46, R60, R61, R21, R25, R26, R34, R42/43,
R-phrases
R48/23, R50/53
S-phrases
S53, S45, S60, S61

Sodium chromate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Sodium chromate is a yellow solid

chemical compound used as a corrosion
inhibitor in the petroleum industry,[1] a
dyeing auxiliary in the textile industry,[1] as
a wood preservative[2]. and as a diagnostic
pharmaceutical in determining red blood
cell volume[3].
It is obtained from the reaction of sodium
dichromate with sodium hydroxide. It is
hygroscopic and can form tetra-, hexa-,
and decahydrates. Sodium chromate, like
other hexavalent chromium compounds,
can be carcinogenic.[1]
The substance is a strong oxidant. It is
soluble in water[4], producing a weakly
basic solution[5].

NFPA 704
0
3
0
OX
Flash point

Other anions

Non-flammable
Related compounds
Sodium dichromate
Sodium molybdate

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chromate

Phosphoric acid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about orthophosphoric acid. For other acids commonly called "phosphoric acid", see Phosphoric acids
and phosphates.
Phosphoric acid

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CAS number
ChemSpider
EC number
UN number
RTECS number
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
Acidity (pKa)
Viscosity
MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases

IUPAC name[hide]
trihydroxidooxidophosphorus
phosphoric acid
Other names[hide]
Orthophosphoric acid
Identifiers
7664-38-2 ,
16271-20-8 (hemihydrate)
979
231-633-2
1805
TB6300000
Properties
H3PO4
98.00 g/mol
white solid or colourless, viscous liquid (>42
C)
1.885 g/mL (liquid)
1.685 g/mL (85 % solution)
2.030 g/mL (crystal at 25 C)
42.35 C (anhydrous)
29.32 C (hemihydrate)
158 C (decomp)
5.48 g/mL
2.148, 7.198, 12.375
2.49.4 cP (85% aq. soln.)
147 cP (100 %)
Hazards
ICSC 1008
015-011-00-6
Corrosive (C)
R34
(S1/2) S26 S45

NFPA 704
0
2
0
COR
Flash point

Non-flammable
Related compounds

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Related phosphorus
oxoacids

Hypophosphorous acid
Phosphorous acid
Pyrophosphoric acid
Triphosphoric acid
Perphosphoric acid
Permonophosphoric acid

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Phosphoric acid, also known as orthophosphoric acid or phosphoric(V) acid, is a mineral (inorganic) acid having
the chemical formula H3PO4. Orthophosphoric acid molecules can combine with themselves to form a variety of
compounds which are also referred to as phosphoric acids, but in a more general way. The term phosphoric acid can
also refer to a chemical or reagent consisting of phosphoric acids, usually orthophosphoric acid.
Contents
[hide]

1 Orthophosphoric acid chemistry

o 1.1 pH and composition of a phosphoric acid aqueous solution

2 Chemical reagent
o 2.1 Preparation of hydrogen halides
o 2.2 Rust removal
o 2.3 Processed food use

2.3.1 Biological effects on bone calcium and kidney health

o 2.4 Medical use

3 Preparation
o 3.1 Thermal phosphoric acid
o 3.2 Wet phosphoric acid
o 3.3 Kiln Phosphoric Acid

4 Other applications

5 See also

6 References

7 External links
[edit] Orthophosphoric acid chemistry
Pure anhydrous phosphoric acid is a white solid that melts at 42.35 C to form a colorless, viscous liquid.
Most people and even chemists refer to orthophosphoric acid as phosphoric acid, which is the IUPAC name for this
compound. The prefix ortho is used to distinguish the acid from other phosphoric acids, called polyphosphoric acids
two(ii) . Orthophosphoric acid is a non-toxic, inorganic, rather weak triprotic acid, which, when pure, is a solid at
room temperature and pressure. The chemical structure of orthophosphoric acid is shown above in the data table.
Orthophosphoric acid is a very polar molecule; therefore it is highly soluble in water. The oxidation state of
phosphorus (P) in ortho- and other phosphoric acids is +5; the oxidation state of all the oxygen atoms (O) is 2 and all
the hydrogen atoms (H) is +1. Triprotic means that an orthophosphoric acid molecule can dissociate up to three times,
giving up an H+ each time, which typically combines with a water molecule, H2O, as shown in these reactions:
H3PO4(s) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + H2PO4(aq)
Ka1= 7.25103

+
2
H2PO4 (aq)+ H2O(l) H3O (aq) + HPO4 (aq)
Ka2= 6.31108
2
+
3
HPO4 (aq)+ H2O(l) H3O (aq) + PO4 (aq)
Ka3= 3.981013

The anion after the first dissociation, H2PO4 , is the dihydrogen phosphate anion. The anion after the second
dissociation, HPO42, is the hydrogen phosphate anion. The anion after the third dissociation, PO43, is the phosphate
or orthophosphate anion. For each of the dissociation reactions shown above, there is a separate acid dissociation
constant, called Ka1, Ka2, and Ka3 given at 25 C. Associated with these three dissociation constants are corresponding
pKa1=2.12 , pKa2=7.21 , and pKa3=12.67 values at 25 C. Even though all three hydrogen (H ) atoms are equivalent on

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an orthophosphoric acid molecule, the successive Ka values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose
another H+ if one (or more) has already been lost and the molecule/ion is more negatively-charged.
Because the triprotic dissociation of orthophosphoric acid, the fact that its conjugate bases (the phosphates mentioned
above) cover a wide pH range, and, because phosphoric acid/phosphate solutions are, in general, non-toxic, mixtures
of these types of phosphates are often used as buffering agents or to make buffer solutions, where the desired pH
depends on the proportions of the phosphates in the mixtures. Similarly, the non-toxic, anion salts of triprotic organic
citric acid are also often used to make buffers. Phosphates are found pervasively in biology, especially in the
compounds derived from phosphorylated sugars, such as DNA, RNA, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). There is a
separate article on phosphate as an anion or its salts.
Upon heating orthophosphoric acid, condensation of the phosphoric units can be induced by driving off the water
formed from condensation. When one molecule of water has been removed for each two molecules of phosphoric
acid, the result is pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7). When an average of one molecule of water per phosphoric unit has
been driven off, the resulting substance is a glassy solid having an empirical formula of HPO3 and is called
metaphosphoric acid.[1] Metaphosphoric acid is a singly anhydrous version of orthophosphoic acid and is sometimes
used as a water- or moisture-absorbing reagent. Further dehydrating is very difficult, and can be accomplished only by
means of an extremely strong desiccant (and not by heating alone). It produces phosphoric anhydride, which has an
empirical formula P2O5, although an actual molecule has a chemical formula of P 4O10. Phosphoric anhydride is a solid,
which is very strongly moisture-absorbing and is used as a desiccant.
[edit] pH and composition of a phosphoric acid aqueous solution
For a given total acid concentration [A] = [H3PO4] + [H2PO4] + [HPO42] + [PO43] ([A] is the total number of moles
of pure H3PO4 which have been used to prepare 1 liter of solution), the composition of an aqueous solution of
phosphoric acid can be calculated using the equilibrium equations associated with the three reactions described above
together with the [H+][OH] = 1014 relation and the electrical neutrality equation. Possible concentrations of
polyphosphoric molecules and ions is neglected. The system may be reduced to a fifth degree equation for [H +] which
can be solved numerically, yielding:
[A]
(mol/L)

pH

[H3PO4]/[A] (%)

[H2PO4]/[A] (%)

[HPO42]/[A] (%)

[PO43]/[A] (%)

1.08

91.7

8.29

6.20106

1.601017

101

1.62

76.1

23.9

6.20105

5.551016

102

2.25

43.1

56.9

6.20104

2.331014

103

3.05

10.6

89.3

6.20103

1.481012

104

4.01

1.30

98.6

6.19102

1.341010

105

5.00

0.133

99.3

0.612

1.30108

106

5.97

1.34102

94.5

5.50

1.11106

107

6.74

1.80103

74.5

25.5

3.02105

1010

7.00

8.24104

61.7

38.3

8.18105

For large acid concentrations, the solution is mainly composed of H 3PO4. For [A] = 102, the pH is closed to pKa1,
giving an equimolar mixture of H3PO4 and H2PO4. For [A] below 103, the solution is mainly composed of H2PO4
with [HPO42] becoming non negligible for very dilute solutions. [PO43] is always negligible.
[edit] Chemical reagent
Pure 7585% aqueous solutions (the most common) are clear, colourless, odourless, non-volatile, rather viscous,
syrupy liquids, but still pourable. Phosphoric acid is very commonly used as an aqueous solution of 85% phosphoric
acid or H3PO4. Because it is a concentrated acid, an 85% solution can be corrosive, although nontoxic when diluted.
Because of the high percentage of phosphoric acid in this reagent, at least some of the orthophosphoric acid is
condensed into polyphosphoric acids in a temperature-dependent equilibrium, but, for the sake of labeling and

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simplicity, the 85% represents H3PO4 as if it were all orthophosphoric acid. Other percentages are possible too, even
above 100%, where the phosphoric acids and water would be in an unspecified equilibrium, but the overall elemental
mole content would be considered specified. When aqueous solutions of phosphoric acid and/or phosphate are dilute,
they are in or will reach an equilibrium after a while where practically all the phosphoric/phosphate units are in the
ortho- form.
[edit] Preparation of hydrogen halides
Phosphoric acid reacts with halides to form the corresponding hydrogen halide gas (steamy fumes are observed on
warming the reaction mixture). This is a common practice for the laboratory preparation of hydrogen halides.
NaCl(s)
+ H3PO4(l) NaH2PO4(s)
+ HCl(g)
NaBr(s)
+ H3PO4(l) NaH2PO4(s)
+ HBr(g)
NaI(s)
+ H3PO4(l) NaH2PO4(s)
+ HI(g)
[edit] Rust removal
Phosphoric acid may be used as a "rust converter", by direct application to rusted iron, steel tools, or surfaces. The
phosphoric acid converts reddish-brown iron(III) oxide (rust) to black ferric phosphate, FePO4.
"Rust converter" is sometimes a greenish liquid suitable for dipping (in the same sort of acid bath as is used for
pickling metal), but it is more often formulated as a gel, commonly called naval jelly. It is sometimes sold under other
names, such as "rust remover" or "rust killer". As a thick gel, it may be applied to sloping, vertical, or even overhead
surfaces.
After treatment, the black ferric-phosphate coating can be scrubbed off, leaving a fresh metal surface. Multiple
applications of phosphoric acid may be required to remove all rust. The black phosphate coating can also be left in
place, where it will provide moderate further corrosion resistance. (Such protection is also provided by the
superficially similar Parkerizing and blued electrochemical conversion coating processes.)
[edit] Processed food use
Food-grade phosphoric acid (additive E338) is used to acidify foods and beverages such as various colas, but not
without controversy regarding its health effects. It provides a tangy or sour taste and, being a mass-produced chemical,
is available cheaply and in large quantities. The low cost and bulk availability is unlike more expensive seasonings
that give comparable flavors, such as citric acid which is obtainable from lemons and limes. (However most citric acid
in the food industry is not extracted from citrus fruit, but fermented by Aspergillus niger mold from scrap molasses,
waste starch hydrolysates and phosphoric acid.)
[edit] Biological effects on bone calcium and kidney health
Phosphoric acid, used in many soft drinks (primarily cola), has been linked to lower bone density in epidemiological
studies. For example, a study[2] using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry rather than a questionnaire about breakage,
provides reasonable evidence to support the theory that drinking cola results in lower bone density. This study was
published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. A total of 1672 women and 1148 men were studied between
1996 and 2001. Dietary information was collected using a food frequency questionnaire that had specific questions
about the number of servings of cola and other carbonated beverages and that also made a differentiation between
regular, caffeine-free, and diet drinks. The paper cites significant statistical evidence to show that women who
consume cola daily have lower bone density. Total phosphorus intake was not significantly higher in daily cola
consumers than in nonconsumers; however, the calcium-to-phosphorus ratios were lower. The study also suggests that
further research is needed to confirm the findings.
On the other hand, a study funded by Pepsi suggests that insufficient intake of phosphorus leads to lower bone density.
The study does not examine the effect of phosphoric acid, which binds with magnesium and calcium in the digestive
tract to form salts that are not absorbed, but rather studies general phosphorus intake. [3]
However, a well-controlled clinical study by Heaney and Rafferty using calcium-balance methods found no impact of
carbonated soft drinks containing phosphoric acid on calcium excretion. [4] The study compared the impact of water,
milk, and various soft drinks (two with caffeine and two without; two with phosphoric acid and two with citric acid)
on the calcium balance of 20- to 40-year-old women who customarily consumed ~3 or more cups (680 mL) of a
carbonated soft drink per day. They found that, relative to water, only milk and the two caffeine-containing soft drinks
increased urinary calcium, and that the calcium loss associated with the caffeinated soft drink consumption was about
equal to that previously found for caffeine alone. Phosphoric acid without caffeine had no impact on urine calcium,
nor did it augment the urinary calcium loss related to caffeine. Because studies have shown that the effect of caffeine
is compensated for by reduced calcium losses later in the day,[5] Heaney and Rafferty concluded that the net effect of

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carbonated beveragesincluding those with caffeine and phosphoric acidis negligible, and that the skeletal effects
of carbonated soft drink consumption are likely due primarily to milk displacement.
Other chemicals such as caffeine (also a significant component of popular common cola drinks) were also suspected
as possible contributors to low bone density, due to the known effect of caffeine on calciuria. One other study,
involving 30 women over the course of a week, suggests that phosphoric acid in colas has no such effect, and
postulates that caffeine has only a temporary effect, which is later reversed. The authors of this study conclude that the
skeletal effects of carbonated beverage consumption are likely due primarily to milk displacement. [4] (Another
possible confounding factor may be an association between high soft drink consumption and sedentary lifestyle.)
Cola consumption has also been associated with chronic kidney disease and kidney stones through medical research. [6]
The preliminary results suggest that cola consumption may increase the risk of chronic kidney disease.
[edit] Medical use
Phosphoric acid is used in dentistry and orthodontics as an etching solution, to clean and roughen the surfaces of teeth
where dental appliances or fillings will be placed. Phosphoric acid is also an ingredient in over-the-counter antinausea medications that also contain high levels of sugar (glucose and fructose). This acid is also used in many teeth
whiteners to eliminate plaque that may be on the teeth before application.
[edit] Preparation
Phosphoric acid can be prepared by three routes the thermal process, the wet process and the dry kiln process.
[edit] Thermal phosphoric acid
This very pure phosphoric acid is obtained by burning elemental phosphorus to produce phosphorus pentoxide and
dissolving the product in dilute phosphoric acid. This produces a very pure phosphoric acid, since most impurities
present in the rock have been removed when extracting phosphorus from the rock in a furnace. The end result is foodgrade, thermal phosphoric acid; however, for critical applications, additional processing to remove arsenic compounds
may be needed.
[edit] Wet phosphoric acid
See also: Nitrophosphate process
Wet process phosphoric acid is prepared by adding sulfuric acid to tricalcium phosphate rock, typically found in
nature as apatite.
The reaction is:
Ca5(PO4)3X + 5 H2SO4 + 10 H2O 3 H3PO4 + 5 CaSO42H2O + HX
where X may include OH, F, Cl, and Br
The initial phosphoric acid solution may contain 2333% P2O5, but can be concentrated by the evaporation of water to
produce commercial- or merchant-grade phosphoric acid, which contains about 54% P2O5. Further evaporation of
water yields superphosphoric acid with a P2O5 concentration above 70%.[7][8]
Digestion of the phosphate ore using sulfuric acid yields the insoluble calcium sulfate (gypsum), which is filtered and
removed as phosphogypsum. Wet-process acid can be further purified by removing fluorine to produce animal-grade
phosphoric acid, or by solvent extraction and arsenic removal to produce food-grade phosphoric acid.
[edit] Kiln Phosphoric Acid
Kiln phosphoric acid (KPA) process technology is the most recent technology. Called the Improved Hard Process, [9]
this technology will both make low grade phosphate rock reserves commercially viable and will increase the P 2O5
recovery from existing phosphate reserves. This may significantly extend the commercial viability of phosphate
reserves.
[edit] Other applications

Phosphoric acid is used as the electrolyte in phosphoric-acid fuel cells. It is also used as an external standard
for phosphorus-31 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).

Phosphoric acid is used as a cleaner by construction trades to remove mineral deposits, cementitious smears,
and hard water stains. It is also used as a chelant in some household cleaners aimed at similar cleaning tasks.

Hot phosphoric acid is used in microfabrication to etch silicon nitride (Si3N4). It is highly selective in
etching Si3N4 instead of SiO2, silicon dioxide.[10]

Phosphoric acid is used as a flux by hobbyists (such as model railroaders) as an aid to soldering.

Phosphoric acid is also used in hydroponics pH solutions to lower the pH of nutrient solutions. While other
types of acids can be used, phosphorus is a nutrient used by plants, especially during flowering, making

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phosphoric acid particularly desirable. General Hydroponics pH Down liquid solution contains phosphoric
acid in addition to citric acid and ammonium bisulfate with buffers to maintain a stable pH in the nutrient
reservoir.

Phosphoric acid is used as an electrolyte in copper electropolishing for burr removal and circuit board
planarization.

Phosphoric acid is used with distilled water (23 drops per gallon) as an electrolyte in oxyhydrogen (HHO)
generators.

Phosphoric acid is used as a pH adjuster in cosmetics and skin-care products. [11]

Phosphoric acid is used as a chemical oxidizing agent for activated carbon production, as used in the
Wentworth Process.[12]

Phosphoric acid is also used for high-performance liquid chromatography.

Phosphoric acid can be used as a dispersing agent in detergents and leather treatment.

Phosphoric acid can be used for deliming hides in leather tanning.

Phosphoric acid can be used as an additive to stabilize acidic aqueous solutions within a wanted and
specified pH range

Phosphoric acid is the key ingredient that gives the bite taste in widely consumed Coca-Cola and Pepsi
sodas.
[edit] See also

Phosphate fertilizers, such as ammonium phosphate fertilizers

In compound semiconductor processing, phosphoric acid is a common wet etching agent: for example, in
combination with hydrogen peroxide and water it is used to etch InGaAs selective to InP.[13]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid
Description
Arafura Resources (ASX:ARU) is an emerging rare earths producer that listed on the Australian Securities Exchange
in 2003.
Arafura is currently developing its Nolans rare earths-phosphate-uranium project in Australias Northern Territory.
The project is underpinned by a 30 million tonne resource that can sustain a 20-year mine life. Arafura has developed
a processing flow sheet, demonstrated the recovery of rare earths, phosphoric acid and uranium at a pre-production
scale pilot plant, and is making rapid progress in completing a bankable feasibility study. The Company is on track for
first production from Nolans in 2013.
Arafura has an exploration and development program aimed at enhancing its position in the rare earths market.

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Beneficiation
The beneficiation process, comprising crushing, screening, gravity separation and flotation to remove impurities, will
generate about 700,000 tonnes of mineral concentrate each year. This mineral concentrate will go through a grinding
process, then be dried ready for transport to Arafuras Rare Earths Complex at Whyalla in South Australia.
This treatment process removes about 300,000 tonnes a year as waste material (tailings), which will remain at the
mine permanently in specially designed tailings storage facilities.

All waste materials, including overburden and tailings, will be stored according to accepted engineering and
environmental principles. This will ensure that erosion is minimised and natural water courses remain free flowing
and are not adversely impacted.

Some mine overburden rock may be used as road base or to construct the tailings storage facilities. Wherever
possible, water will be recycled to the beneficiation plant and also used for dust suppression at the mine.
Phosphoric Acid
The Nolans project is delivering products for the future as well as materials for well established, active and transparent
markets.
With the capability to produce phosphoric acid and calcium chloride, Nolans provides multiple market opportunities.
Phosphoric acid is a fundamental building block in the production of phosphate fertilisers, detergents, food stuffs and
several other chemicals that contribute to todays improving standard of living, particularly in emerging economies
like Brazil, Russia, India and China.
With the potential high growth of ethanol as an alternative fuel, much of which is extracted from corn, phosphate
fertilisers will be essential to this industry.

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Arafura Resources will, in the next few years, become a long-term supplier of rare earth oxides, phosphoric acid,
uranium oxide and gypsum from its 100%-owned Nolans Project.

Sodium chloride
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"NaCl" redirects here. For the Google technology, see Google Native Client.
This article is about the chemical compound. For sodium chloride in the diet, see Salt. For sodium chloride as a
mineral, see Halite.
Sodium chloride

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IUPAC name[hide]
Sodium chloride
Other names[hide]
Common salt, halite, table salt, rock salt, saline, hyposaline, sodium
monochloride, sodium chloric, saltex[1]
Identifiers
CAS number
7647-14-5
PubChem
5234
ChemSpider
5044
RTECS number
VZ4725000
Properties
Molecular formula
NaCl
Molar mass
58.443 g/mol
Appearance
Colorless/white crystalline solid
Odor
Odorless
Density
2.165 g/cm3
Melting point
801 C, 1074 K, 1474 F
Boiling point
1413 C, 1686 K, 2575 F
356 g/L (0 C)
Solubility in water
359 g/L (25 C)
391 g/L (100 C)
soluble in glycerol, ethylene glycol, formic
Solubility
acid
insoluble in HCl
Solubility in methanol
14.9 g/L
Solubility in ammonia
21.5 g/L
Acidity (pKa)
6.77.3
Refractive index (nD)
1.5442 (589 nm)
Structure
Face-centered cubic
Crystal structure
(see text), cF8
Space group
Fm3m, No. 225
Lattice constant
a = 564.02 pm
Coordination
Octahedral (Na+)
geometry
Octahedral (Cl)
Hazards
MSDS
External MSDS
EU Index
Not listed

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NFPA 704
0
0
0
Flash point
LD50

Other anions

Other cations

Structure and
properties
Thermodynamic
data
Spectral data

Non-flammable
30008000 mg/kg (oral in rats, mice,
rabbits)[2]
Related compounds
Sodium fluoride
Sodium bromide
Sodium iodide
Lithium chloride
Potassium chloride
Rubidium chloride
Caesium chloride
Supplementary data page
n, r, etc.
Phase behaviour
Solid, liquid, gas
UV, IR, NMR, MS

(what is this?) (verify)

Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Sodium chloride, also known as salt, common salt, table salt, or halite, is an ionic compound with the formula
NaCl. Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of the ocean and of the extracellular fluid of many
multicellular organisms. As the major ingredient in edible salt, it is commonly used as a condiment and food
preservative.
Contents
[hide]

1 Properties

2 Production and use

o 2.1 Synthetic uses
o 2.2 Biological uses
o 2.3 Optical uses
o 2.4 Optical data
o 2.5 Household uses
o 2.6 Firefighting uses
o 2.7 In weather

3 Biological functions

4 Crystal structure

5 Road salt
o 5.1 Additives
o 5.2 Environmental impact

6 See also

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7 References

8 External links
[edit] Properties
Thermal conductivity of pure NaCl as a function of temperature has a maximum of 2.03 W/(cm K) at 8 K and
decreases to 0.069 at 314 K (41 C). It also decreases with doping. [3]
[edit] Production and use

Modern rock salt mine near Mount Morris, New York, United States
Salt is currently mass-produced by evaporation of seawater or brine from other sources, such as brine wells and salt
lakes, and by mining rock salt, called halite. In 2009, world production was estimated at 260 million metric tons, the
top five producers (in million tonnes) being China (60.0), United States (46.0), Germany (16.5), India (15.8) and
Canada (14.0).[4]
As well as the familiar uses of salt in cooking, salt is used in many applications, from manufacturing pulp and paper,
to setting dyes in textiles and fabric, to producing soaps, detergents, and other bath products. It is the major source of
industrial chlorine and sodium hydroxide, and used in almost every industry.
Sodium chloride is sometimes used as a cheap and safe desiccant because it appears to have hygroscopic properties,
making salting an effective method of food preservation historically; the salt draws water out of bacteria through
osmotic pressure, keeping it from reproducing, a major source of food spoilage. Even though more effective
desiccants are available, few are safe for humans to ingest.

