news

Focus on Rock Engineering and Slope Stability

International slope stability research

No. 43
SRK Consultings
International
Newsletter

Clouds shroud Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea. High rainfall and over 700m high pit walls place this mine among the
largest open pits in the World

The never-ending quest to go further, faster and higher not only applies to professional sports and
space science, but is also a trend reflected in the mining industry.
As rich, near-surface mineral deposits are depleted
and environmental and social awareness grows,
mining operators move to greater depths, pit
slopes are getting higher, and modern technologies
are used to excavate rocks at a much faster pace
than ever before.
Similarly, the safety and economic consequences of
potential failure are becoming more significant and
the demand on design reliability is increasing. It is
not enough to defer the solution to the production
stage and hope to fix the problem on the run.
The Large Open Pit (LOP) project was one of
several international research projects that were
formed to address the mining industrys need
for more reliable design in new, challenging
environments. The LOP was spearheaded by
CSIRO, an Australian scientific and research
organisation, with several sponsors from the mining

industry. The project was supported by leading

industry experts and consulting houses, and SRK
was proud to participate. As stated by the LOP,
the focus was on the relationships between
rock mass strength and deformability.Innovative
geomechanics research is examining potential new
definitions of rock mass strength criteria, the effects
of pore pressures on slope failure mechanisms,
and how slope failures may develop and propagate
through the jointed rock mass.
After a number of years of international collaboration,
the LOP produced Guidelines for Open Pit Slope
Design, which were formally presented to the
mining and geotechnical community at the Slope
Stability 2009 Conference in Santiago Chile, and
have become an important tool within the modern
geotechnical engineers toolbox.
Jarek Jakubec: [email protected]

Geotechnical characterisation
The geological and geotechnical
models are foundations of any mine
design. These models could also be the
leading sources of technical risks for
mining projects. In order to minimise
these risks, it is necessary to reduce
the uncertainty in understanding the
geological context of the deposit.
With ever more sophisticated
computer tools, it is possible to tackle
more complex tasks in shorter times

Jarek Jakubec

arek Jakubec,
C. Eng has over 25
years of operating
and consulting
experience in
mining, geology and
rock mechanics,
including technical
and managerial
positions in operating mines in
Canada, Botswana and the Czech
Republic. As an SRK Engineer based
in Vancouver, Jarek has worked on 70
projects on all continents, completing
technical operational audits, and
due diligence studies, publishing
technical papers and speaking at
conferences. Jarek is also a Qualified
Person for 43-101 reporting.
Jarek Jakubec: [email protected]

than before. However, with advanced

computerisation, the mining industry
also faces challenges concerning many
designs that have been developed
in the office without appropriate
field data to support them and where
the interpretation of drilling and
mapping programs is poor. Today,
project presentations are rich in eyecatching graphics, illustrating in 3D the
geological models, stress distribution,
etc., and creating the impression
of reality and a full understanding
of problems. Unfortunately, these
impressions can often be misleading;
the presented results may lack
common geological and geotechnical
sense, or are simply wrong.
The significance of using the
appropriate geological and structural
model is not always appreciated in
characterising the geotechnical rock
mass, which is often undertaken
by engineers, not by geologists. On
the other hand, geologists usually
have a poor understanding of mine
design processes, while engineers
often disqualify the data collected at
exploration stages at more advanced
stages of the project. It is important to
make sure that all disciplines, geology,
geotechnical and mining engineering,
are fully integrated and that both
understand the mining method in order
to produce reliable characterisations
and increase confidence in the
geotechnical analyses, numerical
modelling and, finally, mine design.
Jarek Jakubec: [email protected]

MINING STUDIES, DESIGNS

$
DATA ANALYSIS,
NUMERICAL MODELLING

MINING STUDIES, DESIGNS

$
FIELD CHARACTERISATION
(CORE LOGGING, MAPPING)
$

DATA ANALYSIS,
NUMERICAL MODELLING
Geological and geotechnical field
characterisation are the foundation of
any mining study. If the characterisation
and data are wrong, the whole process of
mine design could fail.
2