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Solubility of NaCl in various solvents

(g NaCl / 1 kg of solvent at 25 C)[5]
H2O

360

Liquid ammonia

30.2

glycerin

83

propylene glycol

71

Methanol

14

Ethanol

0.65

1-propanol

0.124

2-propanol

0.03

1-butanol

0.05

1-pentanol

0.018

Sulfolane

0.05

Formic acid

52

Acetone

0.00042

Formamide

94

Acetonitrile

0.003

Dimethylformamide

0.4

[edit] Synthetic uses

Uses of chlorine include PVC, pesticides and epoxy resins. Industrially, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the
electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. Along with chlorine, this chloralkali process yields hydrogen gas
and sodium hydroxide, according to the chemical equation
2 NaCl + 2 H2O Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH
Sodium metal is produced commercially through the electrolysis of liquid sodium chloride. This is now done in a
Down's cell in which sodium chloride is mixed with calcium chloride to lower the melting point below 700 C. As
calcium is more electropositive than sodium, no calcium will be formed at the cathode. This method is less expensive
than the previous method of electrolyzing sodium hydroxide.
Sodium chloride is used in other chemical processes for the large-scale production of compounds containing sodium
or chlorine. In the Solvay process, sodium chloride is used for producing sodium carbonate and calcium chloride. In
the Mannheim process and in the Hargreaves process, it is used for the production of sodium sulfate and hydrochloric
acid.
[edit] Biological uses
Many micro organisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For
this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as smoked bacon or fish. It can also be used to detach leeches that
have attached themselves to feed. It is also used to disinfect wounds.
[edit] Optical uses
Pure NaCl crystal is an optical compound with a wide transmission range from 200 nm to 20 m. It was often used in
the infrared spectrum range and it is still used sometimes.
While inexpensive, NaCl crystal is soft and hygroscopic. When exposed to free air, NaCl optics gradually covers with
"frost". This limits application of NaCl to protected environments or for short-term uses such as prototyping.
Today tougher crystals like zinc selenide (ZnSe) are used instead of NaCl (for the IR spectral range).
[edit] Optical data

Transmitivity: 92% (from 400 nm to 13 m)

Refractive Index: 1.494 at 10 m

Reflection Loss: 7.5% at 10 m (2 surfaces)

dN/dT: 36.2106/C at 0.7 m

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[edit] Household uses

Since at least medieval times, people have used salt as a cleansing agent rubbed on household surfaces. It is also used
in many brands of shampoo, and popularly to de-ice driveways and patches of ice.
[edit] Firefighting uses

A class D fire extinguisher for various metals

Sodium chloride is the principal extinguishing agent in fire extinguishers (Met-L-X, Super D) used on combustible
metal fires such as magnesium, potassium, sodium, and NaK alloys (Class D). Thermoplastic powder is added to the
mixture, along with waterproofing (metal stearates) and anti-caking materials (tricalcium phosphate) to form the
extinguishing agent. When it is applied to the fire, the salt acts like a heat sink, dissipating heat from the fire, and also
forms an oxygen-excluding crust to smother the fire. The plastic additive melts and helps the crust maintain its
integrity until the burning metal cools below its ignition temperature. This type of extinguisher was invented in the
late 1940s in the cartridge-operated type shown here, although stored pressure versions are now popular. Common
sizes are 30 lb. portable and 350 lb. wheeled.
[edit] In weather

Clouds above the Pacific

Small particles of sea salt are the dominant cloud condensation nuclei well out at sea, which allow the formation of
clouds in otherwise non-polluted air.[6] Snow removal by addition of salt (salting) is done to make travel easier and
safer, and decrease the long term impact of a heavy snowfall on human populations. This process is done by both
individual households and by governments and institutions and utilizes salts to eliminate snow from road surfaces and
sidewalks.[7]
[edit] Biological functions
For further information about sodium chloride in the diet, see Salt.
In humans, a high-salt intake has long been suspected to generally raise blood pressure. More recently, it was
demonstrated to attenuate nitric oxide production. Nitric oxide (NO) contributes to vessel homeostasis by inhibiting
vascular smooth muscle contraction and growth, platelet aggregation, and leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium.[8][9]

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[edit] Crystal structure

The crystal structure of sodium chloride. Each ion has six nearest neighbors, with octahedral geometry.

Close up view of NaCl crystals

Main article: Cubic crystal system
Sodium chloride forms crystals with face-centered cubic symmetry. In these, the larger chloride ions, shown to the
right as green spheres, are arranged in a cubic close-packing, while the smaller sodium ions, shown to the right as
silver spheres, fill all the cubic gaps between them. Each ion is surrounded by six ions of the other kind; the
surrounding ions are located at the vertices of a regular octahedron.
This same basic structure is found in many other minerals and is commonly known as the halite or rock-salt crystal
structure. It can be represented as a face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice with a two atom basis. The first atom is located at
each lattice point, and the second atom is located half way between lattice points along the fcc unit cell edge.
It is held together by an ionic bond which is produced by electrostatic forces arising from the difference in charge
between the ions.
[edit] Road salt
While salt was once a scarce commodity in history, industrialized production has now made salt plentiful.
Approximately 51% of world output is now used by cold countries to de-ice roads in winter, both in grit bins and
spread by winter service vehicles. Calcium chloride is preferred over sodium chloride, since CaCl2 releases energy
upon forming a solution with water, heating any ice or snow it is in contact with. It also lowers the freezing point,
depending on the concentration. NaCl does not release heat upon solution; however, it does lower the freezing point.
Calcium chloride is thought to be more environmentally friendly than sodium chloride when used to de-ice roads,
however a drawback is that it tends to promote corrosion (of vehicles) more so than sodium chloride. NaCl is also
more readily available and does not have any special handling or storage requirements, unlike calcium chloride. The
salinity (S) of water is measured as grams salt per kilogram of water, and the freezing temperatures are as follows.
S
0 15 30 45 59 75 90 106 123 140 157 175 193 212 231 250 269 290 311 331 353
(g/kg)
T
0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. 11. 13. 14. 16. 17. 19. 21. 17. 11.
0
2.7
(C)
8 7 7 6 6 5 6 8 1 4
8
2
6
2
8
4
1
3
1
[edit] Additives

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Most table salt sold for consumption today is not pure sodium chloride. In 1911, magnesium carbonate was first added
to salt to make it flow more freely.[10] In 1924 trace amounts of iodine in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide or
potassium iodate were first added, to reduce the incidence of simple goiter.[11]
Salt for de-icing in the United Kingdom predominantly comes from a single mine in Winsford in Cheshire. Prior to
distribution it has an anti-caking agent added: sodium hexacyanoferrate(II) at less than 100 ppm. This treatment
enables rock salt to flow freely out of the gritting vehicles despite being stockpiled prior to use. In recent years this
additive has also been used in table salt.
[edit] Environmental impact
Road salt ends up in fresh water bodies and could harm aquatic plants and animals by disrupting their osmoregulation
ability.[12] An alternative is to spread rough sand on ice so the surface is not slippery.
The omnipresence of salt posts a problem in any coastal coating application, as trapped salts cause great problems in
adhesion. Costs can reach staggering amounts. Naval authorities and ship builders keep a close eye on salt
concentrations on surfaces during construction. Maximum salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the
authority and application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a maximum of 50 mg/m2 soluble
salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are done by means of a Bresle test.

Mounds of salt, Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia.

Israeli and Jordanian salt
evaporation ponds at the south
end of the Dead Sea.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride
Lead(II) acetate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Pb(CH3COO)2)
Jump to: navigation, search

Evaporation lagoons, Aigues-Mortes,

France.

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Lead(II) acetate

IUPAC name[hide]
Lead(II) acetate
Systematic name[hide]
Lead(II) ethanoate
Other names[hide]
Plumbous acetate, Salt of Saturn, Sugar of Lead, lead diacetate
Identifiers
301-04-2 ,
CAS number
6080-56-4 (trihydrate)
51404-69-4 (Basic)
Properties
Molecular formula
Pb(C2H3O2)2
325.29 g/mol (anhydrous)
Molar
mass
Contents
379.33g/mol (trihydrate)
[hide]
Appearance
White powder or colorless, efflorescent crystals

1 Historical use
3.25 g/cm3 (anhydrous)

2
Other
uses
Density
2.55 g/cm3 (trihydrate)
g/cm3 (decahydrate)

3 Biological 1.69
hazards
280
C
(anhydrous)

4 References
Melting
point
75
C
(trihydrate)

5 External links
22 C (decahydrate)
44.39 g/100 mL (20 C)
Solubility in water
211 g/100 mL (50 C)[1]
anhydrous soluble in alcohol; hydrates insoluble
Solubility
in alcohol
Refractive index (nD) 1.567 (trihydrate)
Structure
Crystal structure
Monoclinic
Hazards
Main hazards
Neurotoxic, Probable Human Carcinogen

NFPA 704
1
3
0
Flash point

Nonflammable

(what is this?) (verify)

Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa) LD-29
Infobox references

Lead(II) acetate is a chemical compound,

a white crystalline substance with a
sweetish taste. It is made by treating
lead(II) oxide with acetic acid. Like other
lead compounds, it is toxic. Lead acetate is
soluble in water and glycerin. With water
it forms the trihydrate,
Pb(CH3COO)23H2O, a colorless or white
efflorescent monoclinic crystalline
substance. Lead(II) acetate is also known
as lead acetate, lead diacetate, plumbous
acetate, sugar of lead, lead sugar, salt of
Saturn, and Goulard's powder (after
Thomas Goulard).
The substance is used as a reagent to make
other lead compounds and as a fixative for
some dyes. In low concentrations, it is the
principal active ingredient in progressive
types of hair coloring dyes. Lead(II)
acetate is also used as a mordant in textile
printing and dyeing, as a drier in paints
and varnishes, and in preparing other lead
compounds.

[edit] Historical use

Like other lead(II) salts, lead acetate has a
sweet taste, which has led to its use as a
sugar substitute throughout history. The
ancient Romans, who had few sweeteners
besides honey, would boil must (grape
juice) in lead pots to produce a reduced
sugar syrup called defrutum, concentrated
again into sapa. This syrup was used to
sweeten wine, and to sweeten and preserve
fruit. It is possible that lead acetate or
other lead compounds leaching into the
syrup might have caused lead poisoning in
anyone consuming it.[2]
Pope Clement II died in October 1047. A
recent toxicologic examination[citation needed]
of his remains confirmed centuries-old
rumors that he had been poisoned with
lead sugar. It is not clear if he was
assassinated.

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In 1787 painter Albert Christoph Dies swallowed, by accident, three-quarters of an ounce (21 g) of lead acetate. His
recovery from this poison was slow and incomplete. He lived with illnesses until his death in 1822. [citation needed]
Although its use was already illegal at that time, composer Ludwig van Beethoven may potentially have died of lead
poisoning caused by wines adulterated with lead acetate. [3][4]
Mary Seacole applied it among other remedies against an epidemic of cholera in Panama.[5][6]
Sugar of lead has also been used to treat poison ivy.
Lead acetate is no longer used as a sweetener in most of the world because of its recognized toxicity. Modern
chemistry can easily detect it, which has all but stopped the illegal use that continued decades after legal use was
terminated.
[edit] Other uses
Lead acetate, as well as white lead, have been used in cosmetics throughout history, though this practice has ceased in
Western countries.[7] It is still used in men's hair coloring products[8] like Grecian Formula.
Lead acetate paper is used to detect the poisonous gas hydrogen sulfide. The gas reacts with lead(II) acetate on the
moistened test paper to form a grey precipitate of lead(II) sulfide.
Lead acetate solution was a commonly used folk remedy for sore nipples. [9]
An aqueous solution of lead acetate is the byproduct of the 50/50 mixture of hydrogen peroxide and white vinegar
used in the cleaning and maintenance of stainless steel firearm suppressors (silencers) and compensators. The solution
is agitated by the bubbling action of the hydrogen peroxide, and the main reaction is the dissolution of lead deposits
within the suppressor by the acetic acid, which forms lead acetate. Because of its high toxicity, this chemical solution
must be appropriately disposed by a chemical processing facility or hazardous materials center. Alternatively, the
solution may be reacted with sulfuric acid to precipitate insoluble lead sulfate. The solid may then be removed by
mechanical filtration and is safer to dispose of than aqueous lead acetate.
[edit] Biological hazards
Lead(II) acetate, among other lead salts, has been reported to cross the placenta and to the embryo leading to fetal
mortality. Lead salts also have teratogenic effect in some animal species.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pb%28CH3COO%292
Dalam skala indsutri, timbal asetat dibuat dengan mereaksikan asam asetat dengan kepingan tipis timbal atau dengan
timbal oksida dengan asam asetat kuat.
Proses pertama dalam pembuatan timbal asetat adalah dengan memasukkan bahan baku ke dalam tungku,
kemudian ditambahkan batu kapur, soda dan air kedalamnya dan dipanaskan pada suhu yang sangat tinggi. Setelah itu
dimasukkan ke tangki chassing dan dilakukan pembakaran pada suhu rendah. Proses selanjutnya adalah melakukan
de-silvering pada ketel yang telah berisi bahan olahan dan ditambah zinc. Kemudian dilakukan de-zincing pada ketel
untuk menetralkan unsur zinc tadi. Setelah itu, diperolehlah timbal asetat.

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Gambar 4.3. Flowsheet pembuatan

Pb(CH3COO)2
Keterangan gambar:
1. sintering
2. pembakaran timbal tanur tinggi
3. chassing
4. pembakaran suhu rendah
5. de-silvering ketel
6. de-zincing ketel
7. lasting ketel
8. Pencetakan
Mercury(II) chloride
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Mercuric chloride)
Jump to: navigation, search
Mercury(II) chloride or mercuric
chloride (formerly corrosive sublimate), is
the chemical compound with the formula
HgCl2. This white crystalline solid is a
laboratory reagent. It is not used as
commonly as once was the case because,
due to its solubility in water, it is highly
toxic. It is a molecular compound.
Contents
[hide]

1 Production and basic properties

2 Applications IUPAC name[hide]

chloride
o 2.1 AsMercury(II)
a chemical reagent
Mercury
dichloride
o 2.2 Historic use in photography
Other names[hide]
o 2.3 Historic use in preservation
Mercuric chloride
o 2.4 Historic use in medicine
Corrosive sublimate

3 Toxicity
Identifiers
4 References 7487-94-7
CAS number

5 External links
EC number
231-299-8
UN number
1624
RTECS number
OV9100000
Properties
Molecular formula
HgCl2
Molar mass
271.52 g/mol
Appearance
white solid
Density
5.43 g/cm3
Melting point
276 C, 549 K, 529 F
Boiling point
304 C, 577 K, 579 F
Solubility in water
7.4 g/100 ml (20 C)
soluble in alcohol, ether, acetone, ethyl acetate
Solubility
slightly soluble in benzene, CS2
Acidity (pKa)
3.2 (0.2M solution)
Structure
Crystal structure
orthogonal
Coordination
LD-31
linear
geometry
Molecular shape
linear
100405027
Dipole moment
zero
Hazards
MSDS
ICSC 0979
EU Index
080-010-00-X

[edit] Production and basic properties

Mercuric chloride is not a salt but a linear
triatomic molecule, hence its tendency to
sublime. In the crystal, each mercury atom
is bonded to two close chloride ligands
with Hg---Cl distance of 2.38 ; four
more chlorides are more distant at 3.38 .
[1]

Mercuric chloride is obtained by the action

of chlorine on mercury or mercury(I)
chloride, by the addition of hydrochloric
acid to a hot, concentrated solution of
mercury(I) compounds such as the nitrate:
HgNO3 + 2 HCl HgCl2 + H2O
+ NO2,

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Heating a mixture of solid mercury(II) sulfate and sodium chloride also affords volatile HgCl2, which sublimes and
condenses in the form of small rhombic crystals.
Its solubility increases from 6% at 20 C to 36% in boiling water. In the presence of chloride ions, it dissolves to give
the tetrahedral coordination complex [HgCl4]2-.
[edit] Applications
The main application of mercuric chloride is as a catalyst for the conversion of acetylene to vinyl chloride, the
precursor to polyvinylchloride:
C2H2 + HCl CH2=CHCl
For this application, the mercuric chloride is supported on carbon in concentrations of about 5 weight percent. This
technology has been eclipsed by the thermal cracking of 1,2-dichloroethane. Other significant applications of mercuric
chloride include its use as a depolarizer in batteries and as a reagent in organic synthesis and analytical chemistry (see
below).[2] It is being used in plant tissue culture for surface sterilisation of explants such as leaf or stem nodes.
[edit] As a chemical reagent
Mercuric chloride is occasionally used to form an amalgam with metals, such as aluminium. Upon treatment with an
aqueous solution of mercuric chloride, aluminium strips quickly become covered by a thin layer of the amalgam.
Normally, aluminium is protected by a thin layer of oxide making it inert. Once amalgamated, aluminium can undergo
a variety of reactions. For example, it will dissolve in water (this can be dangerous, as hydrogen gas and heat are
generated). Halocarbons react with amalgamated aluminium in the Barbier reaction. These alkylaluminium
compounds are nucleophilic and can be used in a similar fashion to the Grignard reagent. Amalgamated aluminium is
also used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis. Zinc is also commonly amalgamated using mercuric chloride.
Mercuric chloride is used to remove dithiane groups attached to a carbonyl in an umpolung reaction. This reaction
exploits the high affinity of Hg2+ for anionic sulfur ligands.
[edit] Historic use in photography
Mercury(II) chloride was used as a photographic intensifier to produce positive pictures in the collodion process of the
1800s. When applied to a negative, the mercury(II) chloride whitens and thickens the image, thereby increasing the
opacity of the shadows and creating the illusion of a positive image. [3]
[edit] Historic use in preservation
For the preservation of anthropological and biological specimens during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, objects
were dipped in or were painted with a "mercuric solution". Objects in drawers were protected by scattering crystalline
mercuric chloride over them.[4] It finds minor use in tanning, and wood was preserved by kyanizing (soaking in
mercuric chloride).[5] Mercuric chloride was one of the three chemicals used for railroad tie wood treatment between
1830 and 1856 in Europe and the United States. Limited railroad ties were treated in the United States until there were
concerns over lumber shortages in the 1890s.[6] The process was generally abandoned because mercuric chloride was
water soluble and not effective for the long term, as well as poisonous. Furthermore, alternative treatment processes,
such as copper sulfate, zinc chloride, and ultimately creosote; were found to be less toxic. Limited kyanizing was used
for some railroad ties in the 1890s and early 1900s.[7]
[edit] Historic use in medicine
Syphilis was frequently treated with mercuric chloride before the advent of antibiotics. It was inhaled, ingested,
injected, and applied topically. Poisoning was so common that its symptoms were confused with those of syphilis.
This usage of 'salts of white mercury' is referred to in the English folk-song, The Unfortunate Rake.[8]
[edit] Toxicity
Main article: Mercury poisoning
Mercuric chloride is highly toxic, not only acutely but as a cumulative poison.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercuric_chloride
Dalam skala industri, pembuatan merkuri klorida dilakukan dengan cara sebagai berikut, pertama sekali unsur
merkuri (stream A) dipompa dari tangki dimana bereaksi dengan gas klorin yang berlebihan (stream B). Hasil
produksi (stream C) disalurkan ke unit presipitasi yang menghasilkan produk kering (HgCl 2) dan merkuri klorida
(stream D) dibungkus dan disegel dalam drum untuk dikirim ke luar sebagai produk utama merkuri klorida (HgCl 2).
Dari reaktor (stream E) dikirim ke scrubber kaustik dimana merkuri yang tidak tereaksikan dipulihkan kembali dan
kemudian siklus kembali dilakukan (stream F).

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Gambar 3.4 Flowsheet pembuatan HgCl2

Perak
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Belum Diperiksa
Langsung ke: navigasi, cari
Untuk kegunaan lain dari Perak, lihat Perak (disambiguasi).
47
paladium perak kadmium
Cu

Ag

Au

Tabel periodik

Keterangan Umum Unsur

Nama, Lambang, Nomor atom
perak, Ag, 47
Deret kimia
logam transisi
Golongan, Periode, Blok
11, 5, d
logam putih mengkilap
Penampilan

Massa atom
Konfigurasi elektron
Jumlah elektron tiap kulit

107,8682(2) g/mol
[Kr] 4d10 5s1
2, 8, 18, 18, 1
Ciri-ciri fisik
Fase
padat
Massa jenis (sekitar suhu kamar)
10,49 g/cm
Massa jenis cair pada titik lebur
9,320 g/cm
Titik lebur
1234,93 K

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(961,78 C, 1763,2 F)
2435 K
(2162 C, 3924 F)
11,28 kJ/mol
258 kJ/mol
(25 C) 25,350 J/(molK)
Tekanan uap

Titik didih
Kalor peleburan
Kalor penguapan
Kapasitas kalor
P/Pa

10

100

1k

10 k

100 k

pada T/K

1283

1413

1575

1782

2055

2433

Struktur kristal
Bilangan oksidasi
Elektronegativitas
Energi ionisasi

Jari-jari atom
Jari-jari atom (terhitung)
Jari-jari kovalen
Jari-jari Van der Waals
Sifat magnetik
Resistivitas listrik
Konduktivitas termal
Difusivitas termal
Ekspansi termal
Kecepatan suara
(pada wujud kawat)
Modulus Young
Modulus geser
Modulus ruah
Nisbah Poisson
Skala kekerasan Mohs
Kekerasan Vickers
Kekerasan Brinell

Ciri-ciri atom
kubus pusat muka
1
(oksida amfoter)
1,93 (skala Pauling)
pertama: 731,0 kJ/mol
ke-2: 2070 kJ/mol
ke-3: 3361 kJ/mol
160 pm
165 pm
153 pm
172 pm
Lain-lain
diamagnetik
(20 C) 15,87 nm
(300 K) 429 W/(mK)
(300 K) 174 mm/s
(25 C) 18,9 m/(mK)
(suhu kamar) 2680 m/s
83 GPa
30 GPa
100 GPa
0,37
2,5
251 MPa
24,5 MPa
Isotop

iso
105

Ag

106m

107

Ag

Ag

108m

Ag

NA
syn

waktu paruh
41,2 hari

DM

DE (MeV)

DP

105

0,344; 0,280;
0,644; 0,443

106

0,511; 0,717;
1,045; 0,450

syn

8,28 hari

51,839%

Ag stabil dengan 60 neutron

syn

418 tahun

IT

Pd

Pd

108

0,109

108

Pd
Ag

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109

0,433; 0,614;
0,722

Ag

48,161%

Ag stabil dengan 62 neutron

Ag

syn

7,45 hari

111

1,036; 0,694

111

0,342

Cd

Referensi
Di dalam industri, perak sering diproduksi dari bahan-bahan mineral logam. Maka biasanya bahan-bahan
mineral logam biasanya akan dilakukan bleaching. Proses pemurnian bahan-bahan batuan mineral itu
akanmenghasilkan renin yang dapat digunakan. Kemudian zat tersebut dicampurkan dengan zat asam maupun basa
sehingga akhirnya akan terbentuk suatu endapan perak.

Gambar 2.9 Flowchart pembentukan Perak

http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perak
Ammonium chloride
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ammonium chloride

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CAS number
ChemSpider
UNII
EC number
RTECS number
SMILES
InChI
InChI key
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Odor
Density
Melting point
Solubility in water
Solubility in alcohol
Acidity (pKa)
Refractive index (nD)
Std enthalpy of
formation fHo298
Standard molar
entropy So298
MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases

IUPAC name[hide]
Ammonium chloride
Other names[hide]
Sal ammoniac
Identifiers
12125-02-9
23807
01Q9PC255D
235-186-4
BP4550000
[show]
[show]
[show]
Properties
NH4Cl
53.491 g/mol
White solid
hygroscopic
odorless
1.5274 g/cm3
338 C (decomposes)
29.7 g/100 mL (0 C)
37.2 g/100 mL (20 C)
77.3 g/100 mL (100 C)
0.6 g/100 mL (19 C)
9.245
1.642
Thermochemistry
314.55 kJ/mol[1]
94.85 JK1mol1 [1]
Hazards
ICSC 1051
017-014-00-8
Harmful (Xn)
Irritant (Xi)
R22, R36
(S2), S22

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NFPA 704
0
1
0
Flash point
LD50

Other anions

Other cations

Non-flammable
1650 mg/kg, oral (rat)
Related compounds
Ammonium fluoride
Ammonium bromide
Ammonium iodide
Sodium chloride
Potassium chloride
Hydroxylamonium chloride

(what is this?) (verify)

Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl (also Sal ammoniac, salmiac, nushadir salt, sal armagnac, sal armoniac, salt
armoniack) is, in its pure form, a clear white water-soluble crystalline salt of ammonia. The aqueous ammonium
chloride solution is mildly acidic. Sal ammoniac is a name of natural, mineralogical form of ammonium chloride. The
mineral is especially common on burning coal dumps (formed by condensation of coal-derived gases), but also on
some volcanoes.
Contents
[hide]

1 Sources

2 Reactions

3 Applications
o 3.1 Chemistry and Physics
o 3.2 Biology and Agriculture
o 3.3 Pyrotechnics
o 3.4 Textile and Leather
o 3.5 Metalwork
o 3.6 Medicine
o 3.7 Food
o 3.8 Other Applications

4 References
[edit] Sources
The substance occurs naturally in volcanic regions, forming on volcanic rocks near fume-releasing vents. The crystals
deposit directly from the gaseous state, and tend to be short-lived, as they dissolve easily in water. It is a by-product of
the Solvay process used to produce sodium carbonate.[2]
Ammonium chloride is prepared commercially by reacting ammonia (NH3) with hydrogen chloride (HCl). As these
chemicals are corrosive, this process has to be performed in vessels lined with nonreactive materials (e.g. glass,
enamel, lead, or PVC).[2]
NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
This reaction can occur if poorly sealed bottles of household ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) and hydrochloric acid
are stored in close proximity, leading to crystals forming around the openings of the bottles (mostly appear on those
leaking more slowly).

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[edit] Reactions
Ammonium chloride appears to sublime but this process actually involves decomposition into ammonia and hydrogen
chloride gas.[2]
NH4Cl NH3 + HCl
Ammonium chloride may be reacted with a hydroxide base, e.g. sodium hydroxide, to release ammonia gas:
NH4Cl + NaOH NH3 + NaCl + H2O
If test tubes of ammonia solution and hydrochloric acid are brought close together, a smoke composed of
microcrystals of ammonium chloride will slowly rise out of the tube.
[edit] Applications

Ammonium chloride crystal(s).

[edit] Chemistry and Physics
Ammonium chloride dissolved in water becomes an acid. Ammonium chloride is used to produce low temperatures in
cooling baths. For example, the zero point of Fahrenheit temperature scale is determined by placing the thermometer
in a mixture of ice, water, and ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride solutions with ammonia are used as buffer
solutions.
[edit] Biology and Agriculture
In biological applications ammonium chloride acts as a nitrogen source and is used in fertilizers, as a feed supplement
for cattle and as an ingredient in nutritive media for yeast microbiological organisms.
[edit] Pyrotechnics
Ammonium chloride is an ingredient in fireworks and safety and contact explosives.
[edit] Textile and Leather
Ammonium chloride is used in the textile and leather industry in dyeing, tanning textile printing and to luster cotton.
[edit] Metalwork
Ammonium chloride is used as a flux in preparing metals to be tin coated, galvanized or soldered. It works as a flux
by cleaning the surface of workpieces by reacting with the metal oxides at the surface to form a volatile metal
chloride. It is sold in blocks at hardware stores for use in cleaning the tip of a soldering iron and can also be included
in solder as flux.
[edit] Medicine
Ammonium chloride is used as an expectorant in cough medicine. Its expectorant action is caused by irritative action
on the bronchial mucosa. This causes the production of excess respiratory tract fluid which presumably is easier to
cough up.
Ammonium salts are an irritant to the gastric mucosa and may induce nausea and vomiting.
Ammonium chloride is used as a systemic acidifying agent in treatment of severe metabolic alkalosis, in oral acid
loading test to diagnose distal renal tubular acidosis, to maintain the urine at an acid pH in the treatment of some
urinary-tract disorders
Ammonium Chloride is also used as a diuretic in forced acid diuresis.
[edit] Food
In several countries ammonium chloride is known as sal ammoniac and used as food additive. The E number for
ammonium chloride used as a food additive is E510.

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Sal ammoniac is used to spice up dark sweets called salty liquorice and in the flavouring Salmiakki Koskenkorva for
vodkas.
Sal ammoniac is also used in baking to give cookies a very crisp texture.
[edit] Other Applications
Ammonium chloride is used in a ~5% aqueous solution to work on oil wells with clay swelling problems. It is also
used as electrolyte in Zinccarbon batteries. Other uses include in hair shampoo, in the glue that bonds plywood, in
cleaning products.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloride
Ammonium hydroxide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Main article: Ammonia
Ammonium hydroxide

CAS number
ChemSpider
UNII
SMILES
InChI
InChI key
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases
Other anions

Identifiers
1336-21-6
14218
5138Q19F1X
[show]
[show]
[show]
Properties[1]
NH4OH
35.04 g/mol
very volatile solution, colorless, bitter smell
0.91 g/cm3 (25 %)
0.88 g/cm3 (32 %)
57.5 C (25%)
91.5 C (32%)
37.7 C (25%)
24.7 C (32%)
Miscible
Hazards[2]
Corrosive (C)
Dangerous to the environment (N)
R34, R50
(S1/2), S26, S36/37/39, S45, S61
Related compounds
Ammonium chloride

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Other cations
Related compounds

Ammonium cyanide
Tetramethylammonium hydroxide
Ammonia
Hydroxylamine

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Ammonium hydroxide, also known as ammonia water, ammonical liquor, ammonia liquor, aqua ammonia,
aqueous ammonia, or simply ammonia, is a solution of ammonia in water. It can be denoted by the symbols
NH3(aq). Although its name suggests a salt with composition [NH4+][OH], it is not actually possible to isolate
samples of NH4OH it exists only in dilute aqueous solutions.[3]
Contents
[hide]

1 Basicity of ammonia in water

2 Saturated solutions

3 Applications

4 Laboratory use

5 See also

6 References
[edit] Basicity of ammonia in water
In aqueous solution, ammonia deprotonates a small fraction of the water to give ammonium and hydroxide according
to the following equilibrium:
NH3 + H2O
NH4+ + OH.
In a 1M ammonia solution, about 0.42% of the ammonia is converted to ammonium, equivalent to a pH of 11.63. The
base ionization constant is
Kb = [NH4+][OH-]/[NH3] = 1.8105
[edit] Saturated solutions
Like other gases, ammonia exhibits decreasing solubility in solvent liquids as the temperature of the solvent increases.
"Ammonium hydroxide" solutions decrease in density as the concentration of dissolved ammonia increases. At
15.6 C (60.1 F), the density of a saturated solution is 0.88 g/ml and contains 35% ammonia by mass, 308 g/l w/v,
(308 grams of ammonia per litre of solution) and has a molarity of approximately 18 mol L1. At higher temperatures,
the molarity of the saturated solution decreases and the density increases.
When solutions that are saturated at cold temperatures are sealed in containers and subsequently warmed, the
concentration of the solution decreases and the vapor pressure of ammonia gas increases. Unsealing such containers
can lead to a burst of ammonia gas. In extreme cases, the containers could rupture.
From a laboratory perspective, one should be aware that the concentration of a saturated solution is continually
dropping as the container is handled in a warmer environment. Thus, old samples of ammonium hydroxide will
deviate from 18 M, as can be verified by titration.
[edit] Applications
Household ammonia is dilute ammonium hydroxide, which is also an ingredient of numerous other cleaning agents,
including many window cleaning formulas. In addition to use as an ingredient in cleansers with other cleansing
ingredients, ammonium hydroxide in water is also sold as a cleaning agent by itself, usually labelled as simply
"ammonia". It may be sold plain, lemon-scented (and typically colored yellow), or pine-scented (green).
In industry, ammonium hydroxide is used as a precursor to some alkyl amines, although anhydrous ammonia is
usually preferred. Hexamethylenetetramine forms readily from aqueous ammonia and formaldehyde. Ethylenediamine
forms from 1,2-dichloroethane and aqueous ammonia.[4]
In furniture-making, ammonium hydroxide was traditionally used to darken or stain wood containing tannic acid.
Tannic acid with ammonium hydroxide or iron salts creates a brown stain which can be applied to wood. [5]
Ammonium hydroxide is used in the meat packing industry. Some companies treat their beef "with a pH enhancement
process that forms ammonium hydroxide in the finished product."

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[edit] Laboratory use

Aqueous ammonia is used in traditional qualitative inorganic analysis as a complexant and base. Like many amines, it
gives a deep blue coloration with copper(II) solutions. Ammonia solution can dissolve silver residues, such as that
formed from Tollens' reagent.
When ammonium hydroxide is mixed with dilute hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a metal ion, such as Cu2+, the
peroxide will undergo rapid decomposition.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_hydroxide
Natrium hidroksida
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
(Dialihkan dari NaOH)
Belum Diperiksa
Langsung ke: navigasi, cari
Natrium Hidroksida

Nama IUPAC[sembunyikan]
Natrium Hidroksida
Nama lain[sembunyikan]
Soda kaustik
Identifikasi
Nomor CAS
[1310-73-2]
Sifat
Rumus molekul
NaOH
Massa molar
39,9971 g/mol
Penampilan
zat padat putih
Densitas
2,1 g/cm, padat
Titik leleh
318 C (591 K)
Titik didih
1390 C (1663 K)
Kelarutan dalam air
111 g/100 ml (20 C)
Kebasaan (pKb)
-2,43
Bahaya
MSDS
External MSDS

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NFPA 704
0
3
1
Titik nyala

Tidak mudah terbakar.

Senyawa terkait
Litium hidroksida
Kalium hidroksida
Alkali hidroksida terkait
Rubidium hidroksida
Sesium hidroksida
Kecuali dinyatakan sebaliknya, data di atas berlaku
pada temperatur dan tekanan standar (25C, 100 kPa)
Sangkalan dan referensi
Natrium hidroksida (NaOH), juga dikenal sebagai soda kaustik atau sodium hidroksida, adalah sejenis basa logam
kaustik. Natrium Hidroksida terbentuk dari oksida basa Natrium Oksida dilarutkan dalam air. Natrium hidroksida
membentuk larutan alkalin yang kuat ketika dilarutkan ke dalam air. Ia digunakan di berbagai macam bidang industri,
kebanyakan digunakan sebagai basa dalam proses produksi bubur kayu dan kertas, tekstil, air minum, sabun dan
deterjen. Natrium hidroksida adalah basa yang paling umum digunakan dalam laboratorium kimia.
Natrium hidroksida murni berbentuk putih padat dan tersedia dalam bentuk pelet, serpihan, butiran ataupun larutan
jenuh 50%. Ia bersifat lembab cair dan secara spontan menyerap karbon dioksida dari udara bebas. Ia sangat larut
dalam air dan akan melepaskan panas ketika dilarutkan. Ia juga larut dalam etanol dan metanol, walaupun kelarutan
NaOH dalam kedua cairan ini lebih kecil daripada kelarutan KOH. Ia tidak larut dalam dietil eter dan pelarut nonpolar lainnya. Larutan natrium hidroksida akan meninggalkan noda kuning pada kain dan kertas.
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaOH
Nitric acid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from HNO3)
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Nitric acid

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Preferred IUPAC name[hide]

Nitric acid
Systematic name[hide]
Oxoazinic acid
Other names[hide]
Aqua fortis
Salpetre acid
Spirit of nitre
Identifiers
7697-37-2 , 43625-06-5 (2H) , 13587-52CAS number
5 (2H)
PubChem
944 , 10313048 (15N) , 12025424 (2H)
ChemSpider
919 , 8488513 (15N) , 21171471 (2H)
EC number
231-714-2
UN number
UN 2031
KEGG
C00244
MeSH
Nitric+Acid
ChEBI
48107
RTECS number
QU5775000
SMILES
[show]
InChI
[show]
InChI key
[show]
Gmelin Reference
1576
3DMet
B00068
Properties
Molecular formula
HNO3
Molar mass
63.012 g/mol
Appearance
Clear, colorless liquid
Density
1.5129 g/cm3
Melting point
-42 C, 231 K, -44 F
83 C, 356 K, 181 F (bp of pure acid. 68%
Boiling point
solution boils at 120.5 C)
Solubility in water
completely miscible
Acidity (pKa)
-1.4
Refractive index (nD) 1.397 (16.5 C)
Dipole moment
2.17 0.02 D
Hazards
ICSC 0183
MSDS
PCTL Safety Website
EU Index
007-004-00-1
Toxic (T)
EU classification
Corrosive (C)
Oxidant (O)
R-phrases
R8 R35
S-phrases
(S1/2) S23 S26 S36 S45
NFPA 704

0
4

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0
OX
Flash point
Other anions
Other cations
Related compounds

Non-flammable
Related compounds
Nitrous acid
Sodium nitrate
Potassium nitrate
Ammonium nitrate
Dinitrogen pentoxide

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Nitric acid (HNO3), also known as aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and toxic strong acid.
Colorless when pure, older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast due to the accumulation of oxides of nitrogen. If the
solution contains more than 86% nitric acid, it is referred to as fuming nitric acid. Fuming nitric acid is characterized
as white fuming nitric acid and red fuming nitric acid, depending on the amount of nitrogen dioxide present. At
concentrations above 95% at room temperature, nitric acid tends to rapidly develop a yellow color due to
decomposition. Nitric acid is also commonly used as a strong oxidizing agent.
Contents
[hide]

1 Properties
o 1.1 Acidic properties
o 1.2 Oxidizing properties

1.2.1 Reactions with metals

1.2.2 Passivation

1.2.3 Reactions with non-metals

o 1.3 Xanthoproteic test

2 Grades

3 Industrial production

4 Laboratory synthesis

5 Uses
o 5.1 Rocket fuel
o 5.2 Chemical reagent
o 5.3 Woodworking

6 Other uses

7 Safety

8 History

9 References

10 External links
[edit] Properties
Pure anhydrous nitric acid (100%) is a colorless mobile liquid with a density of 1.522 g/cm 3 which solidifies at 42 C
to form white crystals and boils at 83 C. When boiling in light, and slowly even at room temperature, there is a partial
decomposition with the formation of nitrogen dioxide following the reaction:
4 HNO3 2 H2O + 4 NO2 + O2
which means that anhydrous nitric acid should be stored below 0 C to avoid decomposition. The nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) remains dissolved in the nitric acid coloring it yellow, or red at higher temperatures. While the pure acid tends
to give off white fumes when exposed to air, acid with dissolved nitrogen dioxide gives off reddish-brown vapors,
leading to the common name "red fuming acid" or "fuming nitric acid". Fuming nitric acid is also referred to as 16
molar nitric acid. It is the most concentrated form of nitric acid at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP).

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Nitric acid is miscible with water and distillation gives a maximum-boiling azeotrope with a concentration of 68%
HNO3 and a boiling temperature of 120.5 C at 1 atm, which is the ordinary concentrated nitric acid of commerce.
Two solid hydrates are known; the monohydrate (HNO3H2O) and the trihydrate (HNO33H2O).
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are soluble in nitric acid and this property influences more or less all the physical
characteristics depending on the concentration of the oxides. These mainly include the vapor pressure above the liquid
and the boiling temperature, as well as the color mentioned above.
Nitric acid is subject to thermal or light decomposition with increasing concentration and this may give rise to some
non-negligible variations in the vapor pressure above the liquid because the nitrogen oxides produced dissolve partly
or completely in the acid.
[edit] Acidic properties
Being a typical strong acid, nitric acid reacts with alkalis, basic oxides, and carbonates to form salts, such as
ammonium nitrate. Due to its oxidizing nature, nitric acid generally does not donate its proton (that is, it does not
liberate hydrogen) on reaction with metals and the resulting salts are usually in the higher oxidized states. For this
reason, heavy corrosion can be expected and should be guarded against by the appropriate use of corrosion resistant
metals or alloys.
Nitric acid has an acid dissociation constant (pKa) of 1.4. In aqueous solution, it almost completely (93% at
0.1 mol/L) ionizes into the nitrate ion NO3 and a hydrated proton, known as a hydronium ion, H3O+.
HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3
[edit] Oxidizing properties
[edit] Reactions with metals
Being a powerful oxidizing acid, nitric acid reacts violently with many organic materials and the reactions may be
explosive. Depending on the acid concentration, temperature and the reducing agent involved, the end products can be
variable. Reaction takes place with all metals except a few of the precious metal series and certain alloys. This
characteristic has made it a common agent to be used in acid tests. As a general rule, oxidizing reactions occur
primarily with the concentrated acid, favoring the formation of nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Cu + 4 H+ + 2 NO3 Cu2+ + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O
The acidic properties tend to dominate with dilute acid, coupled with the preferential formation of nitric oxide (NO).
However, when the reaction is carried out in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, the nitric oxide rapidly reacts to
form brown nitrogen dioxide (NO2):
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O
2 NO + O2 2 NO2
Since nitric acid is an oxidizing agent, hydrogen (H2) is rarely formed. Only magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn) and
calcium (Ca) react with cold, dilute nitric acid to give hydrogen:
Mg(s) + 2 HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
[edit] Passivation
Although chromium (Cr), iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) readily dissolve in dilute nitric acid, the concentrated acid
forms a metal oxide layer that protects the metal from further oxidation, which is called passivation. Typical
passivation concentrations range from 18% to 22% by weight.
[edit] Reactions with non-metals
Reaction with non-metallic elements, with the exceptions of nitrogen, oxygen, noble gases, silicon and halogens,
usually oxidizes them to their highest oxidation states as acids with the formation of nitrogen dioxide for concentrated
acid and nitric oxide for dilute acid.
C + 4 HNO3 CO2 + 4 NO2 + 2 H2O
or
3 C + 4 HNO3 3 CO2 + 4 NO + 2 H2O
[edit] Xanthoproteic test
Nitric acid reacts with proteins to form yellow nitrated products. This reaction is known as the xanthoproteic reaction.
This test is carried out by adding concentrated nitric acid to the substance being tested, and then heating the mixture.
If proteins are present that contains amino acids with aromatic rings, the mixture turns yellow. Upon adding a strong
base such as liquid ammonia, the color turns orange. These color changes are caused by nitrated aromatic rings in the
protein.[1][2] Xanthoproteins are formed when the acid contacts epithelial cells and are indicative of inadequate safety
precautions when handling nitric acid.

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[edit] Grades
The concentrated nitric acid of commerce consists of the maximum boiling azeotrope of nitric acid and water.
Technical grades are normally 68% HNO3, (approx 15 molar), while reagent grades are specified at 70% HNO 3. The
density of concentrated nitric acid is 1.42 g/mL. An older density scale is occasionally seen, with concentrated nitric
acid specified as 42 Baum.[3]
White fuming nitric acid, also called 100% nitric acid or WFNA, is very close to anhydrous nitric acid. One
specification for white fuming nitric acid is that it has a maximum of 2% water and a maximum of 0.5% dissolved
NO2. Anhydrous nitric acid has a density of 1.513 g/mL and has the approximate concentration of 24 molar.
A commercial grade of fuming nitric acid, referred to in the trade as "strong nitric acid" contains 90% HNO 3 and has a
density of 1.50 g/mL. This grade is much used in the explosives industry. It is not as volatile nor as corrosive as the
anhydrous acid and has the approximate concentration of 21.4 molar.
Red fuming nitric acid, or RFNA, contains substantial quantities of dissolved nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) leaving the
solution with a reddish-brown color. One formulation of RFNA specifies a minimum of 17% NO 2, another specifies
13% NO2. Because of the dissolved nitrogen dioxide, the density of red fuming nitric acid is lower at 1.490 g/mL.
An inhibited fuming nitric acid (either IWFNA, or IRFNA) can be made by the addition of 0.6 to 0.7% hydrogen
fluoride (HF). This fluoride is added for corrosion resistance in metal tanks. The fluoride creates a metal fluoride layer
that protects the metal.
[edit] Industrial production
Nitric acid is made by reacting nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with water.
3 NO2 + H2O 2 HNO3 + NO
Normally, the nitric oxide produced by the reaction is reoxidized by the oxygen in air to produce additional nitrogen
dioxide.
Bubbling nitrogen dioxide through hydrogen peroxide can help to improve acid yield.
2 NO2 + H2O2 2 HNO3
Almost pure nitric acid can be made by adding sulfuric acid to a nitrate salt, and heating the mixture with an oil bath.
A condenser is used to condense the nitric acid fumes that bubble out of the solution.
2 NaNO3 + H2SO4 2 HNO3 + Na2SO4
Dilute nitric acid may be concentrated by distillation up to 68% acid, which is a maximum boiling azeotrope
containing 32% water. In the laboratory, further concentration involves distillation with either sulfuric acid or
magnesium nitrate which act as dehydrating agents. Such distillations must be done with all-glass apparatus at reduced
pressure, to prevent decomposition of the acid. Industrially, strong nitric acid is produced by dissolving additional
nitrogen dioxide in 68% nitric acid in an absorption tower.[4] Dissolved nitrogen oxides are either stripped in the case
of white fuming nitric acid, or remain in solution to form red fuming nitric acid. More recently, electrochemical means
have been developed to produce anhydrous acid from concentrated nitric acid feedstock. [5]
Commercial grade nitric acid solutions are usually between 52% and 68% nitric acid. Production of nitric acid is via
the Ostwald process, named after German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald. In this process, anhydrous ammonia is oxidized
to nitric oxide, which is then reacted with oxygen in air to form nitrogen dioxide. This is subsequently absorbed in
water to form nitric acid and nitric oxide. The nitric oxide is cycled back for reoxidation. By using ammonia derived
from the Haber process, the final product can be produced from nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen which are derived
from air and natural gas as the sole feedstocks.[6]
Prior to the introduction of the Haber process for the production of ammonia in 1923, nitric acid was produced using
the BirkelandEyde process, also known as the arc process. This process is based upon the oxidation of atmospheric
nitrogen by atmospheric oxygen to nitric oxide at very high temperatures. An electric arc was used to provide the high
temperatures, and yields of up to 4% nitric oxide were obtained. The nitric oxide was cooled and oxidized by the
remaining atmospheric oxygen to nitrogen dioxide, and this was subsequently absorbed in dilute nitric acid. The
process was very energy intensive and was rapidly displaced by the Ostwald process once cheap ammonia became
available.
[edit] Laboratory synthesis
In laboratory, nitric acid can be made from copper(II) nitrate or by reacting approximately equal masses of a nitrate
salt with 96% sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and distilling this mixture at nitric acid's boiling point of 83 C until only a white
crystalline mass, a metal sulfate, remains in the reaction vessel. The red fuming nitric acid obtained may be converted
to the white nitric acid.