Hazard identification: Best in class. Chuquicamata

he word risk is widely used when

people perceive a hazardous event,
resulting in widely different perceptions
of risk. The technical definition of risk as
used in geotechnical engineering is:
Risk = P(event) x Consequences.
Slope design for large open-pit mines
presents unique challenges to the
engineer that are captured in the oftquoted maxim that the objective is
to have the slope fail the day after the
last truckload of ore leaves the pit rim.
This infers that the maximum benefit
has been extracted from the mineral
resource. The engineer, however, has
to provide a design that is functional
and economic at an acceptable risk.
The great attraction of the geotechnical
discipline is that it relies on different
engineering, geological and hydrogeological disciplines to achieve the
stated objectives.
Uncertainty and variability of properties
within a rock mass provides the first
challenge: How much data do we need

Risk aware!!!

Oskar Steffen

to adequately describe the rock mass

properties? Codes for data adequacy
have been established for the minerals
industry to define the geological
certainty. SRK has used that same logic
and applied it to geotechnical data, since
this is also derived from the geological
environment. Early in the study program,
geotechnical data requirements for
different study levels can be defined
using logic diagrams to determine
the relative importance of different
parameters. Effort and cost can then be
focused on the more critical parameters,
instead of the common populate the
database procedures.
This approach to geotechnical data
collection has provided a rigorous
process that allows exploration
programs to be rationalised and costjustified. While experienced judgment,
embraced in the definition of the
competent person, remains the anchor
to success, the process suggested
enhances such judgment decisions.

Benchmarking data and processes

against practical experience of slope
performance is of paramount importance
for defining the different levels of
confidence, namely, levels that are
measured, indicated and inferred.
SRK has embarked upon a systematic
recording of information quality at
different sites onto data templates to
improve the estimates of data required
for different classes of geological
complexity.
These issues lie at the core of the
engineers ethos to produce a design
that can be termed functional and
economic at an acceptable risk. For this
reason, risk valuation in geotechnics
must be upgraded to a quantified
status as practiced in other engineering
disciplines. SRK has adopted this
concept of risk engineering, instead of
risk assessment that follows after the
engineering design.
Oskar Steffen: [email protected]

r Oskar Steffen, a
corporate consultant
with over 40 years
experience in the
international mining
industry, is one of the
founders of the SRK
group. With a PhD
in Engineering and a
Masters Degree in Civil Engineering, he
places special emphasis on geotechnical
and mine planning aspects of open pit
mines. Oskar has been involved in open
pit planning and design; rock and soil
slope stability for road and rail cuttings
and strip mines, and surface mining
geotechnics, including slimes and tailings
dam investigation and design. He applies
probability techniques in geotechnical
engineering to slope failure analysis or
strip stability investigations and slope
design for coal strip mines and open pit
mines internationally.
Oskar Steffen: [email protected]

3D modelling structurally controlled

weak rock masses using blockiness

jeff price

eff has over

20 years experience
in civil and
mining geological
engineering and
a PhD in fracture
hydromechanics. His
expertise includes
investigation and
design for open pit mines, tailings
storage, and open pit and underground
numerical modelling, especially for
slope depressurisation and open pitunderground interaction for projects in
Australasia, Russia and the former Soviet
Union, South America and Africa. He is
the Head of the SRK Perth Geotechnical
Department, which includes teams
covering mining geomechanics, tailings
and heap leach engineering and mining
hydrology and hydrogeology.
Jeff Price: [email protected]