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H2SO4 + NO3 HSO4(s) + HNO3(g)

The dissolved NOx are readily removed using reduced pressure at room temperature (10-30 min at 200 mmHg or 27
kPa) to give white fuming nitric acid. This procedure can also be performed under reduced pressure and temperature
in one step in order to produce less nitrogen dioxide gas.[citation needed]
[edit] Uses

Nitric acid in a laboratory.

The main use of nitric acid is for the production of fertilizers; other important uses include the production of
explosives, etching and dissolution of metals, especially as a component of aqua regia for the purification and
extraction of gold, and in chemical synthesis.
[edit] Rocket fuel
Nitric acid has been used in various forms as the oxidizer in liquid-fueled rockets. These forms include red fuming
nitric acid, white fuming nitric acid, mixtures with sulfuric acid, and these forms with HF inhibitor.[7] IRFNA
(inhibited red fuming nitric acid) was one of 3 liquid fuel components for the BOMARC missile.[8]
[edit] Chemical reagent
In elemental analysis by ICP-MS, ICP-AES, GFAA, and Flame AA, dilute nitric acid (0.5 to 5.0 %) is used as a matrix
compound for determining metal traces in solutions. [9] Ultrapure trace metal grade acid is required for such
determination, because small amounts of metal ions could affect the result of the analysis.
It is also typically used in the digestion process of turbid water samples, sludge samples, solid samples as well as other
types of unique samples which require elemental analysis via ICP-MS, ICP-OES, ICP-AES, GFAA and FAA.
Typically these digestions use a 50% solution of the purchased HNO 3 mixed with Type 1 DI Water.[10]
In organic synthesis, nitric acid may be introduce the nitro group. When used with sulfuric acid, it generates the
nitronium ion, which electrophilically reacts with aromatic compounds such as benzene.
See also: nitration
[edit] Woodworking
In a low concentration (approximately 10%), nitric acid is often used to artificially age pine and maple. The color
produced is a grey-gold very much like very old wax or oil finished wood (wood finishing).[11]
[edit] Other uses
A solution of nitric acid and alcohol, Nital, is used for etching of metals to reveal the microstructure. [citation needed]
Commercially available aqueous blends of 5-30% nitric acid and 15-40% phosphoric acid are commonly used for
cleaning food and dairy equipment primarily to remove precipitated calcium and magnesium compounds (either
deposited from the process stream or resulting from the use of hard water during production and cleaning).
[edit] Safety
Nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent, and the reactions of nitric acid with compounds such as cyanides, carbides,
and metallic powders can be explosive. Reactions of nitric acid with many organic compounds, such as turpentine, are
violent and hypergolic (i.e., self-igniting). Due to its properties it is stored away from bases and organics.
Concentrated nitric acid dyes human skin yellow due to a reaction with the keratin. These yellow stains turn orange
when neutralized.[12] (See #Xanthoproteic test)
[edit] History

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The first mention of nitric acid is in Pseudo-Gebers De Inventione Veritatis, wherein it is obtained by calcining a
mixture of niter, alum and blue vitriol. It was again described by Albert the Great in the 13th century and by Ramon
Lull, who prepared it by heating niter and clay and called it "eau forte" (aqua fortis).[13]
Glauber devised the process still used today to obtain it, namely by heating niter with strong sulfuric acid. Its true
nature was determined by Lavoisier in (1776), when he showed that it contained oxygen, whilst in 1785 Henry
Cavendish determined its constitution and showed that it could be synthesized by passing a stream of electric sparks
through moist air.[13]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HNO3
Hydrogen chloride
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from HCl)
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"HCl" redirects here. For the acid, see Hydrochloric acid.
Hydrogen chloride

CAS number
PubChem
ChemSpider
EC number
RTECS number
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
Acidity (pKa)
Molecular shape
Dipole moment

IUPAC name[hide]
Hydrogen chloride
Chlorane
Other names[hide]
Chlorohydric acid
Hydrochloride
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid gas
Identifiers
7647-01-0
313
307
231-595-7
MW4025000
Properties
HCl
36.46 g/mol
Colorless gas, hygroscopic.
1.477 g/L, gas (25 C)
114.2 C (158.8 K)
85.1 C (187.9 K)
720 g/L (20 C)
7.0
Structure
Linear
1.05 D

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Thermochemistry
Std enthalpy of
formation fHo298
Std enthalpy of
combustion cHo298
Specific heat capacity, C
MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases

2.351 kJ/g
2.614 kJ/g
0.7981 J/g K
Hazards
JT Baker MSDS
017-002-00-2
Toxic (T)
Corrosive (C)
R23, R35
(S1/2), S9, S26, S36/37/39, S45

NFPA 704
0
3
1
Flash point

Other anions
Other cations
Related compounds

Non-flammable
Related compounds
Hydrogen fluoride
Hydrogen bromide
Hydrogen iodide
Sodium chloride
Hydrochloric acid

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
The compound hydrogen chloride has the formula HCl. At room temperature, it is a colorless gas, which forms white
fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric humidity. Hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid are
important in technology and industry. The formula HCl is often used to refer, somewhat misleadingly, to hydrochloric
acid, an aqueous solution that can be derived from hydrogen chloride.
Contents
[hide]

1 Chemistry
o 1.1 Structure and properties

2 Production
o 2.1 Direct synthesis
o 2.2 Organic synthesis
o 2.3 Laboratory methods

3 Applications

4 History

5 Safety

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

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[edit] Chemistry

Hydrochloric acid fumes turning pH paper red showing that the fumes are acidic
Hydrogen chloride is composed of diatomic molecules, each consisting of a hydrogen atom H and a chlorine atom Cl
connected by a covalent single bond. Since the chlorine atom is much more electronegative than the hydrogen atom,
the covalent bond between the two atoms is quite polar. Consequently, the molecule has a large dipole moment with a
negative partial charge at the chlorine atom and a positive partial charge + at the hydrogen atom. In part due to its
high polarity, HCl is very soluble in water (and in other polar solvents).
Upon contact, H2O and HCl combine to form hydronium cations H3O+ and chloride anions Cl through a reversible
chemical reaction:
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl
The resulting solution is called hydrochloric acid and is a strong acid. The acid dissociation or ionization constant, Ka,
is large, which means HCl dissociates or ionizes practically completely in water. Even in the absence of water,
hydrogen chloride can still act as an acid. For example, hydrogen chloride can dissolve in certain other solvents such
as methanol, protonate molecules or ions, and serve as an acid-catalyst for chemical reactions where anhydrous
(water-free) conditions are desired.
HCl + CH3OH CH3O+H2 + Cl
Because of its acidic nature, hydrogen chloride is corrosive, particularly in the presence of moisture.
[edit] Structure and properties

Infrared (IR) absorption spectrum

The infrared spectrum of gaseous hydrogen chloride consists of a number of sharp absorption lines grouped around
2886 cm1 (wavelength ~3.47 m). At room temperature, almost all molecules in the ground vibrational state v = 0. To
promote an HCl molecule to the v = 1 state, we would expect to see an infrared absorption about 2880 cm1. This
absorption corresponding to the Q-branch is not observed due to it being forbidden due to symmetry. Instead, two sets

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of signals (P- and R-branches) are seen due to rotation of the molecules. Due to quantum mechanical rules, only
certain rotational modes are permitted. They are characterized by the rotational quantum number J = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... J
can only take values of 1.
E(J) = hBJ(J+1)
The value of B is much smaller than e, such that a much smaller amount of energy is required to rotate the molecule;
for a typical molecule, this lies within the microwave region. However, due to the vibrational energy of this molecule,
the set of absorptions lie within the infrared region, allowing a spectrum showing the rovibrational modes of this
molecule to be easily collected using an ordinary infrared spectrometer with a conventional gas cell.

One doublet in the IR spectrum due to isotopic composition of Chlorine.

Naturally abundant chlorine consists of two isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl, in a ratio of approximately 3:1. While the spring
constants are very similar, the reduced masses are different causing significant differences in the rotational energy,
thus doublets are observed on close inspection of each absorption line, weighted in the same ratio of 3:1.

[edit] Production
Most hydrogen chloride produced on an industrial scale is used for hydrochloric acid production.
[edit] Direct synthesis

Flame inside HCl Oven.

In the chlor-alkali industry, brine (mixture of sodium chloride and water) solution is electrolyzed producing chlorine
(Cl2), sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen (H2). The pure chlorine gas can be combined with hydrogen to produce
hydrogen chloride.
Cl2 + H2 2HCl
As the reaction is exothermic, the installation is called an HCl oven or HCl burner. The resulting hydrogen chloride
gas is absorbed in deionized water, resulting in chemically pure hydrochloric acid. This reaction can give a very pure
product, e.g. for use in the food industry.
[edit] Organic synthesis
The largest production of hydrochloric acid is integrated with the formation of chlorinated and fluorinated organic
compounds, e.g., Teflon, Freon, and other CFCs, as well as chloroacetic acid, and PVC. Often this production of
hydrochloric acid is integrated with captive use of it on-site. In the chemical reactions, hydrogen atoms on the

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hydrocarbon are replaced by chlorine atoms, whereupon the released hydrogen atom recombines with the spare atom
from the chlorine molecule, forming hydrogen chloride. Fluorination is a subsequent chlorine-replacement reaction,
producing again hydrogen chloride.
R-H + Cl2 R-Cl + HCl
R-Cl + HF R-F + HCl
The resulting hydrogen chloride gas is either reused directly, or absorbed in water, resulting in hydrochloric acid of
technical or industrial grade.
[edit] Laboratory methods
Small amounts of HCl gas for laboratory use can be generated in a HCl generator by dehydrating hydrochloric acid
with either sulfuric acid or anhydrous calcium chloride. Alternatively, HCl can be generated by the reaction of sulfuric
acid with sodium chloride:[1]
NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl
This reaction occurs at room temperature. Provided there is salt remaining in the generator and it is heated above 200
degrees Celsius, the reaction proceeds to;
NaCl + NaHSO4 HCl + Na2SO4
For such generators to function, the reagents should be dry.
HCl can also be prepared by the hydrolysis of certain reactive chloride compounds such as phosphorus chlorides,
thionyl chloride (SOCl2), and acyl chlorides. For example, cold water can be gradually dripped onto phosphorus
pentachloride (PCl5) to give HCl in this reaction:
PCl5 + H2O POCl3 + 2HCl
High purity streams of the gas require lecture bottles or cylinders, both of which can be expensive. In comparison, the
use of a generator requires only apparatus and materials commonly available in a laboratory.
[edit] Applications
Most hydrogen chloride is used in the production of hydrochloric acid. It is also an important reagent in other
industrial chemical transformations, e.g.:

Hydrochlorination of rubber

Production of vinyl and alkyl chlorides

In the semiconductor industry, it is used to both etch semiconductor crystals and to purify silicon via SiHCl3.
It may also be used to treat cotton to delint it, and to separate it from wool. [citation needed]
In the laboratory, anhydrous forms of the gas are particularly useful for generating chloride based Lewis acids, which
must be absolutely dry for their Lewis sites to function. It can also be used to dry the corresponding hydrates forms of
these materials, by passing it over as they are heated; the materials would otherwise fume HCl(g) themselves and
decompose. Neither can these hydrates be dried using standard desiccator methods.
[edit] History
Alchemists of the Middle Ages recognized that hydrochloric acid (then known as spirit of salt or acidum salis)
released vaporous hydrogen chloride, which was called marine acid air. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolf Glauber
used salt (sodium chloride) and sulfuric acid for the preparation of sodium sulfate, releasing hydrogen chloride gas
(see production, below). In 1772, Carl Wilhelm Scheele also reported this reaction and is sometimes credited with its
discovery. Joseph Priestley prepared hydrogen chloride in 1772, and in 1810 Humphry Davy established that it is
composed of hydrogen and chlorine.[2]
During the Industrial Revolution, demand for alkaline substances such as soda ash increased, and Nicolas Leblanc
developed a new industrial-scale process for producing the soda ash. In the Leblanc process, salt was converted to
soda ash, using sulfuric acid, limestone, and coal, giving hydrogen chloride as by-product. Initially, this gas was
vented to air, but the Alkali Act of 1863 prohibited such release, so then soda ash producers absorbed the HCl waste
gas in water, producing hydrochloric acid on an industrial scale. Later, the Hargreaves process was developed, which
is similar to the Leblanc process except sulfur dioxide, water, and air are used instead of sulfuric acid in a reaction
which is exothermic overall. In the early 20th century the Leblanc process was effectively replaced by the Solvay
process, which did not produce HCl. However, hydrogen chloride production continued as a step in hydrochloric acid
production.
Historical uses of hydrogen chloride in the 20th century include hydrochlorinations of alkynes in producing the
chlorinated monomers chloroprene and vinyl chloride, which are subsequently polymerized to make polychloroprene

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(Neoprene) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), respectively. In the production of vinyl chloride, acetylene (C2H2) is
hydrochlorinated by adding the HCl across the triple bond of the C2H2 molecule, turning the triple into a double bond,
yielding vinyl chloride.
The "acetylene process", used until the 1960s for making chloroprene, starts out by joining two acetylene molecules,
and then adds HCl to the joined intermediate across the triple bond to convert it to chloroprene as shown here:

This "acetylene process" has been replaced by a process which adds Cl2 to one of the double bonds in 1,3-butadiene
instead, and subsequent elimination produces HCl instead, as well as chloroprene.
[edit] Safety
Hydrogen chloride forms corrosive hydrochloric acid on contact with water found in body tissue. Inhalation of the
fumes can cause coughing, choking, inflammation of the nose, throat, and upper respiratory tract, and in severe cases,
pulmonary edema, circulatory system failure, and death. Skin contact can cause redness, pain, and severe skin burns.
Hydrogen chloride may cause severe burns to the eye and permanent eye damage.
The gas, being strongly hydrophilic, can be easily scrubbed from the exhaust gases of a reaction by bubbling it
through water, producing useful hydrochloric acid as a byproduct.
Any equipment handling hydrogen chloride gas must be checked on a routine basis; particularly valve stems and
regulators. The gas requires the use of specialized materials on all whetted parts of the flow path, as it will interact
with or corrode numerous materials hydrochloric acid alone will not; such as stainless and regular polymers.
[edit] See also

Chloride, inorganic salts of hydrochloric acid

Hydrochloride, organic salts of hydrochloric acid

Gastric acid, hydrochloric acid secreted into the stomach to aid digestion of proteins
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HCl
Air
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
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Air, zat yang penting bagi kehidupan.

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Air dalam tiga wujudnya, cairan di laut, es yang mengambang, dan awan di udara yang merupakan uap air.
Air adalah zat atau materi atau unsur yang penting bagi semua bentuk kehidupan yang diketahui sampai saat ini di
bumi,[1][2][3] tetapi tidak di planet lain.[4] Air menutupi hampir 71% permukaan bumi. Terdapat 1,4 triliun kilometer
kubik (330 juta mil) tersedia di bumi.[5] Air sebagian besar terdapat di laut (air asin) dan pada lapisan-lapisan es (di
kutub dan puncak-puncak gunung), akan tetapi juga dapat hadir sebagai awan, hujan, sungai, muka air tawar, danau,
uap air, dan lautan es. Air dalam obyek-obyek tersebut bergerak mengikuti suatu siklus air, yaitu: melalui penguapan,
hujan, dan aliran air di atas permukaan tanah (runoff, meliputi mata air, sungai, muara) menuju laut. Air bersih penting
bagi kehidupan manusia. Di banyak tempat di dunia terjadi kekurangan persediaan air. Selain di bumi, sejumlah besar
air juga diperkirakan terdapat pada kutub utara dan selatan planet Mars, serta pada bulan-bulan Europa dan Enceladus.
Air dapat berwujud padatan (es), cairan (air) dan gas (uap air). Air merupakan satu-satunya zat yang secara alami
terdapat di permukaan bumi dalam ketiga wujudnya tersebut. [6] Pengelolaan sumber daya air yang kurang baik dapat
menyebakan kekurangan air, monopolisasi serta privatisasi dan bahkan menyulut konflik. [7] Indonesia telah memiliki
undang-undang yang mengatur sumber daya air sejak tahun 2004, yakni Undang Undang nomor 7 tahun 2004 tentang
Sumber Daya Air
Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]

1 Sifat-sifat kimia dan fisika

o 1.1 Elektrolisis air
o 1.2 Kelarutan (solvasi)
o 1.3 Kohesi dan adhesi

1.3.1 Tegangan permukaan

2 Air dalam kehidupan

o 2.1 Makhluk air

3 Air dan manusia

o 3.1 Air minum
o 3.2 Pelarut

4 Air dalam kesenian

o 4.1 Seni lukis
o 4.2 Fotografi
o 4.3 Seni tetesan air

5 Sains semu air

6 Rujukan
o 6.1 Artikel rujukan
o 6.2 Rujukan umum
o 6.3 Air sebagai sumber daya alam alami
o 6.4 Bacaan lebih lanjut

7 Lihat pula
[sunting] Sifat-sifat kimia dan fisika
Air

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Informasi dan sifat-sifat

Nama sistematis

air

Nama alternatif

aqua, dihidrogen monoksida,

Hidrogen Hidroksida

Rumus molekul

H2O

Massa molar

18.0153 g/mol

Densitas dan fase

0.998 g/cm (cariran pada 20 C)

0.92 g/cm (padatan)

Titik lebur

0 C (273.15 K) (32 F)

Titik didih

100 C (373.15 K) (212 F)

Kalor jenis

4184 J/(kgK) (cairan pada 20 C)

Halaman data tambahan
Disclaimer and references

Artikel utama: Air (molekul)

Air adalah substansi kimia dengan rumus kimia H2O: satu molekul air tersusun atas dua atom hidrogen yang terikat
secara kovalen pada satu atom oksigen. Air bersifat tidak berwarna, tidak berasa dan tidak berbau pada kondisi
standar, yaitu pada tekanan 100 kPa (1 bar) and temperatur 273,15 K (0 C). Zat kimia ini merupakan suatu pelarut
yang penting, yang memiliki kemampuan untuk melarutkan banyak zat kimia lainnya, seperti garam-garam, gula,
asam, beberapa jenis gas dan banyak macam molekul organik.
Keadaan air yang berbentuk cair merupakan suatu keadaan yang tidak umum dalam kondisi normal, terlebih lagi
dengan memperhatikan hubungan antara hidrida-hidrida lain yang mirip dalam kolom oksigen pada tabel periodik,
yang mengisyaratkan bahwa air seharusnya berbentuk gas, sebagaimana hidrogen sulfida. Dengan memperhatikan
tabel periodik, terlihat bahwa unsur-unsur yang mengelilingi oksigen adalah nitrogen, flor, dan fosfor, sulfur dan klor.
Semua elemen-elemen ini apabila berikatan dengan hidrogen akan menghasilkan gas pada temperatur dan tekanan
normal. Alasan mengapa hidrogen berikatan dengan oksigen membentuk fasa berkeadaan cair, adalah karena oksigen
lebih bersifat elektronegatif ketimbang elemen-elemen lain tersebut (kecuali flor). Tarikan atom oksigen pada
elektron-elektron ikatan jauh lebih kuat dari pada yang dilakukan oleh atom hidrogen, meninggalkan jumlah muatan
positif pada kedua atom hidrogen, dan jumlah muatan negatif pada atom oksigen. Adanya muatan pada tiap-tiap atom
tersebut membuat molekul air memiliki sejumlah momen dipol. Gaya tarik-menarik listrik antar molekul-molekul air
akibat adanya dipol ini membuat masing-masing molekul saling berdekatan, membuatnya sulit untuk dipisahkan dan
yang pada akhirnya menaikkan titik didih air. Gaya tarik-menarik ini disebut sebagai ikatan hidrogen.
Air sering disebut sebagai pelarut universal karena air melarutkan banyak zat kimia. Air berada dalam kesetimbangan
dinamis antara fase cair dan padat di bawah tekanan dan temperatur standar. Dalam bentuk ion, air dapat
dideskripsikan sebagai sebuah ion hidrogen (H+) yang berasosiasi (berikatan) dengan sebuah ion hidroksida (OH-).

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Tingginya konsentrasi kapur terlarut membuat warna air dari Air Terjun Havasu terlihat berwarna turquoise.
[sunting] Elektrolisis air
Artikel utama: Elektrolisis air
Molekul air dapat diuraikan menjadi unsur-unsur asalnya dengan mengalirinya arus listrik. Proses ini disebut
elektrolisis air. Pada katoda, dua molekul air bereaksi dengan menangkap dua elektron, tereduksi menjadi gas H2 dan
ion hidrokida (OH-). Sementara itu pada anoda, dua molekul air lain terurai menjadi gas oksigen (O2), melepaskan 4
ion H+ serta mengalirkan elektron ke katoda. Ion H+ dan OH- mengalami netralisasi sehingga terbentuk kembali
beberapa molekul air. Reaksi keseluruhan yang setara dari elektrolisis air dapat dituliskan sebagai berikut.
Gas hidrogen dan oksigen yang dihasilkan dari reaksi ini membentuk gelembung pada elektroda dan dapat
Dikumpulkan. Prinsip ini kemudian dimanfaatkan untuk menghasilkan hidrogen dan hidrogen peroksida (H 2O2) yang
dapat digunakan sebagai bahan bakar kendaraan hidrogen. [8][9][10]
[sunting] Kelarutan (solvasi)
Air adalah pelarut yang kuat, melarutkan banyak jenis zat kimia. Zat-zat yang bercampur dan larut dengan baik dalam
air (misalnya garam-garam) disebut sebagai zat-zat "hidrofilik" (pencinta air), dan zat-zat yang tidak mudah tercampur
dengan air (misalnya lemak dan minyak), disebut sebagai zat-zat "hidrofobik" (takut-air). Kelarutan suatu zat dalam
air ditentukan oleh dapat tidaknya zat tersebut menandingi kekuatan gaya tarik-menarik listrik (gaya intermolekul
dipol-dipol) antara molekul-molekul air. Jika suatu zat tidak mampu menandingi gaya tarik-menarik antar molekul air,
molekul-molekul zat tersebut tidak larut dan akan mengendap dalam air.

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Butir-butir embun menempel pada jaring laba-laba.