Velocity contour plot superimposed on oblique pit view looking north-northeast

esign of deep open pits in structurally

complex, weak deformable rock
masses is a challenge. Recently, SRK
in conjunction with HTA Consulting,
engaged in assessing the slope stability
for such a proposed pit. Experience
has shown that incorporation of the
Geotechnical Blockiness Index (GBI)
within the 3D geotechnical domain
model improves our ability to simulate
pit design performance.
The digital geotechnical domain model,
developed by project staff and HTA,
consisted of four classifications:
lithology, oxidation state, alteration and
GBI. The rock mass was divided into
design sectors based on Mohr-Coulomb
properties and ubquitous jointing,
extensive laboratory testing and field
investigation. The figure at right shows
variability in the distribution of different
material types.
The numerical codes Slide, Phase2
and FLAC3D were used to assess
potential instability. This staged
approach raised confidence in the
controlling instability mechanisms and
4

the interaction of 3D confinement on

slope performance. Applying strength
reduction factors (SRF) to the FLAC3D
solution also demonstrated the
potential development and extent of
open pit instability. The figure above
indicates zones of velocities with cool
colors referring to low, warm colors
to moderate, and white color, high
velocities.
The FLAC3D runs incorporated
rock mass and fabric variability to
assess the sensitivity of the slope
response. Comparison of the 2D and
3D models allowed a re-evaluation of
the expected rock mass performance
so that the model results could be
applied realistically to the slope design
accounting for pit concavity.
Conclusions from the study indicated:
T
 he application of the GBI improved
the quality of the geotechnical data
set and enabled better definition of
areas of poor rock mass quality
T
 he use of 3D modelling to assess
the critical design criteria, using

Estimating rock mass strength

E

stimating rock mass strength

(RMS) remains one of the challenges
facing rock mechanics practitioners.
The infinite variability of geology,
weathering and alteration processes,
the influence of mining and the inability
to test rock mass strength directly,
all pose great challenges to making
reliable estimates. The experience
of the practitioner, therefore, plays a
crucial role in such estimates.
Although the problem with estimating
RMS is not yet solved, in recent years
another approach was developed
that helps to provide more realistic
estimates and generate and evaluate
what if scenarios. This approach is
called synthetic rock mass (SRM) and
was pioneered by Itasca Consulting.
It involves calibrating small-scale
specimen strength, developing
digitized detailed models of fracture
and other defects called discrete
fracture network (DFN) and estimating
defect strength.
detailed geotechnical and structural
domain model, provided a sound
basis for a reassessment of the
slope design

Intact Rock
(Bonded spheres in
Particle Flow Code)

In close collaboration with Itasca, SRK

used this approach on several worldclass projects as input for further
analysis, such as investigating block
cave fragmentation. This approach is
crucial, especially in rock masses that
contain numerous defects such as
microfractures, veinlets and cemented
joints. It is encouraging to see that the
results of SRM models are compatible
with the empirical method of estimating
rock block and rock mass strength
developed by Dr Dennis Laubscher,
author of one of the widely used
rock mass classifications systems, in
collaboration with SRK in 2000.
Practical experience gained from
SRM analysis on mining operations
and projects gives SRK a significant
advantage in assessing rock mass
strength more realistically than in the
past using traditional industry tools.
Jarek Jakubec: [email protected]

Joints
(DFN)

3
 D and 2D analyses were used
to simulate slope performance
and provide guidance on pit slope
design. 3D analysis show an
increase in SRF, compared to the 2D
analyses (typically 20 to 30% higher)
F
 LAC3D results were used to
review the existing 2D slope design
parameters resulting in steeper
than recommended slope geometry
Jeff Price: [email protected]

Synthetic rock mass application for a jointed copper porphyry deposit

FLAC3D model cross-section showing

cohesion in kPa, looking west
5

Rock
Mass

Itabirite iron ore bodies:

Generic geotechnical models
SRK

has recently been involved at

the feasibility and pre-feasibility level
studies on a number of large-scale iron
ore projects in west and central Africa
and Brazil. Experience across these
locations has highlighted a number of
similarities that should be considered
when generating a geotechnical model
in itabirites.
In the weathered horizon, itabirites
are characterised by strong iron bands
and weaker silica bands resulting in a
significant degree of anisotropy, where

Alice Jack

Alice Jack is

a Geotechnical
Engineer with six
years experience
in exploration and
mining geotechnics
in Europe, Asia and
Africa, including
civil engineering
geotechnics and foundation design
experience both abroad and in the glacial
and coal measure rocks of South Wales.
Her expertise includes limit equilibrium and
the analysis and design of finite element
slope stability, seismic, structural and
kinematic analysis, underground rock
mechanics, assessing and conceptualizing
rock and soil masses, geological and
geotechnical mapping, borehole core
logging and geotechnical data collection
and interpretation, training of site
personnel, site and project management.
Alice Jack: [email protected]

materials react differently to stresses

applied in the direction of banding. It is
therefore important to determine if this
banding is consistent in terms of direction,
which can often be seen to run parallel
to the footwall contact if this contact is
conformable or of a similar nature. By
contrast, material that is unweathered or
strongly foliated can be very strong and
produce massive block sizes, intersected
by unfavourable discontinuity sets.
The process of ore formation and depth
of leaching can have a significant impact
on the state of the silica banding within
the itabirites and their subsequent
geotechnical behaviour, as well as the
behaviour of the surrounding waste
rocks. The itabirites can form a boundary
protecting the surrounding waste rock
from the processes involved in the
ore formation. For example, in itabirite
deposits in Guinea, there is a strong
correlation between the friability of
the itabirite and the degradation of the
surrounding phyllitic waste rocks.
Due to the massive size of these
itaboritic ore bodies, and the drilling
problems associated with them
particularly in tropical regions, it is often
difficult to gain the desired degree of
structural information. Phyllitic and
ampholitic marker horizons within the
itabirites can be seen on geophysical
gamma-gamma logs and can be
correlated between boreholes which
can prove useful in interpreting largescale macro structure and determining
lithological offsets, particularly where
there is little surface exposure.
Alice Jack: [email protected]

apid development techniques

maximise activity at the tunnel face
and advance completion rates without
compromising safety. Good project
planning should prepare for both
expected ground conditions and
unexpected variations in the rock mass
to be excavated. This will reduce delays
and mitigate the effect of poor ground
conditions, which can slow advance
rates by 50%.
It is no surprise that poor ground
slows advance rates. For example, the
industry-leading development practices
at Newcrests Cadia East operation in
New South Wales produced better than
average advance rates in the access
decline. Rapid development rates of
over 8 m/day were achieved using
longer drilling rounds and emulsion
explosives, but the project still suffered
low advance rates of less than 3 m/day
as a consequence of poor ground.
Investment in a rapid development
program is usually justified to realise
higher Net Present Value for a project.
The risk of not being able to excavate
the rock mass as planned can result in
inadequate prediction and preparation
to deal with the actual ground types
encountered.
A Ground Control Management Plan
(GCMP) created from site investigation
data can mitigate this risk. An active
GCMP uses data collected prior to and
during excavation. The aim is to predict
ground conditions and select design
control methods through a structured
risk management approach.
Confidence in predictive models
increases with geological, structural
and geotechnical mapping, and ground
behaviour monitoring. Feedback is
essential to keep the GCMP live.

Itabirite outcrop in the Caitite deposit Brazil

6

Safe and rapid development for major

underground mines: Trends for the future

Mine development plan

zoned by ground support
classification

Ko b u s d u P l oo y

Kobus du Plooy,

BSc, GDE, Pr.Sci.

Nat, MIEAust is a
Senior Geotechnical
Engineer with 16
years experience
in the mining
industry, combined
with geotechnical
consulting experience. Kobus started
his career in the rock engineering
department of AngloGold-Ashanti, where
he gained valuable experience in the
areas of shallow to deep level hard-rock
mining. He started his consulting career
with SRK Consulting (South Africa) in 2000
and also worked for Brentley, Lucas and
Associates before joining SRK Consulting
(Australasia) in 2007. In recent years,
Kobus has been involved in projects in
Australia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Siberia
and South Africa.
Kobus du Plooy: [email protected]

Tim McGurk
The Modified Rock Mass
Rating (MRMR) system is
one of the tools than can
help to identify zones, based
on similar ground behaviour.

im McGurk is
Principal Mining
Engineer with 20
years experience in
underground mine
design, production,
construction and
management.
His operational
experience includes stope and fill,
sub-level caving and room and pillar in
zinc, gold, nickel and silica operations.
He was responsible for mine production
and development, including decline
access to around 800 vertical metres at
Black Swan Nickel Mine. For Rio Tinto
and SRK since 2008, he reviewed and
managed scoping and pre-feasibility
studies for diamond, copper, gold and
industrial minerals.