[sunting] Kohesi dan adhesi
Air menempel pada sesamanya (kohesi) karena air bersifat polar. Air memiliki sejumlah muatan parsial negatif (-)
dekat atom oksigen akibat pasangan elektron yang (hampir) tidak digunakan bersama, dan sejumlah muatan parsial
positif (+) dekat atom oksigen. Dalam air hal ini terjadi karena atom oksigen bersifat lebih elektronegatif
dibandingkan atom hidrogenyang berarti, ia (atom oksigen) memiliki lebih "kekuatan tarik" pada elektron-elektron
yang dimiliki bersama dalam molekul, menarik elektron-elektron lebih dekat ke arahnya (juga berarti menarik muatan
negatif elektron-elektron tersebut) dan membuat daerah di sekitar atom oksigen bermuatan lebih negatif ketimbang
daerah-daerah di sekitar kedua atom hidrogen.
Air memiliki pula sifat adhesi yang tinggi disebabkan oleh sifat alami ke-polar-annya.
[sunting] Tegangan permukaan

Bunga daisy ini berada di bawah permukaan air, akan tetapi dapat mekar dengan tanpa terganggu. Tegangan
permukaan mencegah air untuk menenggelamkan bunga tersebut.
Air memiliki tegangan permukaan yang besar yang disebabkan oleh kuatnya sifat kohesi antar molekul-molekul air.
Hal ini dapat diamati saat sejumlah kecil air ditempatkan dalam sebuah permukaan yang tak dapat terbasahi atau
terlarutkan (non-soluble); air tersebut akan berkumpul sebagai sebuah tetesan. Di atas sebuah permukaan gelas yang
amat bersih atau bepermukaan amat halus air dapat membentuk suatu lapisan tipis (thin film) karena gaya tarik
molekular antara gelas dan molekul air (gaya adhesi) lebih kuat ketimbang gaya kohesi antar molekul air.
Dalam sel-sel biologi dan organel-organel, air bersentuhan dengan membran dan permukaan protein yang bersifat
hidrofilik; yaitu, permukaan-permukaan yang memiliki ketertarikan kuat terhadap air. Irvin Langmuir mengamati
suatu gaya tolak yang kuat antar permukaan-permukaan hidrofilik. Untuk melakukan dehidrasi suatu permukaan
hidrofilik dalam arti melepaskan lapisan yang terikat dengan kuat dari hidrasi air perlu dilakukan kerja sungguhsungguh melawan gaya-gaya ini, yang disebut gaya-gaya hidrasi. Gaya-gaya tersebut amat besar nilainya akan tetapi
meluruh dengan cepat dalam rentang nanometer atau lebih kecil. Pentingnya gaya-gaya ini dalam biologi telah
dipelajari secara ekstensif oleh V. Adrian Parsegian dari National Institute of Health.[11] Gaya-gaya ini penting
terutama saat sel-sel terdehidrasi saat bersentuhan langsung dengan ruang luar yang kering atau pendinginan di luar
sel (extracellular freezing).
[sunting] Air dalam kehidupan

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Kehidupan di dalam laut.

Dari sudut pandang biologi, air memiliki sifat-sifat yang penting untuk adanya kehidupan. Air dapat memunculkan
reaksi yang dapat membuat senyawa organic untuk melakukan replikasi. Semua makhluk hidup yang diketahui
memiliki ketergantungan terhadap air. Air merupakan zat pelarut yang penting untuk makhluk hidup dan adalah
bagian penting dalam proses metabolisme. Air juga dibutuhkan dalam fotosintesis dan respirasi. Fotosintesis
menggunakan cahaya matahari untuk memisahkan atom hidroden dengan oksigen. Hidrogen akan digunakan untuk
membentuk glukosa dan oksigen akan dilepas ke udara.
[sunting] Makhluk air
Artikel utama: Hidrobiologi
Perairan bumi dipenuhi dengan berbagai macam kehidupan. Semua makhluk hidup pertama di Bumi ini berasal dari
perairan. Hampir semua ikan hidup di dalam air, selain itu, mamalia seperi lumba-lumba dan ikan paus juga hidup di
dalam air. Hewan-hewan seperti amfibi menghabiskan sebagian hidupnya di dalam air. Bahkan, beberapa reptil seperti
ular dan buaya hidup di perairan dangkal dan lautan. Tumbuhan laut seperti alga dan rumput laut menjadi sumber
makanan ekosistem perairan. Di samudera, plankton menjadi sumber makanan utama para ikan.
[sunting] Air dan manusia
Peradaban manusia berjaya mengikuti sumber air. Mesopotamia yang disebut sebagai awal peradaban berada di antara
sungai Tigris dan Euphrates. Peradaban Mesir Kuno bergantung pada sungai Nil. Pusat-pusat manusia yang besar
seperti Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New York City, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, dan Hong Kong mendapatkan
kejayaannya sebagian dikarenakan adanya kemudahan akses melalui perairan.
[sunting] Air minum

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Air yang diminum dari botol.

Artikel utama: Air minum
Tubuh manusia terdiri dari 55% sampai 78% air, tergantung dari ukuran badan. [12] Agar dapat berfungsi dengan baik,
tubuh manusia membutuhkan antara satu sampai tujuh liter air setiap hari untuk menghindari dehidrasi; jumlah
pastinya bergantung pada tingkat aktivitas, suhu, kelembaban, dan beberapa faktor lainnya. Selain dari air minum,
manusia mendapatkan cairan dari makanan dan minuman lain selain air. Sebagian besar orang percaya bahwa manusia
membutuhkan 810 gelas (sekitar dua liter) per hari, [13] namun hasil penelitian yang diterbitkan Universitas
Pennsylvania pada tahun 2008 menunjukkan bahwa konsumsi sejumlah 8 gelas tersebut tidak terbukti banyak
membantu dalam menyehatkan tubuh. [14] Malah kadang-kadang untuk beberapa orang, jika meminum air lebih
banyak atau berlebihan dari yang dianjurkan dapat menyebabkan ketergantungan. Literatur medis lainnya
menyarankan konsumsi satu liter air per hari, dengan tambahan bila berolahraga atau pada cuaca yang panas.[15]
[sunting] Pelarut
Pelarut digunakan sehari-hari untuk mencuci, contohnya mencuci tubuh manusia, pakaian, lantai, mobil, makanan,
dan hewan. Selain itu, limbah rumah tangga juga dibawa oleh air melalui saluran pembuangan. Pada negara-negara
industri, sebagian besar air terpakai sebagai pelarut.
Air dapat memfasilitasi proses biologi yang melarutkan limbah. Mikroorganisme yang ada di dalam air dapat
membantu memecah limbah menjadi zat-zat dengan tingkat polusi yang lebih rendah.
[sunting] Air dalam kesenian

"Ombak Besar Lepas Pantai Kanagawa." oleh Katsushika Hokusai, lukisan yang sering digunakan sebagai pelukisan
sebuah tsunami.
Artikel utama: Air dalam kesenian
Dalam seni air dipelajari dengan cara yang berbeda, ia disajikan sebagai suatu elemen langsung, tidak langsung
ataupun hanya sebagai simbol. Dengan didukung kemajuan teknologi fungsi dan pemanfaatan air dalam seni mulai
berubah, dari tadinya pelengkap ia mulai merambat menjadi obyek utama. Contoh seni yang terakhir ini, misalnya
seni aliran atau tetesan (sculpture liquid atau droplet art).[16]
[sunting] Seni lukis
Pada zaman Renaisans dan sesudahnya air direpresentasikan lebih realistis. Banyak artis menggambarkan air dalam
bentuk pergerakan - sebuah aliran air atau sungai, sebuah lautan yang turbulensi, atau bahkan air terjun - akan tetapi
banyak juga dari mereka yang senang dengan obyek-obyek air yang tenang, diam - danau, sungai yang hampir tak
mengalir, dan permukaan laut yang tak berombak. Dalam setiap kasus ini, air menentukan suasana (mood)
keseluruhan dari karya seni tersebut,[17] seperti misalnya dalam Birth of Venus (1486) karya Botticelli[18] dan The Water
Lilies (1897) karya Monet.[19]

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Rivermasterz, memanfaatkan air sebagai elemen dalam foto.

[sunting] Fotografi
Sejalan dengan kemajuan teknologi dalam seni, air mulai mengambil tempat dalam bidang seni lain, misalnya dalam
fotografi. walaupun ada air tidak memiliki arti khusus di sini dan hanya berperan sebagai elemen pelengkap, akan
tetapi ia dapat digunakan dalam hampir semua cabang fotografi: mulai dari fasion sampai landsekap. Memotret air
sebagai elemen dalam obyek membutuhkan penanganan khusus, mulai dari filter circular polarizer yang berguna
menghilangkan refleksi, sampai pemanfaatan teknik long exposure, suatu teknik fotografi yang mengandalkan bukaan
rana lambat untuk menciptakan efek lembut (soft) pada permukaan air.[20]
[sunting] Seni tetesan air
Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Seni tetesan air
Keindahan tetesan air yang memecah permukaan air yang berada di bawahnya diabadikan dengan berbagai sentuhan
teknik dan rasa menjadikannya suatu karya seni yang indah, seperti yang disajikan oleh Martin Waugh dalam
karyanya Liquid Sculpture, suatu antologi yang telah mendunia.[21]
Seni tetesan air tidak berhenti sampai di sini, dengan pemanfaatan teknik pengaturan terhadap jatuhnya tetesan air
yang malar, mereka dapat diubah sedemikian rupa sehingga tetesan-tetesan tersebut sebagai satu kesatuan berfungsi
sebagai suatu penampil (viewer) seperti halnya tampilan komputer. Dengan mengatur-atur ukuran dan jumlah tetesan
yang akan dilewatkan, dapat sebuah gambar ditampilkan oleh tetesan-tetesan air yang jatuh. Sayangnya gambar ini
hanya bersifat sementara, sampai titik yang dimaksud jatuh mencapai bagian bawah penampil. [22] Komersialisasi karya
jenis ini pun dalam bentuk resolusi yang lebih kasar telah banyak dilakukan. [23][24]
[sunting] Sains semu air

Ikatan hidrogen antar molekul air yang membuatnya dapat membentuk kelompok atau klaster,
Profesor Masaru Emoto, seorang peneliti dari Hado Institute di Tokyo, Jepang pada tahun 2003 melalui penelitiannya
mengungkapkan suatu keanehan pada sifat air. Melalui pengamatannya terhadap lebih dari dua ribu contoh foto kristal
air yang dikumpulkannya dari berbagai penjuru dunia, Emoto menemukan bahwa partikel molekul air ternyata bisa

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berubah-ubah tergantung perasaan manusia disekelilingnya, [25] yang secara tidak langsung mengisyaratkan pengaruh
perasaan terhadap klasterisasi molekul air yang terbentuk oleh adanya ikatan hidrogen,
Emoto juga menemukan bahwa partikel kristal air terlihat menjadi "indah" dan "mengagumkan" apabila mendapat
reaksi positif disekitarnya, misalnya dengan kegembiraan dan kebahagiaan. Namun partikel kristal air terlihat menjadi
"buruk" dan "tidak sedap dipandang mata" apabila mendapat efek negatif disekitarnya, seperti kesedihan dan bencana.
Lebih dari dua ribu buah foto kristal air terdapat didalam buku Message from Water (Pesan dari Air) yang
dikarangnya sebagai pembuktian kesimpulan nya sehingga hal ini berpeluang menjadi suatu terobosan dalam
meyakini keajaiban alam. Emoto menyimpulkan bahwa partikel air dapat dipengaruhi oleh suara musik, doa-doa dan
kata-kata yang ditulis dan dicelupkan ke dalam air tersebut. [26]
Sampai sekarang Emoto dan karyanya masih dianggap kontroversial.[27][28][29][30] Ernst Braun dari Burgistein di Thun,
Swiss, telah mencoba dalam laboratoriumnya metoda pembuatan foto kristal seperti yang diungkapan oleh Emoto,
sayangnya hasil tersebut tidak dapat direproduksi kembali, walaupun dalam kondisi percobaan yang sama. [31]
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air
Potassium cyanide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Potassium cyanide

CAS number
EC number
UN number
RTECS number
Molecular formula

IUPAC name[hide]
Potassium cyanide
Identifiers
151-50-8
205-792-3
1680
TS8750000
Properties
KCN

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Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
Solubility in methanol
Solubility in glycerol
Std enthalpy of
formation fHo298
Standard molar
entropy So298
MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases

65.12 g/mol
White crystalline solid
deliquescent
1.52 g/cm3
634.5 C
1625 C
71.6 g/100 ml (25 C)
100 g/100 mL (100 C)
4.9 g/100 mL (20 C)
soluble
Thermochemistry
131.5 kJ/mol
127.8 JK1mol1
Hazards
ICSC 0671
006-007-00-5
Very toxic (T+)
Dangerous for the environment (N)
R26/27/28, R32, R50/53
(S1/2), S7, S28, S29, S45, S60, S61

NFPA 704
0
4
0
Flash point
LD50
Other anions
Other cations
Related compounds

Non-flammable
510 mg/kg (oral in rats, mice, rabbits)[1]
Related compounds
Potassium cyanate
Potassium thiocyanate
Sodium cyanide
Hydrogen cyanide

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Potassium cyanide is an inorganic compound with the formula KCN. This colorless crystalline compound, similar in
appearance to sugar, is highly soluble in water. Most KCN is used in gold mining, organic synthesis, and
electroplating. Smaller applications include jewelry for chemical gilding and buffing.[2]
KCN is highly toxic. The moist solid emits small amounts of hydrogen cyanide due to hydrolysis, which smells like
bitter almonds. Not everyone, however, can smell this odor: the ability to do so is a genetic trait.[3] It is used by
entomologists as a killing agent in collecting jars, as most insects succumb within seconds, minimizing damage of
even highly fragile specimens.
Contents
[hide]

1 Production

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2 Structure

3 Applications

4 Toxicity

5 References

6 External links
[edit] Production
KCN is produced by treating hydrogen cyanide with potassium hydroxide,
HCN + KOH KCN + H2O
or by treating formamide with potassium hydroxide:
HCONH2 + KOH KCN + 2H2O
Approximately 50,000 tons are produced yearly.[2]
[edit] Structure
In aqueous solution, KCN is dissociated into hydrated K+ ions and CN. As a solid, the salt crystallizes such that the
cations and anions organize like Na+ and Cl in NaCl. The cations and anions six-coordinate. Each K+ is linked to two
pi-bonds of the CN as well as two links each to C and N each. Since CN is diatomic, the symmetry of the solid is
lower than that in NaCl. The cyanide anions form sheets. The CN ions rapidly rotate in the solid at ambient
temperature such that the time averaged shape of the CN ions is spherical.[4]
[edit] Applications
See also: Sodium cyanide
In gold mining, KCN and NaCN form water-soluble salts from gold metal in the presence of air:
4 Au + 8 KCN + O2 + 2 H2O 4 K[Au(CN)2] + 4 KOH
Very few alternative methods exist for this extraction process. [citation needed]
KCN and the related NaCN are widely used in organic synthesis for the preparation of nitriles and carboxylic acids;
illustrative in the von Richter reaction.
[edit] Toxicity
Main article: Cyanide poisoning
KCN can be detoxified most efficiently with hydrogen peroxide:[2]
KCN + H2O2 KOCN + H2O
Cyanide is a potent inhibitor of cellular respiration, acting on mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase and hence blocking
oxidative phosphorylation. This prevents the body from oxidizing food to produce useful energy. Lactic acidosis then
occurs as a consequence of anaerobic metabolism. Initially, acute cyanide poisoning causes a red or ruddy complexion
in the victim because the tissues are not able to use the oxygen in the blood. The effects of potassium and sodium
cyanide are identical. The person may die within 45 minutes if not treated medically. During this period, convulsions
may occur. Death occurs mainly by cardiac arrest.
A number of prominent persons were killed or committed suicide using potassium cyanide, including members of the
Black Hand Gang (unsuccessfully) and members of the Nazi Party, such as Hermann Gring and Heinrich Himmler,
WWII era British agents (using purpose-made suicide pills), and various religious cults such as in Jonestown.
Potassium cyanide (and other forms of cyanide) is a popular method of murder in fiction, especially in the books
written by Agatha Christie.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_cyanide
Potassium chromate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Potassium dichromate.
Potassium chromate

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IUPAC name[hide]
Potassium chromate
Other names[hide]
Chromic acid, (K2CrO4), dipotassium salt
Identifiers
CAS number
7789-00-6
PubChem
24597
EC number
232-140-5
RTECS number
GB2940000
Properties
Molecular formula
CrK2O4
Molar mass
194.19 g mol1
Appearance
Yellow odorless powder
Odor
odorless
Density
2.7320 g/cm3
Melting point
968 C, 1241 K, 1774 F
Boiling point
1000 C, 1273 K, 1832 F
Solubility in water
63 g/100 mL (20 C)
Solubility
insoluble in alcohol
Hazards
MSDS
Chemical Safety Data
EU Index
024-006-00-8
Carc. Cat. 2
Muta. Cat. 2
EU classification
Toxic (T)
Irritant (Xi)
Dangerous for the environment (N)
R-phrases
R49, R46, R36/37/38, R43, R50/53
S-phrases
S53, S45, S60, S61

NFPA 704
0
3
1
OX

Other anions

Related compounds
Potassium dichromate
Potassium molybdate
Potassium tungstate

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Other cations

Sodium chromate
Calcium chromate
Barium chromate

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_chromate
Potassium iodide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Potassium iodide

CAS number
PubChem
RTECS number
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
Solubility

IUPAC name[hide]
Potassium iodide
Identifiers
7681-11-0
4875
TT2975000
Properties
KI
166.0028 g/mol
white crystalline solid
3.123 g/cm3
681 C, 954 K, 1258 F
1330 C, 1603 K, 2426 F
128 g/100 ml (0 C)
140 g/100 mL (20 C)
176 g/100 mL (60C)
206 g/100 mL (100C)
2 g/100 mL (ethanol)

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MSDS
EU Index

soluble in acetone
slightly soluble in ether, ammonia
Hazards
External MSDS
Not listed

NFPA 704
0
1
0

Other anions

Other cations

Related compounds
Potassium fluoride
Potassium chloride
Potassium bromide
Lithium iodide
Sodium iodide
Rubidium iodide
Caesium iodide

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Potassium iodide is an inorganic compound with formula KI. This white salt is the most commercially significant
iodide compound, with approximately 37,000 tons produced in 1985. It is less hygroscopic than sodium iodide,
making it easier to work with. Aged and impure samples are yellow because of oxidation of the iodide to iodine.[1]
4 KI + 2 CO2 + O2 2 K2CO3 + 2 I2
Potassium iodide is used medicinally in tablets, usually containing 130 mg of KI, of which 100 mg is iodine (as
iodide). Potassium iodide may also be administered as a "saturated solution of potassium iodide" (SSKI) which in the
U.S.P. generic formulation contains 1000 mg of KI per mL. This represents 333 mg KI and about 250 mg iodide (I -)
in a typical adult dose of 5 drops, assumed to be mL. [2] Because SSKI is a viscous liquid, it is normally assumed to
contain 15 drops/milliliter, not 20 drops/milliliter as is often assumed for water.[3] Thus, each drop of SSKI is assumed
to contain about 50 mg iodine as iodide, I -. Two (2) drops of SSKI solution is equivalent to one 130 mg KI tablet
(100 mg iodide).
Contents
[hide]

1 Structure, production, properties

o 1.1 Inorganic chemistry
o 1.2 Organic chemistry

2 Applications
o 2.1 Industry
o 2.2 Nutrition
o 2.3 SSKI and pharmaceutical applications

3 Thyroid protection against radioiodine in certain pharmaceuticals

4 Thyroid protection from iodine-131 in fission accidents and emergencies

5 Adverse reactions

6 Precautions

7 References

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8 External links
[edit] Structure, production, properties
Potassium iodide is ionic, K+I. It crystallises in the sodium chloride structure. It is produced industrially by treating
KOH with iodine.[1]
[edit] Inorganic chemistry
Since the iodide ion is a mild reducing agent, I is easily oxidised to I2 by powerful oxidising agents such as chlorine:
2 KI(aq) + Cl2(aq) 2 KCl + I2(aq)
This reaction is employed in the isolation of iodine from natural sources. Air will oxidize iodide, as evidenced by the
observation of a purple extract when aged samples of KI are rinsed with dichloromethane. As formed under acidic
conditions, hydroiodic acid (HI) is a stronger reducing agent.[4][5][6]
Like other iodide salts, KI forms I3 when combined with elemental iodine.
KI(aq) + I2(s) KI3(aq)
Unlike I2, I3 salts can be highly water-soluble. Through this reaction iodine is used in redox titrations. Aqueous KI3,
"Lugol's solution," are used as disinfectants and as etchants for gold surfaces.
Potassium iodide is the precursor to silver(I) iodide, which is used for high speed photographic film:
KI(aq) + AgNO3(aq) AgI(s) + KNO3(aq)
[edit] Organic chemistry
KI serves as a source of iodide in organic synthesis. A useful application is in the preparation of aryl iodides from
arenediazonium salts.[7][8] For example:

KI, acting as a source of iodide, may also act as a nucleophilic catalyst for the alkylation of alkyl chlorides, bromides,
or mesylates.
[edit] Applications
[edit] Industry
KI is a precursor to silver iodide (AgI) an important chemical in photography. KI is a component in some disinfectants
and hair treatment hair chemicals. KI is also used as a fluorescence quenching agent in biomedical research, an
application that takes advantage of collisional quenching of fluoresent substances by the iodide ion. Potassium iodide
is a component in the electrolyte of dye sensitized solar cells (DSSC) along with iodine.
[edit] Nutrition
The major uses of KI include use as a nutritional supplement in animal feeds and also the human diet. For the latter, it
is the most common additive used to "iodize" table salt (a public health measure to prevent iodine deficiency in
populations which get little seafood). The oxidation of iodide causes slow loss of iodine content from iodised salts that
are exposed to excess air. The alkali metal iodide salt, over time and exposure to excess oxygen and carbon dioxide,
slowly oxidizes to metal carbonate and elemental iodine, which then evaporates. [9]
[edit] SSKI and pharmaceutical applications
Since potassium iodide is highly soluble in water, a saturated solution of potassium iodide, abbreviated SSKI, contains
1 gram (1000 mg) KI per milliliter (mL) of solution. This is less than 100% by weight, because SSKI is significantly
more dense than pure water. Because KI is about 76.4% iodide by weight, SSKI contains about 764 mg iodide per mL,
which is usually rounded to 750 mg/mL for convenience (50 mg iodide per drop, at 15 drops per mL typical of viscous
liquids like SSKI).

Saturated solutions of potassium iodide can be an emergency treatment for hyperthyroidism (so-called
thyroid storm), as high amounts of iodide temporarily suppress secretion of thyroxine from the thyroid
gland.[10] The dose typically begins with a loading dose, then 1/3 mL (5 drops = 250 mg iodide) SSKI, three
times per day.

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Iodide solutions made from a few drops of SSKI added to drinks have also been used as expectorants to
increase the water content of respiratory secretions and encourage effective coughing. [citation needed]

SSKI has been proposed as a topical treatment for sporotrichosis, but no trials have been conducted to
determine the efficacy or side effects of such treatment. [11]

Potassium iodide has been used for symptomatic treatment of erythema nodosum patients for persistant
lesions whose cause remains unknown. It has been used in cases erythema nodosum associated with Crohn's
disease.[12]
[edit] Thyroid protection against radioiodine in certain pharmaceuticals

Pheochromocytoma seen as dark sphere in center of the body. Image is by MIBG scintigraphy with radiation from
radioiodine in the MIBG. However, note unwanted uptake of radioiodine from the pharmaceutical by the thyroid
gland in the neck, in both images (front and back) of the same patient. Radioactivity is also seen in the bladder.
Thyroid iodine uptake blockade with potassium iodide is used in nuclear medicine scintigraphy and therapy with some
radioiodinated compounds that are not targeted to the thyroid, such as iobenguane (MIBG), which used to image or
treat neural tissue tumors, or iodinated fibrinognen, which is used in fibrinogen scans to investigate clotting. These
compounds contain iodine, but not in the iodide form. However, since they may be ultimately metabolized or break
down to radioactive iodide, it is common to administer non-radioactive potassium iodide to ensure that iodide from
these radiopharmaceuticals is not sequestered by the normal affinity of the thryoid for iodide.
FDA-approved dosing of potassium iodide for this purpose with iobenguane, is as follows: infants less than 1 month
old, 16 mg; children 1 month to 3 years, 32 mg; children 3 years to 18 years, 65 mg; adults 130 mg[13]. However, some
sources recommend alternative dosing regimens [14].
Not all sources are in agreement on the necessary duration of thyroid blockade, although agreement appears to have
been reached about the necessity of blockade for both scintigraphic and therapeutic applications of iobenguane.
Commercially available iobenguane is labeled with iodine-123, and product labeling recommends administration of
potassium iodide 1 hour prior to administration of the radiopharmaceutical for all age groups [15], while the European
Associated of Nuclear Medicine recommends (for iobenguane labeled with either isotope,) that potassium iodide
administration begin one day prior to radiopharmaceutical administration, and continue until the day following the
injection, with the exception of new-borns, who do not require potassium iodide doses following radiopharmaceutical
injection[14].
Product labeling for diagnostic iodine-131 iobenguane recommends potassium iodide administration one day before
injection and continuing 5 to 7 days following administration, in keeping with the much longer half-life of this isotope
and its greater danger to the thyroid.[16]. Iodine-131 iobenguane used for therapeutic purposes requires a different premedication duration, beginning 2448 hours prior to iobenguane injection and continuing 1015 days following
injection[17].
[edit] Thyroid protection from iodine-131 in fission accidents and emergencies

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SSKI may be used in radioiodine-contamination emergencies (i.e., nuclear accidents) to "block" the thyroid's uptake
of radioiodine (this is not the same as blocking the thyroid's release of thyroid hormone). The dose is smaller: 130 mg
KI per day (100 mg iodide) which represents 2 drops of SSKI solution per day, for an adult.
Following the Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster in April, 1986, a saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) was
administered to 10.5 million children and 7 million adults in Poland[18] as a prophylactic measure against accumulation
of radioactive iodine-131 in the thyroid gland. People in the areas immediately surrounding Chernobyl itself, however,
were not given the supplement.[19]
Potassium iodide was also approved in 1982 by the US FDA to protect the thyroid glands from radioactive iodine
from accidents or fission emergencies. In the event of an accident or attack at a nuclear power plant, or fallout from a
nuclear bomb, volatile fission product radionuclides may be released, of which 131I is one of the most common byproducts and a particularly dangerous one due to thyroid gland concentration of it, which may lead to thyroid cancer.
By saturating the body with a source of stable iodide prior to exposure, inhaled or ingested 131I tends to be excreted.
Potassium iodide cannot protect against any other causes of radiation poisoning, nor can it provide any degree of
protection against dirty bombs that produce radionuclides other than isotopes of iodine.
Recommended Dosage for Radiological Emergencies involving radioactive iodine [20]
Age
KI in mg
Over 12 years old
130
3 12 years old
65
1 36 months old
32
< 1 month old
16
See fission products and the external links for more details.
Potassium iodides (KI) value as a radiation protective (thyroid blocking) agent was demonstrated at the time of the
Chernobyl nuclear accident when Soviet authorities distributed it in a 30 km zone around the plant. The purpose was
to protect residents from radioactive iodine, a highly carcinogenic material found in nuclear reactors which had been
released by the damaged reactor. Only a limited amount of KI was available, but those who received it were protected.
Later, the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) reported, thousands of measurements of I-131 (radioactive
iodine) activitysuggest that the observed levels were lower than would have been expected had this prophylactic
measure not been taken. The use of KIwas credited with permissible iodine content in 97% of the evacuees
tested.[21]
Poland, 300 miles from Chernobyl, also distributed KI to protect its population. Approximately 18 million doses were
distributed, with follow-up studies showing no known thyroid cancer among KI recipients. [22] With the passage of
time, people living in irradiated areas where KI was not available have developed thyroid cancer at epidemic levels,
which is why the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported The data clearly demonstrate the risks of thyroid
radiationKI can be used [to] provide safe and effective protection against thyroid cancer caused by irradiation. [23]
Chernobyl also demonstrated that the need to protect the thyroid from radiation was greater than expected. Within ten
years of the accident, it became clear that thyroid damage caused by released radioactive iodine was virtually the only
adverse health effect that could be measured. As reported by the NRC, studies after the accident showed that As of
1996, except for thyroid cancer, there has been no confirmed increase in the rates of other cancers, including
leukemia, among thepublic, that have been attributed to releases from the accident. [24]
But equally important to the question of KI is the fact that radiation releases are not local events. Researchers at the
World Health Organization accurately located and counted the cancer victims from Chernobyl and were startled to
find that the increase in incidence [of thyroid cancer] has been documented up to 500 km from the accident site
significant doses from radioactive iodine can occur hundreds of kilometers from the site, beyond emergency planning
zones."[25] Consequently, far more people than anticipated were affected by the radiation, which caused the United
Nations to report in 2002 that The number of people with thyroid cancerhas exceeded expectations. Over 11,000
cases have already been reported.[26]
These findings were consistent with studies of the effects of previous radiation releases. In 1945, millions of Japanese
were exposed to radiation from nuclear weapons, and the effects can still be measured. Today, nearly half (44.8%) the
survivors of Nagasaki studied have identifiable thyroid disease, with the American Medical Association reporting it
is remarkable that a biological effect from a single brief environmental exposure nearly 60 years in the past is still
present and can be detected.[27]

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These events, as well as the development of thyroid cancer among residents in the North Pacific from radioactive
fallout following the United States' nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s (on islands nearly 200 miles downwind of
the tests) were instrumental in the decision by the FDA in 1978 to issue a request for the availability of KI for thyroid
protection in the event of a release from a commercial nuclear power plant or weapons-related nuclear incident.
Noting that KIs effectiveness was virtually complete and finding that iodine in the form of potassium iodide (KI)
was substantially superior to other forms including iodate (KIO3) in terms of safety, effectiveness, lack of side effects,
and speed of onset, the FDA invited manufacturers to submit applications to produce and market KI. [28] Today, three
companies (Anbex, Inc., Fleming Co, and Recip of Sweden) have met the strict FDA requirements for manufacturing
and testing of KI, and they offer products (IOSAT, ThyroShield, and Thyro-Safe, respectively) which are available for
purchase.
[edit] Adverse reactions
There have been some reports of potassium iodide treatment causing swelling of the parotid gland (one of the three
glands which secrete saliva), due to its stimulatory effects on saliva production. [29]
A saturated solution of KI (SSKI) is typically given orally in adult doses of about 250 mg iodide several times a day (5
drops of SSKI assumed to be mL) for thryoid blockage and occasionally as an expectorant. At these doses, and
sometimes at much lower doses, side effects may include: acne, loss of appetite, or upset stomach (especially during
the first several days, as the body adjusts to the medication). More severe side effects which require notification of a
physician are: fever, weakness, unusual tiredness, swelling in the neck or throat, mouth sores, skin rash, nausea,
vomiting, stomach pains, irregular heartbeat, numbness or tingling of the hands or feet, or a metallic taste in the
mouth.[30]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_iodide
Barium hydroxide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Barium hydroxide
Identifiers
17194-00-2 ,
CAS number
22326-55-2 (monohydrate)
12230-71-6 (octahydrate)
ChemSpider
26408
RTECS number
CQ9200000
SMILES
[show]
InChI
[show]
InChI key
[show]
Properties
Molecular formula
Ba(OH)2
171.34 g/mol (anhydrous)
Molar mass
189.39 g/mol (monohydrate)
315.46 g/mol (octahydrate)
Appearance
white solid
3.743 g/cm3 (monohydrate)
Density
2.18 g/cm3 (octahydrate, 16 C)
78 C (octahydrate)
Melting point
407 C (anhydrous)
Boiling point
780 C
octahydrate:
1.67 g/100 mL (0 C)
3.89 g/100 mL (20 C)
Solubility in water
11.7 g/100 mL (50 C)
20.94 g/100 mL (60C)
101.4 g/100 mL (100C)
Solubility in other solvents
low

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Basicity (pKb)
Refractive index (nD)
Crystal structure
Std enthalpy of
formation fHo298
MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases

-2.02
1.50 (octahydrate)
Structure
octahedral
Thermochemistry
944.7 kJ/mol
Hazards
External MSDS
056-002-00-7
Harmful (Xn)
R20/22
(S2), S28

NFPA 704
0
3
0
Flash point
Other anions
Other cations
Structure and
properties
Thermodynamic
data
Spectral data

non-flammable
Related compounds
Barium oxide
Barium peroxide
Calcium hydroxide
Strontium hydroxide
Supplementary data page
n, r, etc.
Phase behaviour
Solid, liquid, gas
UV, IR, NMR, MS

(what is this?) (verify)

Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Barium hydroxide is the chemical compound with the formula Ba(OH)2. Also known as baryta, it is one of the
principal compounds of barium. The white granular monohydrate is the usual commercial form.
Contents
[hide]

1 Preparation

2 Uses
o 2.1 Miscellaneous applications

3 Reactions

4 Safety

5 References

6 External links
[edit] Preparation
Barium hydroxide can be prepared by dissolving barium oxide (BaO) in water:
BaO + 9 H2O Ba(OH)28H2O

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It crystallises as the octahydrate, which converts to the monohydrate upon heating in air. At 100 C in a vacuum, the
monohydrate gives BaO.[1]
[edit] Uses
Barium hydroxide is used in analytical chemistry for the titration of weak acids, particularly organic acids. Its clear
aqueous solution is guaranteed to be free of carbonate, unlike those of sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide, as
barium carbonate is insoluble in water. This allows the use of indicators such as phenolphthalein or thymolphthalein
(with alkaline colour changes) without the risk of titration errors due to the presence of carbonate ions, which are
much less basic.[2]
Barium hydroxide is used in organic synthesis as a strong base, for example for the hydrolysis of esters [3] and nitriles.
[4][5][6]

It has been used to hydrolyse one of the two equivalent ester groups in dimethyl hendecanedioate. [7]
It is also used in the preparation of cyclopentanone,[8] diacetone alcohol[9] and D-Gulonic -lactone.[10]

Barium hydroxide is used in a demonstration of endothermic reactions since, when mixed with an ammonium salt, the
reaction becomes cold as heat is absorbed from the surroundings.
[edit] Miscellaneous applications

Under the name baryta it is used in homeopathic remedies.

It is also used to clean up acid spills.

[edit] Reactions
Barium hydroxide decomposes to barium oxide when heated to 800C. Reaction with carbon dioxide gives barium
carbonate. Its aqueous solution, being highly alkaline, undergoes neutralization reactions with acids. Thus, it forms
barium sulfate and barium phosphate with sulfuric and phosphoric acids, respectively. Reaction with hydrogen sulfide
produces barium sulfide. Precipitation of many insoluble, or less soluble barium salts, may result from double
decomposition reaction when a barium hydroxide aqueous solution is mixed with many solutions of other metal salts.
[11]

[edit] Safety
Barium hydroxide presents the same hazards as other strong bases and as other water-soluble barium compounds: it is
corrosive and toxic.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_hydroxide
Asam asetat
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Asam asetat

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Informasi
Nama sistematis

Asam etanoat
Asam asetat

Nama alternatif

Asam metanakarboksilat
Asetil hidroksida (AcOH)
Hidrogen asetat (HAc)
Asam cuka

Rumus molekul

CH3COOH

Massa molar

60.05 g/mol

Densitas dan fase

1.049 g cm3, cairan

1.266 g cm3, padatan

Titik lebur

16.5 C (289.6 0.5 K) (61.6 F)[1]

Titik didih

118.1 C (391.2 0.6 K) (244.5 F)[1]

Penampilan

Cairan tak berwarna atau kristal

Keasaman (pKa)

4.76 pada 25 C

Asam asetat, asam etanoat atau asam cuka[2] adalah senyawa kimia asam organik yang dikenal sebagai pemberi rasa
asam dan aroma dalam makanan. Asam cuka memiliki rumus empiris C2H4O2. Rumus ini seringkali ditulis dalam
bentuk CH3-COOH, CH3COOH, atau CH3CO2H. Asam asetat murni (disebut asam asetat glasial) adalah cairan
higroskopis tak berwarna, dan memiliki titik beku 16.7C.
Asam asetat merupakan salah satu asam karboksilat paling sederhana, setelah asam format. Larutan asam asetat dalam
air merupakan sebuah asam lemah, artinya hanya terdisosiasi sebagian menjadi ion H+ dan CH3COO-. Asam asetat
merupakan pereaksi kimia dan bahan baku industri yang penting. Asam asetat digunakan dalam produksi polimer
seperti polietilena tereftalat, selulosa asetat, dan polivinil asetat, maupun berbagai macam serat dan kain. Dalam
industri makanan, asam asetat digunakan sebagai pengatur keasaman. Di rumah tangga, asam asetat encer juga sering
digunakan sebagai pelunak air. Dalam setahun, kebutuhan dunia akan asam asetat mencapai 6,5 juta ton per tahun. 1.5
juta ton per tahun diperoleh dari hasil daur ulang, sisanya diperoleh dari industri petrokimia maupun dari sumber
hayati.
Daftar isi
[sembunyikan]

1 Penamaan

2 Sejarah

3 Sifat-sifat kimia

4 Biokimia
o 4.1 Biosintesis asam asetat

5 Produksi
o 5.1 Karbonilasi metanol
o 5.2 Oksidasi asetaldehida

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6 Penggunaan

7 Keamanan

8 Lihat pula

9 Referensi

10 Pranala luar
[sunting] Penamaan
Asam asetat merupakan nama trivial atau nama dagang dari senyawa ini, dan merupakan nama yang paling
dianjurkan oleh IUPAC. Nama ini berasal dari kata Latin acetum, yang berarti cuka. Nama sistematis dari senyawa ini
adalah asam etanoat. Asam asetat glasial merupakan nama trivial yang merujuk pada asam asetat yang tidak
bercampur air. Disebut demikian karena asam asetat bebas-air membentuk kristal mirip es pada 16.7 C, sedikit di
bawah suhu ruang.
Singkatan yang paling sering digunakan, dan merupakat singkatan resmi bagi asam asetat adalah AcOH atau HOAc
dimana Ac berarti gugus asetil, CH3C(=O). Pada konteks asam-basa, asam asetat juga sering disingkat HAc,
meskipun banyak yang menganggap singkatan ini tidak benar. Ac juga tidak boleh disalahartikan dengan lambang
unsur Aktinium (Ac).
[sunting] Sejarah

Kristal asam asetat yang dibekukan

Cuka telah dikenal manusia sejak dahulu kala. Cuka dihasilkan oleh berbagai bakteria penghasil asam asetat, dan
asam asetat merupakan hasil samping dari pembuatan bir atau anggur.
Penggunaan asam asetat sebagai pereaksi kimia juga sudah dimulai sejak lama. Pada abat ke-3 Sebelum Masehi,
Filsuf Yunani kuno Theophrastos menjelaskan bahwa cuka bereaksi dengan logam-logam membentuk berbagai zat
warna, misalnya timbal putih (timbal karbonat), dan verdigris, yaitu suatu zat hijau campuran dari garam-garam
tembaga dan mengandung tembaga (II) asetat. Bangsa Romawi menghasilkan sapa, sebuah sirup yang amat manis,
dengan mendidihkan anggur yang sudah asam. Sapa mengandung timbal asetat, suatu zat manis yang disebut juga
gula timbal dan gula Saturnus. Akhirnya hal ini berlanjut kepada peracunan dengan timbal yang dilakukan oleh para
pejabat Romawi.
Pada abad ke-8, ilmuwan Persia Jabir ibn Hayyan menghasilkan asam asetat pekat dari cuka melalui distilasi. Pada
masa renaisans, asam asetat glasial dihasilkan dari distilasi kering logam asetat. Pada abad ke-16 ahli alkimia Jerman
Andreas Libavius menjelaskan prosedur tersebut, dan membandingkan asam asetat glasial yang dihasilkan terhadap
cuka. Ternyata asam asetat glasial memiliki banyak perbedaan sifat dengan larutan asam asetat dalam air, sehingga
banyak ahli kimia yang mempercayai bahwa keduanya sebenarnya adalah dua zat yang berbeda. Ahli kimia Prancis
Pierre Adet akhirnya membuktikan bahwa kedua zat ini sebenarnya sama.

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Pada 1847 kimiawan Jerman Hermann Kolbe mensintesis asam asetat dari zat anorganik untuk pertama kalinya.
Reaksi kimia yang dilakukan adalah klorinasi karbon disulfida menjadi karbon tetraklorida, diikuti dengan pirolisis
menjadi tetrakloroetilena dan klorinasi dalam air menjadi asam trikloroasetat, dan akhirnya reduksi melalui
elektrolisis menjadi asam asetat.
Sejak 1910 kebanyakan asam asetat dihasilkan dari cairan piroligneous yang diperoleh dari distilasi kayu. Cairan ini
direaksikan dengan kalsium hidroksida menghasilkan kalsium asetat yang kemudian diasamkan dengan asam sulfat
menghasilkan asam asetat.
[sunting] Sifat-sifat kimia
Keasaman
Atom hidrogen (H) pada gugus karboksil (COOH) dalam asam karboksilat seperti asam asetat dapat dilepaskan
sebagai ion H+ (proton), sehingga memberikan sifat asam. Asam asetat adalah asam lemah monoprotik dengan nilai
pKa=4.8. Basa konjugasinya adalah asetat (CH3COO). Sebuah larutan 1.0 M asam asetat (kira-kira sama dengan
konsentrasi pada cuka rumah) memiliki pH sekitar 2.4.

Dimer siklis

Dimer siklis dari asam asetat, garis putus-putus melambangkan ikatan hidrogen.
Struktur kristal asam asetat menunjukkan bahwa molekul-molekul asam asetat berpasangan membentuk dimer yang
dihubungkan oleh ikatan hidrogen.[3] Dimer juga dapat dideteksi pada uap bersuhu 120 C. Dimer juga terjadi pada
larutan encer di dalam pelarut tak-berikatan-hidrogen, dan kadang-kadang pada cairan asam asetat murni. [4] Dimer
dirusak dengan adanya pelarut berikatan hidrogen (misalnya air). Entalpi disosiasi dimer tersebut diperkirakan 65.0
66.0 kJ/mol, entropi disosiasi sekitar 154157 J mol1 K1.[5] Sifat dimerisasi ini juga dimiliki oleh asam karboksilat
sederhana lainnya.
Sebagai Pelarut
Asam asetat cair adalah pelarut protik hidrofilik (polar), mirip seperti air dan etanol. Asam asetat memiliki konstanta
dielektrik yang sedang yaitu 6.2, sehingga ia bisa melarutkan baik senyawa polar seperi garam anorganik dan gula
maupun senyawa non-polar seperti minyak dan unsur-unsur seperti sulfur dan iodin. Asam asetat bercambur dengan
mudah dengan pelarut polar atau nonpolar lainnya seperti air, kloroform dan heksana. Sifat kelarutan dan kemudahan
bercampur dari asam asetat ini membuatnya digunakan secara luas dalam industri kimia.
Reaksi-reaksi kimia
Asam asetat bersifat korosif terhadap banyak logam seperti besi, magnesium, dan seng, membentuk gas hidrogen dan
garam-garam asetat (disebut logam asetat). Logam asetat juga dapat diperoleh dengan reaksi asam asetat dengan suatu
basa yang cocok. Contoh yang terkenal adalah reaksi soda kue (Natrium bikarbonat) bereaksi dengan cuka. Hapir
semua garam asetat larut dengan baik dalam air. Salah satu pengecualian adalah kromium (II) asetat. Contoh reaksi
pembentukan garam asetat:
Mg(s) + 2 CH3COOH(aq) (CH3COO)2Mg(aq) + H2(g)
NaHCO3(s) + CH3COOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Aluminium merupakan logam yang tahan terhadap korosi karena dapat membentuk lapisan aluminium oksida yang
melindungi permukaannya. Karena itu, biasanya asam asetat diangkut dengan tangki-tangki aluminium.

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Dua reaksi organik tipikal dari asam asetat

Asam asetat mengalami reaksi-reaksi asam karboksilat, misalnya menghasilkan garam asetat bila bereaksi dengan
alkali, menghasilkan logam etanoat bila bereaksi dengan logam, dan menghasilkan logam etanoat, air dan
karbondioksida bila bereaksi dengan garam karbonat atau bikarbonat. Reaksi organik yang paling terkenal dari asam
asetat adalah pembentukan etanol melalui reduksi, pembentukan turunan asam karboksilat seperti asetil klorida atau
anhidrida asetat melalui substitusi nukleofilik. Anhidrida asetat dibentuk melalui kondensasi dua molekul asam asetat.
Ester dari asam asetat dapat diperoleh melalui reaksi esterifikasi Fischer, dan juga pembentukan amida. Pada suhu
440 C, asam asetat terurai menjadi metana dan karbon dioksida, atau ketena dan air.
Deteksi
Asam asetat dapat dikenali dengan baunya yang khas. Selain itu, garam-garam dari asam asetat bereaksi dengan
larutan besi(III) klorida, yang menghasilkan warna merah pekat yang hilang bila larutan diasamkan. Garam-garam
asetat bila dipanaskan dengan arsenik trioksida (AsO3) membentuk kakodil oksida ((CH3)2As-O-As(CH3)2), yang
mudah dikenali dengan baunya yang tidak menyenangkan.
[sunting] Biokimia
Gugus asetil yang terdapat pada asam asetat merupakan gugus yang penting bagi biokimia pada hampir seluruh
makhluk hidup. Gugus asetil yang terikat pada koenzim A (Asetil-KoA), merupakan enzim utama bagi metabolisme
karbohidrat dan lemak. Namun demikian, asam asetat bebas memiliki konsentrasi yang kecil dalam sel, karena asam
asetat bebas dapat menyebabkan gangguan pada mekanisme pengaturan pH sel. Berbeda dengan asam karboksilat
berantai panjang (disebut juga asam lemak), asam asetat tidak ditemukan pada trigliserida dalam tubuh makhluk
hidup. Sekalipun demikian, trigliserida buatan yang memiliki gugus asetat, triasetin (trigliserin asetat), adalah zat
aditif yang umum pada makanan, dan juga digunakan dalam kosmetika dan obat-obatan.
Asam asetat diproduksi dan diekskresikan oleh bakteri-bakteri tertentu, misalnya dari genus Acetobacter dan spesies
Clostridium acetobutylicum. Bakteri-bakteri ini terdapat pada makanan, air, dan juga tanah, sehingga asam asetat
secara alami diproduksi pada buah-buahan/makanan yang telah basi. Asam asetat juga terdapat pelumas vagina
manusia dan primata lainnya, berperan sebagai agen anti-bakteri. [6]
[sunting] Biosintesis asam asetat
Asam asetat merupakan produk katabolisme aerob dalam jalur glikolisis atau perombakan glukosa. Asam piruvat
sebagai produk oksidasi glukosa dioksidasi oleh NAD+ terion lalu segera diikat oleh Koenzim-A. Pada prokariota
proses ini terjadi di sitoplasma sementara pada eukariota berlangsung pada mitokondria.
[sunting] Produksi

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Pabrik pemurnian asam asetat di tahun 1884

Asam asetat diproduksi secara sintetis maupun secara alami melalui fermentasi bakteri. Sekarang hanya 10% dari
produksi asam asetat dihasilkan melalui jalur alami, namun kebanyakan hukum yang mengatur bahwa asam asetat
yang terdapat dalam cuka haruslah berasal dari proses biologis. Dari asam asetat yang diproduksi oleh industri kimia,
75% diantaranya diproduksi melalui karbonilasi metanol. Sisanya dihasilkan melalui metode-metode alternatif. [7]
Produksi total asam asetat dunia diperkirakan 5 Mt/a (juta ton per tahun), setengahnya diproduksi di Amerika Serikat.
Eropa memproduksi sekitar 1 Mt/a dan terus menurun, sedangkan Jepang memproduksi sekitar 0.7 Mt/a. 1.51 Mt/a
dihasilkan melalui daur ulang, sehingga total pasar asam asetat mencapai 6.51 Mt/a.[8][9] Perusahan produser asam
asetat terbesar adalah Celanese dan BP Chemicals. Produsen lainnya adalah Millenium Chemicals, Sterling
Chemicals, Samsung, Eastman, dan Svensk Etanolkemi.
[sunting] Karbonilasi metanol
Kebanyakan asam asetat murni dihasilkan melalui karbonilasi. Dalam reaksi ini, metanol dan karbon monoksida
bereaksi menghasilkan asam asetat
CH3OH + CO CH3COOH
Proses ini melibatkan iodometana sebagai zat antara, dimana reaksi itu sendiri terjadi dalam tiga tahap dengan katalis
logam kompleks pada tahap kedua.
(1) CH3OH + HI CH3I + H2O
(2) CH3I + CO CH3COI
(3) CH3COI + H2O CH3COOH + HI
Jika kondisi reaksi diatas diatur sedemikian rupa, proses tersebut juga dapat menghasilkan anhidrida asetat sebagai
hasil tambahan. Karbonilasi metanol sejak lama merupakan metode paling menjanjikan dalam produksi asam asetat
karena baik metanol maupun karbon monoksida merupakan bahan mentah komoditi. Henry Dreyfus mengembangkan
cikal bakal pabrik karbonilasi metanol pada perusahaan Celanese di tahun 1925.[10] Namun, kurangnya bahan-bahan
praktis yang dapat diisi bahan-bahan korosif dari reaksi ini pada tekanan yang dibutuhkan yaitu 200 atm menyebabkan
metoda ini ditinggalkan untuk tujuan komersial. Baru pada 1963 pabrik komersial pertama yang menggunakan
karbonilasi metanol didirikan oleh perusahaan kimia Jerman, BASF dengan katalis kobalt (Co). Pada 1968, ditemukan
katalis kompleks Rhodium, cis[Rh(CO)2I2] yang dapat beroperasi dengan optimal pada tekanan rendah tanpa produk
sampingan. Pabrik pertama yang menggunakan katalis tersebut adalah perusahan kimia AS Monsanto pada 1970, dan
metode karbonilasi metanol berkatalis Rhodium dinamakan proses Monsanto dan menjadi metode produksi asam
asetat paling dominan. Pada akhir 1990'an, perusahan petrokimia British Petroleum mengkomersialisasi katalis Cativa
([Ir(CO)2I2]) yang didukung oleh ruthenium. Proses berbasis iridium ini lebih efisien dan lebih "hijau" dari metode
sebelumnya[11], sehingga menggantikan proses Monsanto.
[sunting] Oksidasi asetaldehida

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Sebelum komersialisasi proses Monsanto, kebanyakan asam asetat diproduksi melalui oksidasi asetaldehida. Sekarang
oksidasi asetaldehida merupakan metoda produksi asam asetat kedua terpenting, sekalipun tidak kompetitif bila
dibandingkan dengan metode karbonilasi metanol. Asetaldehida yang digunakan dihasilkan melalui oksidasi butana
atau nafta ringan, atau hidrasi dari etilena. Saat butena atau nafta ringan dipanaskan bersama udara disertai dengan
beberapa ion logam, termasuk ion mangan, kobalt dan kromium, terbentuk peroksida yang selanjutnya terurai menjadi
asam asetat sesuai dengan persamaan reaksi dibawah ini.
2 C4H10 + 5 O2 4 CH3COOH + 2 H2O
Umumnya reaksi ini dijalankan pada temperatur dan tekanan sedemikian rupa sehingga tercapai suhu setinggi
mungkin namut butana masih berwujud cair. Kondisi reaksi pada umumnya sekitar 150 C and 55 atm. Produk
sampingan seperti butanon, etil asetat, asam format dan asam propionat juga mungkin terbentuk. Produk sampingan
ini juga bernilai komersial dan jika diinginkan kondisi reaksi dapat diubah untuk menghasilkan lebih banyak produk
samping, namun pemisahannya dari asam asetat menjadi kendala karena membutuhkan biaya lebih banyak lagi.
Melalui kondisi dan katalis yang sama asetaldehida dapat dioksidasi oleh oksigen udara menghasilkan asam asetat.
2 CH3CHO + O2 2 CH3COOH
Dengan menggunakan katalis modern, reaksi ini dapat memiliki rasio hasil (yield) lebih besar dari 95%. Produk
samping utamanya adalah etil asetat, asam format dan formaldehida, semuanya memiliki titik didih yang lebih rendah
daripada asam asetat sehingga dapat dipisahkan dengan mudah melalui distilasi.
[sunting] Penggunaan

Botol berisi 2,5 liter asam asetat di laboratorium

Asam asetat digunakan sebagai pereaksi kimia untuk menghasilkan berbagai senyawa kimia. Sebagian besar (40-45%)
dari asam asetat dunia digunakan sebagai bahan untuk memproduksi monomer vinil asetat (vinyl acetate monomer,
VAM). Selain itu asam asetat juga digunakan dalam produksi anhidrida asetat dan juga ester. Penggunaan asam asetat
lainnya, termasuk penggunaan dalam cuka relatif kecil.
[sunting] Keamanan
Asam asetat pekat bersifat korosif dan karena itu harus digunakan dengan penuh hati-hati. Asam asetat dapat
menyebabkan luka bakar, kerusakan mata permanen, serta iritasi pada membran mukosa. Luka bakar atau lepuhan
bisa jadi tidak terlihat hingga beberapa jam setelah kontak. Sarung tangan latex tidak melindungi dari asam asetat,
sehingga dalam menangani senyawa ini perlu digunakan sarung tangan berbahan karet nitril. Asam asetat pekat juga
dapat terbakar di laboratorium, namun dengan sulit. Ia menjadi mudah terbakar jika suhu ruang melebihi 39 C
(102 F), dan dapat membentuk campuran yang mudah meledak di udara (ambang ledakan: 5.4%-16%).

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Asam asetat adalah senyawa korosif

Konsentrasi
Molaritas
Klasifikasi
Frase-R
berdasar berat
10%25%
1.674.16 mol/L
Iritan (Xi)
R36/38
25%90%
4.1614.99 mol/L
Korosif (C)
R34
>90%
>14.99 mol/L
Korosif (C)
R10, R35
Larutan asam asetat dengan konsentrasi lebih dari 25% harus ditangani di sungkup asap (fume hood) karena uapnya
yang korosif dan berbau. Asam asetat encer, seperti pada cuka, tidak berbahaya. Namun konsumsi asam asetat yang
lebih pekat adalah berbahaya bagi manusia maupun hewan. Hal itu dapat menyebabkan kerusakan pada sistem
pencernaan, dan perubahan yang mematikan pada keasaman darah.
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam_asetat
Barium chloride
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Barium chloride

CAS number
ChemSpider
UNII
EC number
RTECS number
SMILES
InChI
InChI key
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
Solubility

Identifiers
10361-37-2 ,
10326-27-9 (dihydrate)
23540
0VK51DA1T2
233-788-1
CQ8750000 (anhydrous)
CQ8751000 (dihydrate)
[show]
[show]
[show]
Properties
BaCl2
208.23 g/mol (anhydrous)
244.26 g/mol (dihydrate)
White solid
3.856 g/cm3 (anhydrous)
3.0979 g/cm3 (dihydrate)
962 C
1560 C
31.2 g/100 mL (0 C)
35.8 g/100 mL (20 C)
59.4 g/100 mL (100 C)
soluble in methanol, insoluble in ethanol, ethyl
acetate [1]

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Crystal structure
Coordination
geometry

Structure
orthogonal (anhydrous)
monoclinic (dihydrate)
7-9
Thermochemistry

Std enthalpy of
formation fHo298
MSDS
EU Index
EU classification
R-phrases
S-phrases

858.56 kJ/mol
Hazards
External MSDS
056-004-00-8
Toxic (T)
Harmful (Xn)
R20, R25
(S1/2), S45

NFPA 704
0
2
0
Flash point

Other anions

Other cations

Structure and
properties
Thermodynamic
data
Spectral data

Non-flammable
Related compounds
Barium fluoride
Barium bromide
Barium iodide
Beryllium chloride
Magnesium chloride
Calcium chloride
Strontium chloride
Radium chloride
Lead chloride
Supplementary data page
n, r, etc.
Phase behaviour
Solid, liquid, gas
UV, IR, NMR, MS

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Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Barium chloride is the ionic chemical compound with the formula BaCl2. It is one of the most important watersoluble salts of barium. Like other barium salts, it is toxic and imparts a yellow-green coloration to a flame. It is also
hygroscopic.
Contents
[hide]

1 Structure and properties

2 Preparation

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3 Uses

4 Safety

5 References

6 External links
[edit] Structure and properties
BaCl2 crystallizes in both the fluorite and lead chloride motifs, both of which accommodate the preference of the large
Ba2+ ion for coordination numbers greater than six.[2] In aqueous solution BaCl2 behaves as a simple salt; in water it is
a 1:2 electrolyte and the solution exhibits a neutral pH.
Barium chloride reacts with sulfate ion to produce a thick white precipitate of barium sulfate.
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
Oxalate effects a similar reaction:
Ba2+(aq) + C2O42-(aq) BaC2O4(s)
[edit] Preparation
Although inexpensively available, barium chloride can be prepared from barium hydroxide or barium carbonate, with
barium carbonate being found naturally as the mineral witherite. These basic salts react with hydrochloric acid to give
hydrated barium chloride. On an industrial scale, it is prepared via a two step process from barite (barium sulfate):[3]
BaSO4 + 4 C BaS + 4 CO
This first step requires high temperatures.
BaS + CaCl2 BaCl2 + CaS
The second step requires fusion of the reactants. The BaCl2 can then be leached out from the mixture with water.
From water solutions of barium chloride, the dihydrate can be crystallized as white crystals: BaCl 22H2O
[edit] Uses
As a cheap, soluble salt of barium, barium chloride finds wide application in the laboratory. It is commonly used as a
test for sulfate ion (see chemical properties above). In industry, barium chloride is mainly used in the purification of
brine solution in caustic chlorine plants and also in the manufacture of heat treatment salts, case hardening of steel, in
the manufacture of pigments, and in the manufacture of other barium salts. BaCl 2 is also used in fireworks to give a
bright green color. However, its toxicity limits its applicability. Barium Chloride is also used (with Hydrochloric acid)
as a test for sulfates. When these two chemicals are mixed with a sulfate salt, a white precipitate forms, which is
barium sulfate.
[edit] Safety
Barium chloride, along with other water-soluble barium salts, is highly toxic. Sodium and magnesium sulfate are
potential antidotes because they form the insoluble solid barium sulfate BaSO 4, which is much less toxic.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_chloride
Ammonium heptamolybdate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ammonium heptamolybdate
IUPAC name[hide]
Ammonium docosaoxoheptamolybdate(6)
Other names[hide]
Ammonium molybdate
Ammonium paramolybdate
(see text)
Identifiers
12027-67-7 ,
CAS number
12054-85-2 (tetrahydrate)
ChemSpider
23786
UNII
21Y68J178E
EC number
234-320-9
Properties
Molecular formula
(NH4)6Mo7O24

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Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Solubility in water
MSDS
EU Index
Main hazards

1163.9 g/mol
1235.86 g/mol (tetrahydrate)
white to yellow-green crystalline solid
2.498 g/cm3
~90 C (loses water molecule)
190 C (decomp.)
43 g/100 ml (tetrahydrate)
Hazards
External MSDS
Not listed
Irritant

NFPA 704
0
2
0
Flash point
Other anions
Other cations
Related compounds

Non-flammable
Related compounds
Ammonium orthomolybdate
Ammonium dimolybdate
Potassium paramolybdate
Molybdenum(VI) oxide
Molybdic acid

(what is this?) (verify)

Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Ammonium heptamolybdate is an odourless crystalline compound ranging in colour from white to yellow-green. It
is usually encountered as the tetrahydrate, whose chemical formula is (NH4)6Mo7O244H2O. It is often referred to as
ammonium paramolybdate or simply as ammonium molybdate, although ammonium molybdate can also refer to
ammonium orthomolybdate, (NH4)2MoO4, and several other species.
Contents
[hide]

1 Synthesis

2 Uses

3 Safety

4 References

5 External links
[edit] Synthesis
Ammonium heptamolybdate is easily prepared by dissolving molybdenum trioxide in an excess of aqueous ammonia
and evaporating the solution at room temperature. While the solution evaporates, the excess of ammonia escapes. This
method results in the formation of six-sided transparent prisms of the tetrahydrate of ammonium heptamolybdate. [1]
Solutions of ammonium paramolybdate react with acids to form molybdic acid and an ammonium salt. The pH value
of a concentrated solution will lie between 5 and 6.
[edit] Uses

as an analytical reagent to measure the amount of phosphates, silicates, arsenates and lead in aqueous
solution (e.g. pigments, river water, sea water etc.)[2]

in the production of molybdenum metal and ceramics

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in the preparation of dehydrogenation and desulphurisation catalysts

in the fixing of metals
in electroplating
in fertilizers for crops.
as a negative stain in biological electron microscopy, typically in the 35% (vol/vol) concentration range
and in the presence of trehalose[3]; or at saturated concentration to perform cryo-negative staining. [4][5]
[edit] Safety
Ammonium paramolybdate is harmful if swallowed or inhaled. It causes irritation to the eyes, skin, and respiratory
tract. It affects kidneys and blood.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_heptamolybdate
Silver nitrate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from AgNO3)
Jump to: navigation, search
Silver nitrate

CAS number
ChEBI
Molecular formula
Molar mass
Appearance
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
Solubility in water
Solubility

Other names[hide]
Nitric acid silver(1+) salt
Identifiers
7761-88-8
32130
Properties
AgNO3
169.87 g mol1
white solid
4.35 g/cm3
212 C, 485 K, 414 F
444 C, 717 K, 831 F (decomp.)
1.22 kg/L (0C)
2.16 kg/L (20C)
4.40 kg/L (60C)
7.33 kg/L (100C)
soluble in ethanol and acetone
Hazards

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EU classification

R-phrases
S-phrases

N
R8,R34, R50/53
(S1/2), S26, S45, S60, S61

NFPA 704
0
2
2
OX
(what is this?) (verify)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their
standard state (at 25 C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references
Silver nitrate is an inorganic compound with chemical formula AgNO3. This compound is a versatile precursor to
many other silver compounds, such as those used in photography. It is far less sensitive to light than the halides. It was
once called lunar caustic because silver was called luna by the ancient alchemists.[1]
In solid silver nitrate, the silver ions are three-coordinated in a trigonal planar arrangement. [2]
Contents
[hide]

1 Discovery

2 Synthesis

3 Reactions

4 Uses
o 4.1 Precursor to other silver compounds
o 4.2 Halide abstraction
o 4.3 Organic synthesis
o 4.4 Biology
o 4.5 Antimicrobial uses

5 Medicine
o 5.1 Disinfection

5.1.1 Kinetics

5.1.2 Effects of various parameters

5.1.3 Kinetic models

6 Safety

7 References

8 External links
[edit] Discovery
Albertus Magnus, in the 13th century, documented the ability of nitric acid to separate gold and silver by dissolving
the silver.[3] Magnus noted that the resulting solution of silver nitrate could blacken skin. Its common name at the time
was nitric acid silver.
[edit] Synthesis
Silver nitrate can be prepared by reacting silver, such as a silver bullion or silver foil, with nitric acid:

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Ag + 2 HNO3 AgNO3 + NO2 + H2O

This is performed under a fume hood because of the toxic nitrogen oxides given off in the reaction. [4]
[edit] Reactions
Silver nitrate reacts with copper to form hairlike crystals of silver metal and a blue solution of copper nitrate:
2 AgNO3 + Cu Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
Silver nitrate also decomposes when heated:
2 AgNO3 2 Ag + O2 + 2 NO2
Most metal nitrates thermally decompose to the respective oxides, but silver oxide decomposes at a lower temperature
than silver nitrate, so the decomposition of silver nitrate yields elemental silver instead.
[edit] Uses
[edit] Precursor to other silver compounds
Silver nitrate is the least expensive salt of silver; it offers several other advantages as well. It is non-hygroscopic, in
contrast to silver fluoroborate and silver perchlorate. It is relatively stable to light. Finally, it dissolves in numerous
solvents, including water. The nitrate can be easily replaced by other ligands, rendering AgNO 3 versatile. Treatment
with solutions of halide ions gives a precipitate of AgX (X = Cl, Br, I). When making photographic film, silver nitrate
is treated with halide salts of sodium or potassium to form insoluble silver halide in situ in photographic gelatin,
which is then applied to strips of tri-acetate or polyester. Similarly, silver nitrate is used to prepare some silver-based
explosives, such as the fulminate, azide, or acetylide, through a precipitation reaction.
Treatment of silver nitrate with base gives dark grey silver oxide:[5]
2 AgNO3 + 2 NaOH Ag2O + 2 NaNO3 + H2O
[edit] Halide abstraction
The silver cation, Ag+, reacts quickly with halide sources to produce the insoluble silver halide, which is a cream
precipitate if Br- is used, a white precipitate if Cl- is used and a yellow precipiate if I- is used. This reaction is
commonly used in inorganic chemistry to abstract halides:
Ag+ + X (aq) AgX

where X = Cl, Br, or I.

Other silver salts with non-coordinating anions, namely silver tetrafluoroborate and silver hexafluorophosphate are
used for more demanding applications.
Similarly, this reaction is used in analytical chemistry to confirm the presence of chloride, bromide, or iodide ions can
be tested by adding silver nitrate solution. Samples are typically acidifed with dilute nitric acid to remove interfering
ions, e.g. carbonate ions and sulfide ions. This step avoids confusion of silver sulfide or silver carbonate precipitates
with that of silver halides. The color of precipitate varies with the halide: white (silver chloride), pale yellow/cream
(silver bromide), yellow (silver iodide). AgBr and especially AgI photo-decompose to the metal, as evidence by a
grayish color on exposed samples.
[edit] Organic synthesis
Silver nitrate is used in many ways in organic synthesis, e.g. for deprotection and oxidations. Ag+ binds alkenes
reversibly, and silver nitrate has been used to separate mixtures of alkenes by selective absorption. The resulting
adduct can be decomposed with ammonia to release the free alkene.[6]
[edit] Biology
In histology, silver nitrate is used for silver staining, for demonstrating reticular fibers, proteins and nucleic acids. For
this reason it is also used to demonstrate proteins in PAGE gels. It is also used as a stain in scanning electron
microscopy[citation needed].
[edit] Antimicrobial uses

Water disinfection in hotels and hospitals

Postharvest cleaning of oysters and crabs

Inhibition of bacterial growth on chicken farms

Water recycling aboard space shuttles

Home purification of water in Europe and North America

Point of use disinfectant for water and vegetables in Mexico

Alternative to antibiotics (not recommended by the FDA)

Alternative to laundry detergent [dubious discuss]

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Application to eyes of newborn babies to prevent infection

Coating on catheters to prevent infection[7]

[edit] Medicine

Micrograph showing a silver nitrate (brown) marked surgical margin.

Silver salts have antiseptic properties. Until the development and widespread adoption of antibiotics, dilute solutions
of AgNO3 used to be dropped into newborn babies' eyes at birth to prevent contraction of gonorrhoea from the mother.
Eye infections and blindness of newborns was reduced by this method; incorrect dosage, however, could cause
blindness in extreme cases. This protection was first used by Cred in 1881.[8][9][10] Fused silver nitrate, shaped into
sticks, was traditionally called "lunar caustic". It is used as a cauterizing agent, for example to remove granulation
tissue around a stoma. Dentists sometimes use silver nitrate infused swabs to heal oral ulcers. Silver nitrate is also
used by some podiatrists to kill cells located in the nail bed. Silver nitrate is also used to cauterize superficial blood
vessels in the nose to help prevent nose bleeds.
The Canadian physician C. A. Douglas Ringrose researched the use of silver nitrate for sterilization procedures on
women. A specialist in obstetrics and gynaecology, Ringrose believed that the corrosive properties of silver nitrate
could be used to block and corrode the fallopian tubes, in a process that he called "office tubal sterilization". [11] The
technique was ineffective; in fact at least two women underwent abortions. Ringrose was sued for malpractice,
although these suits were unsuccessful.[12]
[edit] Disinfection
Much research has been done in evaluating the ability of the silver ion at inactivating E. coli, a microorganism
commonly used as an indicator for fecal contamination and as a surrogate for pathogens in drinking water treatment.
Concentrations of silver nitrate evaluated in inactivation experiments range from 10200 micrograms per liter as Ag +.
The antimicrobial properties of silver was first observed thousands of years ago when silver containers were used to
store water for preservation. Its disinfection ability has been scientifically studied for over a century.
Silver's antimicrobial activity saw many applications prior to the discovery of pharmaceutical antibiotics, when it fell
into near disuse. Its association with argyria made consumers wary and led them to turn away from it when given an
alternative. Since that time, as antibiotic-resistant microorganisms have emerged, interest in using the silver ion for
anti-microbial purposes has resumed.[13]
[edit] Kinetics

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Before a disinfectant can be effectively used as a water disinfectant, its inactivation kinetics must be established.
Kinetics generally depend on both the dosage of disinfectant and the time of application. It is important to understand
the kinetics so that the minimum dosage of disinfectant can be applied for the minimum amount of time while still
effectively inactivating any pathogens in the water. Because there are many microorganisms present in water, the
inactivation kinetics of each one cannot be studied extensively. Therefore, indicator organisms generally more
resistant to inactivation than others are used to estimate the kinetics of microorganisms as a whole. Escherichia coli,
also referred to as E. coli, is a commonly used indicator organism.
It is well-documented that the silver ion is effective in the inactivation of E. coli.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]
However, there are many inconsistencies in the literature regarding the kinetics of the inactivation of E. coli by the
silver ion. With inconsistent data, it is impossible to tell what the true inactivation kinetics are, and therefore
impossible to implement any sort of large-scale water treatment.
The inconsistencies may be due to several factors. First, the kinetics may depend on the source of the silver ion being
used. In recent years, research has focused largely on electrolytically generated silver ions or colloidal silver. Most
studies in which the inactivation kinetics of E. coli by silver nitrate were explored extensively date back several
decades. Even within this smaller group of studies, vast inconsistencies exist, likely due to inaccurate analytical
methods for measuring the concentration of silver in solution. [26] Monitoring the decay of the silver ion in solution is
imperative as silver tends to both adsorb readily to organic matter in the water and to be light reactive. [27] Furthermore,
silver tends to adsorb to glassware, which can lead not only to a decrease in the silver concentration within a given
experiment but also to a release of the silver in subsequent experiments unless measures further than general
glassware washing are taken for the removal of silver from the glassware surface. [24] Therefore studies must both
minimize the external factors effecting the concentration and to measure the changes in concentration that take place
throughout the experiment.
[edit] Effects of various parameters
Despite the inconsistencies in the literature regarding the kinetics of the inactivation of E. coli by silver nitrate,
important information can still be taken from the work. A study by Wuhrmann and Zobrist investigated the effect of
various parameters upon the kinetics. First, they studied the effect of several ions in the water, including calcium,
phosphates and chloride, all of which were found to decrease the bactericidal effect of silver.[23] These effects are
important to consider when designing an experiment. Because of the effect of phosphates, it is undesirable to use
phosphate buffer to run experiments, as this creates a phosphate concentration much higher than that found in natural
waters and will falsely slow the inactivation kinetics. Furthermore, it is important to avoid touching any glassware
with bare hands, as chloride from sweat may contaminate the glassware, again slowing inactivation. Chambers,
Proctor and Kabler established the importance of using an effective neutralizer solution made of a combination of
sodium thioglycolate and sodium thiosulfate, rather than sodium thiosulfate alone, which though it is effective in
neutralizing other disinfectants does not sufficiently stop the bactericidal action of silver nitrate. [24] Both tested the
effect of pH on the kinetics, finding that a higher pH increased the bactericidal action. [24][27] Wuhrmann and Zobrist
further established that at a higher temperature, inactivation occurs faster.[23]
[edit] Kinetic models
A further complication of the inactivation kinetics by silver is the question of which model to use. With most
disinfectants, the inactivation is effectively modeled using a first-order Chick-Watson model, which states that a
certain level of disinfection will occur at a certain CT, or concentration *time value. [28] According to this model, the
same amount of inactivation should take place when a concentration of 0.2 mg/L is applied for 10 minutes as when
0.02 mg/L is applied for 100 minutes. Wuhrmann and Zobrist found rate kinetics that followed this model for all
conditions, which agrees fairly well with a study by Chambers and Proctor, while another study by Renn and Chesney
found curves that did not follow this law.[26] It is therefore unclear whether this law sufficiently models inactivation by
the silver ion.
Most recent papers regarding the disinfection of E. coli by silver nitrate have simply plotted the level of disinfection
against time.[14][17][19][21][22] While this method of data analysis does not risk making false assumptions about first-order
kinetics, it does nothing to account for the applied concentration, which is essential to any kinetics. Therefore,
different curves need to be generated for each concentration that might be applied. Furthermore, it does not account
for changes in concentration that might take place during the experiment, and which may vary based on many factors.
A third model which has been suggested for the inactivation kinetics by silver nitrate is that of Cs*T, or chemisorbed
silver onto the cell body times time. This model suggests that the rate of inactivation depends not on the concentration

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in the water at a given time, but rather on the silver that has been chemisorbed by the bacteria. It is assumed,
according to this model that C0 = C1 + C2 + C3, where C0 is the initial concentration, C1 is the silver still in solution,
C2 is the silver lost to adsorption to glassware or other factors in the solution, and C3 is the silver chemisorbed to the
bacteria. C0 is measured at the beginning of the experiment, C1 is measured throughout the experiment, and C2 is
determine in a control experiment without bacteria. C3, or the Cs value, is then determined to be C0-C1-C2. [15][29]
According to Hwang, et al., this model was successful in estimating inactivation of E. coli by silver nitrate.[15]
Although it is possible that this model does not sufficiently account for all of the possible fates of the initial silver
nitrate added to the solution, it is certainly a compelling method of data analysis. Because it is a new model, it has not
been extensively studied by various researchers.
[edit] Safety
This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can
help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (May 2009)

Hand stained by silver nitrate

As an oxidant, silver nitrate should be properly stored away from organic compounds. Despite being used in low
concentrations to prevent gonorrhea and control nose bleeds, silver nitrate is toxic and corrosive. [30] Brief exposure to
the chemical will not produce immediate or even any side effects other than the purple, brown or black skin stains, but
with more exposure, side effects will become more noticeable, including burns. Long-term exposure may cause eye
damage. Short contact can lead to deposition of black silver stains on the skin. Besides being very destructive of
mucous membranes, it is a skin and eye irritant.
Although silver nitrate is currently not regulated in water sources by the Environmental Protection Agency, when
between 1-5 g of silver have accumulated in the body, a condition called argyria can develop. Argyria is a permanent
cosmetic condition in which the skin and internal organs turn a blue-gray color. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency had a maximum contaminant limit for silver in water until 1990, but upon determination that
argyria did not impact the function of organs affected, removed the regulation. [27] Argyria is more often associated with
the consumption of colloidal silver solutions than with silver nitrate, especially at the extremely low concentrations
present for the disinfection of water. However, it is still important to consider before ingesting any sort of silver-ion
solution.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgNO3
Analisis Kualitatif Berdasarkan Metode H2S
1. Idetifikasi kaiton berdasarkan H2S
K ation dalam suatu cuplikan dapat diketahui dengan melakukan uji menggunakan
pereaksi-pereaksi yang spesifik, meskipun agak sulit mendapatkan pereaksi yang spesifik
untuk setiap kaiton. Oleh karena itu umumnya dilakukan terlebih dahulu penggolongan
kaiton. Sebelum dilakukan pengendapan golongan dan reaksi identifikasi kation dengan cara
basah cuplikan padat harus dilarutkan dahulu. Supaya mendapatkan larutan cuplikan yang
baik, zat yang akan dianalisis dihomogenkan dahulu sebelum dilarutkan. Sebagai pelarut
dapat dicoba dahulu secara berturut-turut mulai dari air, HCl encer, HCl pekat, HNO3 encer,
HNO3 pekat, air raja (HCl:HNO3 = 3:1). Mula-mula dicoba dalam keadaan dingin lalu dalam
keadaan panas. Bila pelarutnya HCl pekat larutan harus diuapkan sampai sebagaian besar HCl

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habis. Bila larutan HNO3 atau air raja, maka semua asam harus dihilangkan dengan cara
menguapkan larutan sampai hampir kering, kemudian ditambahkan sedikit HCl, diuapkan lagi
sampai volumenya sedikit lalu encerkan dengan air.
Larutan cuplikan dapat mengandung bermacam-macam kation.Ada beberapa cara
pemerikasaan kation secara sistematis, misalnya cara fosfat dari Remy, cara Peterson dan
cara H2S. Pada bagian ini akan dibahas pemisahan kation berdasarkan sekema H2S menurut
Bergman yang diperluas oleh Fresenius, Treadwell dan Noyes.
Dalam cara H2S kation-kation diklasifikasikan dalam lima golongan berdasarkan sifatsifat
kation tersebut terhadap beberapa pereaksi. Pereaksi golongan yang paling umum
dipakai adalah asam klorida, hidrogen sulfida, amonium sulfida dan amonium karbonat. Jadi
klasifikasi kation didasarkan atas perbedaan dari klorida, sulfida dan karbonat kation tersebut.
Penambahan perekasi golongan akan mengendapkan ion-ion dalam golongan tersebut.
Masing-masing golongan kemudian dipisahkan kemudian dilakukan pemisahan ion-ion
segolongan dan dilakukan identifikasi terhadap masing-masing ion. Pemisahan kation
berdasarkan cara H2S dapat dilihat pada tabel dan gambar berikut.
Tabel: Pemisahan kation berdasarkan metode H2S
Ke dalam 5 mL larutan contoh diteteskan HCl 2N. Bila ada endapan, penambahan HCl 2N diteruskan
sampai tidak keluar lagi endapan. Lalu disaring.
Endapan
Golongan
HCl

Filtrat
- tidak boleh mengeluarkan endapan lagi dengan HCl 2N
- 5 mL HCl 4N
- dipanaskan sampai hampir mendidih 80 C lalu dialiri gas H2S selama 2 atau 3
menit.
- baik ada endapan mau pun tidak, larutan diencerkan sampai 100 mL
dengan aquades sampai ke asaman larutan menjadi 0,2N (diperiksa metal
lembayung)
- dipanaskan
- dialiri H2S lagi selama 10 menit dan terus di saring
Endapan
Filtrat
Golongan H2S
- tidak boleh mengeluarkan endapan lagi dengan H2S
- larutan dimasak untuk menghilangkan H2S (dicek dengan kertas
Pb asetat)
- + 2 mL HNO3 dan dimasak 2 atau 3menit
- 5 mL NH4Cl
- + NH4OH sampai alkalis lemah
- + (NH4)2S tidak berwarna
- larutan dimasak lalu disaring
Endapan
Golongan
(NH4)2S

Filtrat
- tidak boleh mengeluarkan endapan lagi dengan
(NH4)2S
- larutan dikisarkan sampai 10 m
- ditambahkan NH4OH dan (NH4)2S berlebihan
- dipanaskan sebentar 60C
- biarkan 5 menit
- saring

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Endapan
Golongan
(NH4)2CO3

Endapan
Gol. I

Filtrat
- larutan dibagi 2 yang tidak
sama
- bagian yang kecil dikisatkan
sampai kering, residu (sisa)
putih
menunjukan
adanya
golongan sisa

Larutan contoh
Tambah HCl encer
Filtrat
+ H2S / H+ (HCl 0,2-2N)
Endapan
Filtrat
Gol. II
+ NH4Cl
+ NH4OH
+ (NH4)2S tak berwarna
Endapan
Filtrat
Gol. III
+ NH4OH
+(NH4)2CO3
Endapan
Filtrat
Gol. IV
Gol. V

Gambar: Skema pemisahan kation berdasarkan metode H2S

a. Golongan I
Kation golongan I (Pb2+, Hg+, Ag+) membentuk endapan dengan HCl encer. Endapan
tersebut adalah PbCl2, Hg2Cl2 dan AgCl yang semuanya berwarna putih. Untuk memastikan
apakah endapan tersebut hanya mengandung satu kation, dua katiom atau tiga kation maka
dilanjutkan dengan pemisahan dan identifikasi kation golongan I, yang caranya dapat dilihat
pada tabel berikut.
Tabel: Pemisahan dan identifikasi kation golongan I
- Endapan mungkin mengandung PbCl2, AgCl dan Hg2Cl2
- Cuci endapan di atas saringan, mula-mula dengan 2 ml HCl encer lalu 2-3 kali dengan
sedikit air dingin. Air cucian dibuang
- Enapan dipindahkan ke dalam gelas kimia kecil tambahkan 15 ml air dan panaskan
- Saring dalam keadaan panas
Reaksi-reaksi yang terjadi pada pengendapan, pemisahan dan identifikasi kationkation
golongan I tersebut adalah sebagai berikut:
1. Reaksi Pengendapan
Ag+ + Cl- AgCl (s) (endapan putih)
Pb2+ + Cl- PbCl2 (s) (endapan putih)
Hg2
2+ + 2 Cl- Hg2Cl2 (s) (endapan putih)
2. Pemisahan
Endapan PbCl2 larut dalam air panas tetapi membentuk kristal seperti jarum setelah
dingin. Sedangkan AgCl larut dalam amonia encer membentuk ion kompleks

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diamenargentat.
AgCl(s) + 2NH3 [Ag(NH3)2]+ + ClEndapan
Hg2Cl2 oleh larutan amonia diubah menjadi campuran merkrium (II)
amidoklorida dan logam merkurium yang kedua-duanya merupakan endapan.
Hg2Cl2 (s) + 2NH3 Hg (s) + Hg(NH2)Cl (s) + NH4
+ + Cl3. Reaksi identifikasi
Pb2+ + CrO4
2- PbCrO4 (s) (endapan kuning)
Pb2+ + 2 I- PbI2 (s) (endapan kuning)
Pb2+ + SO4
2- PbSO4 (s) (endapan putih)
[Ag(NH3)2]+ + Cl- + 2 H+ AgCl (s) (endapan putih) + 2 NH4
+
[Ag(NH3)2]+ + I- + 2 H+ AgI (s) (endapan kuning) + 2 NH3
b. Golongan II
Kation golongan II (Hg2+, Pb2+, Bi3+, Cu2+, Cd2+, As3+, As5+, Sb3+, Sb5+, Sn2+, Sn4+)
membentuk endapan dengan hidrogen sulfida dalam suasana asam mineral encer. Endapan
yang terbentuk adalah : HgS (hitam), PbS (hitam), CuS (hitam), CdS (kuning), Bi2S3 (coklat),
As2S3 (kuning), As2S5 (kuning), Sb2S3 (jingga), Sb2S2 (jingga), SnS (coklat) SnS2 (kuning).
Kation golongan II dibagi lagi menjadi lagi dua sub golongan berdasarkan kelarutan
endapan tersebut dalam amonium polisulfida, yaitu sub golongan tembaga (golongan IIA) dan
sub golongan arsenik (Golongan IIB). Sulfida dari sub golongan tembaga (ion Hg2+, Pb2+,
Bi3+, Cu2+, Cd2+) tidak larut dalam amonium polisulfida, sedangkan sulfida sub golongan
arsenik (As3+, As5+, Sb3+, Sb5+, Sn2+, Sn4+) larut membentuk garam-garam kation. Ion-ion
golongan IIB ini bersifat amfoter, oksidanya membentuk garam baik dengan asam maupun
dengan basa. Semua sulfida dari golongan IIB larut dalam (NH4)2S tidak berwarna kecuali
SnS.
Kation-kation golongan II dan kation-kation golongan III sama-sama membentuk
endapan sulfida namun mengapa kation-kation golongan III tidak mengendap pada
pengenadapan kation golongan II?
Pengendapan kation golongan II dan III dibedakan atas dasar pengaturan keasaman.
Diketahui bahwa larutan jenuh H2S mempunyai konsentrasi kira-kira 0,1 M dan tetapan
ionisasi asam sulfida (Ka) adalah 6,8 x 1023 maka:
H2S 2H+ + S2[H+]2 [S2-]
Ka = = 6,8 x 1023
[H2S]
[H+]2 [S2-]
6,8 x 1023 =
0,1
[H+]2 [S2-] = 6,8 x 1024
Jika konsentrasi larutan HCl 2M, maka
6,8 x 1024
[S2-] = = 1,7 x 1024
22
Jika konsentrasi kation golongan II dan III masing-masing 0,1 M dapat dihitung garam
sulfida mana yang mengendap. Dari daftar hasil kali kelarutan yang terdapat tabel di atas
dapat dilihat bahwa endapan yang mempunyai hasil kali kelarutan paling besar pada golongan
II adalah CdS yaitu 8,0 x 10-27 sedangkan yang mempunyai hasil kali kelatutan paling rendah
pada golongan III adalah ZnS yaitu 1,6 x 10-23. Bila dihitung hasil kali antara konsentrasi ion
Cd2+, Zn2+ dan S2- adalah sebabagi berikut:

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[Cd2+] [S2-] = 0,1 x 1,7 x 1024 = 1,7 x 1025

[Zn2+] [S2-] = 0,1 x 1,7 x 1024 = 1,7 x 1025
Bila dibandingkan dengan harga Ksp maka:
1,7 x 1025 > 8,0 x 1027 berarti CdS mengendap
1,7 x 1025 < 1,6 x 1023 berarti ZnS belum mengendap
Dengan diperhitungkan seperti ini untuk keasaman HCl 0,2M dengan larutan jenuh
H2S diperoleh bahwa sulfida golongan III yang paling mudah mengendap (ZnS) belum
mengendap. Apabila konsentrasi HCl lebih kecil dari 0,2M makan ZnS akan ikut mengendap
pada pengendapaan golongan II.
c. Golongan III
Sebelum pengendapan golongan ini dilakukan, terlebih dahulu diperiksa adanya ionion
pengganggu (fosfat, oksalat dan borat). Bila ion-ion tersebut ada maka harus dihilangkan
dahulu. Kation golongan III (Co2+, Ni2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Cr3+, Al3+) membentuk endapan
dengan amonium sulfida dalam suasana netral atau amoniakal. Endapan yang terbentuk
adalah FeS (hitam), Al(OH)3 (putih), Cr(OH)3 (hijau) NiS (hitam), MnS (merah jambu) dan
ZnS (putih).
Pada pengendapan kation golongan III ditambahkan buffer NH4OH dan NH4Cl (pH
basa lemah), misalnya pH = 9 maka [H+] = 10-9 dan [OH-] = 10-5. Pada konsentrasi ion
hidrogen basa lemah (10-9) maka
[H+]2 [S2-] = 6,8 x 1024 menjadi [10-9]2 [S2-] = 6,8 x 1024
6,8 x 1024
[S2-] = = 6,8 x 106
(10-9)2
Bila [M] = 0,01 maka
[M] (6,8 x 106) = 0,01 x (6,8 x 106) = 6,8 x 108
Ini menunjukkan bahwa hasil kali kelarutan semua sulfida golongan III sudah dilampaui.
Dalam tabel hasil kali kelarutan beberapa endapan sulfida dan hidroksida dapat dilihat bahwa
Ksp [M][S2-] < Ksp [M] [OH-]
Dengan demikian untuk kation yang sama akan mengendap sebagai sulfida dahulu.
d. Golongan IV
Kation golongan ini (Ca2+, Sr2+dan Ba2+) mengendap sebagai karbonatnya dalam
suasana netral atau sedikit asam dengan adanya amonium klorida. Endapan yang terbentuk
adalah BaCO3, CaCO3 dan SrCO3 yang semuanya berwarna putih. Garam logam alkali tanah
yang digunakan untuk pemisahan satu sama lain ialah kromat, karbonat, sulfat dan oksalat.
Tabel: Hasil kali kalarutan garam logam alkali tanah
Zat
BaCrO4
SrCrO4
CaCrO4
BaSO4
SrSO4
CaSO4

Hasil Kali Kelarutan

1,6 x 10-10
3,6 x 10-5
2,3 x 10-2
9,2 x10-11
2,8 x 10-7
2,3 x 10-4

Zat
BaCO3
SrCO3
CaCO3
BaC2O4
SrC2O4
CaC2O4

Hasil Kali Kelarutan

8,1 x 10-9
1,6 x 10-9
4,8 x 10-9
1,7 x 10-7
5,0 x 10-8
2,6 x 10-9

BaCrO4 hampir tidak larut dalam suasana asetat encer, sedangkan SrCrO4 dan CaCrO4 larut,
maka keduanya tidak diendapkan dalam suasana asam asetat encer.
Ba2+ + CrO4
2- BaCrO4 (s)
Dengan menambahakan larutan amonium sulfat jenuh dan memanaskannya maka sebagian
besar SrSO4 mengendap setelah didiamkan. Sedangkan ion Ca2+ mudah diidentifikasi dengan
mengendapkannya sebagai CaC2O4 disusul dengan uji nyala.
e. Golongan V (Golongan sisa)
Kation golongan V (Mg2+, Na+, K+dan NH4

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+). Untuk identifikasi ion-ion ini dapat

dilakukan dengan reaksi-reaksi khusus atau uji nyala, tetapi ion amonium tidak dapat
diperiksa dari filtrat IV.
Berikut ini contoh identifikasi kation-kation tersebut
Pb2+ : Dengan asam klorida encer membentuk endapan putih PbCl2 dalam larutan dingin
dan tidak terlalu encer. Endapan larut dalam air panas dan membentuk kristal seperti
jarum setelah larutan dingin kembali.
Hg2
2+ : Dengan asam klorida encer membentuk endapan putih Hg2Cl2. Endapan tidak larut
dalam air panas tapi larut dalam air raja.
Ag+ : Dengan asam klorida encer membentuk endapan putih AgCl. Endapan tidak larut
dalam air panas tapi larut dalam amonia encer karena membentuk kompleks
Ag(NH3)2
+. Asam nitrat encer dapat menetralkan kelebihan amonia sehingga
endapan dapat terbentuk kembali.
Hg2+ : Dengan menambahkan larutan KI secara perlahan-lahan akan membentuk endapan
merah HgI2, yang akan larut kembali dalam KI berlebih karena membentuk
kompleks [HgI4]2-.
Bi3+ : Dengan NaOH membentuk endapan putih Bi(OH)3 yang larut dalam asam.
Cu2+ : Dengan NaOH dalam larutan dingin membentuk endapan biru Cu(OH)2, yang tidak
larut dalam NaOH berlebih. Bila endapan tersebut dipanaskan akan terbentuk
endapan hitam CuO.
Cd2+ : Dengan H2S membentuk endapan kuning CdS, yang larut dalam asam pekat dan
tidak larut dalam KCN.
As3+ : Dengan tes Gutzeit akan terbentuk warna hitam pada kertas saring setelah dibiarkan
beberapa lama
Kertas saring yang dibasahi dengan larutan AgNO3
Kapas dibasahi dengan Pb(CH3COOH)2
H2SO4 encer dan larutan yang mengandung As3+
Zn
Gambar: Tes Gutzeit (Identifikasi As3+)
Sb3+ : Denga larutan NaOH atau NH3 membentuk endapan putih yang larut dalam larutan
basa alkali yang pekat (5M), membentuk antimonit.
Sn3+ : Dengan larutan NaOH membentuk endapan putih Sn(OH)2 yang larut dalam NaOH
berlebih. Dengan amonia mengendap sebagai hidroksida pula, tetapi tidak larut
dalam pereaksi berlebih.
http://docs.google.com
Kelarutan
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Belum Diperiksa
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Hubungan kelarutan dan suhu untuk beberapa jenis garam.

Kelarutan atau solubilitas adalah kemampuan suatu zat kimia tertentu, zat terlarut (solute), untuk larut dalam suatu
pelarut (solvent) [1]. Kelarutan dinyatakan dalam jumlah maksimum zat terlarut yang larut dalam suatu pelarut pada
kesetimbangan. Larutan hasil disebut larutan jenuh. Zat-zat tertentu dapat larut dengan perbandingan apapun terhadap
suatu pelarut. Contohnya adalah etanol di dalam air. Sifat ini lebih dalam bahasa Inggris lebih tepatnya disebut
miscible.
Pelarut umumnya merupakan suatu cairan yang dapat berupa zat murni ataupun campuran. Zat yang terlarut, dapat
berupa gas, cairan lain, atau padat. Kelarutan bervariasi dari selalu larut seperti etanol dalam air, hingga sulit terlarut,
seperti perak klorida dalam air. Istilah "tak larut" (insoluble) sering diterapkan pada senyawa yang sulit larut,
walaupun sebenarnya hanya ada sangat sedikit kasus yang benar-benar tidak ada bahan yang terlarut. Dalam beberapa
kondisi, titik kesetimbangan kelarutan dapat dilampaui untuk menghasilkan suatu larutan yang disebut lewat jenuh
(supersaturated) yang metastabil.
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelarutan
http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:bDstXooAq5wJ:203.190.188.132/download/ebook/makalah/Teknologi
%2520Elektrodeionisasi.pdf+Teknologi+Elektrodeionisasi+Kontinu+untuk+Proses+Rafinasi+
Gula&hl=id&gl=id&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiUSuHfQZCt966C9h40LvS5R0o4pe7cIlz6RtuAlfIbcalkq7RS5SWEupbDtt0EWdGeAlZF51qVFE1zgDIvLh1wzTO6ZbJiZWYpUjSKxYPNyr
JAkY2ekqAeZ9frjqr10dKmB6O&sig=AHIEtbS3eTyj4FbFeECrM8tTk6btH41i6g

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