Rapid development ground

control can include techniques
such as phased installation of
ground support and drilling short
rounds. Common practice, such as
pattern rock bolting, meshing and
shotcreting, could be complemented
with practices such as setting arches
and stabilisation grouting.
In conclusion, it was proven that
active Ground Control Management
Planning has an essential role in all
rapid development projects.
Kobus du Plooy: [email protected]
Tim McGurk: [email protected]

Tim McGurk: [email protected]

Bruce Murphy

ruce Murphy is a
Principal Consultant
in SRKs Vancouver
office with over 20
years experience
in operational
and consulting
environments,
both in open-pit
and underground
rock engineering. He specialises in
establishing the geotechnical and mining
context of existing and potential deposits
by integrating structural geology, rock
mass characterisation and considering
hydrogeology, permafrost and existing
excavation performance. Bruce has
worked on many projects in Canada,
the US, South America, Africa, Russia,
Kyrgyzstan and Indonesia.
Bruce Murphy: [email protected]

I n t r od u c i n g
Scott Carlisle

Scott Carlisle, M.S.,

P. Eng., is a Principal
Consultant in rock
mechanics and
mining. He has 18
years experience in
underground mining
operations and civil
construction and 12
years in consulting. As a rock mechanics
practitioner, he has a wide range of
experience, including risk assessment,
strategic planning, high stress mining,
mine method selection and design,
stope design and sequencing, crown
pillars, rock failure investigations, rock
support, instrumentation and modelling.
Scott participates in mining and rock
mechanics research activities in Canada.
Scott Carlisle: [email protected]

Mining challenges in permafrost

environments

Portal location for the underground exploration decline

The Kumtor gold project is located

in the mountainous terrain of the
Tien Shan Mountains in the Kyrgyz
Republic, at an altitude of around
4000m. The mean annual temperature
is minus 8C.
Locating and designing an exploration
decline to access and explore the
mineralised horizon below the operating
open pit proved to be a challenging
experience as a result of poor ground
conditions, widespread glaciation and
location of the waste dumps. Once
the location of decline was chosen,
the team faced several engineering
design challenges including weather,
permafrost and a drop-cut within a
glacial moraine with ice lenses.
The mine geology consists of four
major thrust slices. The slice hosting
the mineralisation is composed of
phyllites that are strongly folded
and schistose. The footwall contact
of this structural segment is the
well-developed and weak Kumtor
Fault Zone. The adjacent rocks in its
hangingwall are strongly affected
by shearing and faulting for several
hundred meters.
8

For many reasons, starting the decline

near the glacier, within the constricted ore
zone was considered the most favorable
option, in particular, since it would reach
the more competent ground of the
hangingwall units more quickly.
An Armtec Multi-Plate tunnel support
was to be installed within the drop-cut
and covered with engineered fill to
protect the decline access from slope
instability, snow falls and possible
avalanches. Ice lenses within the moraine
could affect the stability of the slopes
and the Armtec tunnel foundation, where
heated air would be drawn underground.
To keep the Armtec foundation frozen,
thermosyphons were installed to cool the
ground when the ambient air is colder
than the subsurface.
The SRK team developed site-specific
rock classes based on the GSI and NGI
Tunnelling Quality Index (Q) classification
systems. The rock mass conditions
range from Fair to a Very Poor rating in
graphitic phyllite near fault structures.
A site specific system was selected
to better characterise and differentiate
the weaker rock masses. Following
a full geotechnical evaluation, four

Shea Creek uranium project

The Shea Creek Project, owned jointly
by AREVA Resources Canada Inc. and
UEX Corporation, with AREVA acting
as project operator, is an advanced
uranium project located approximately
700km NNW of Saskatoon and
approximately 30km east of the Alberta
border, within the western Athabasca
Basin of northern Saskatchewan. The
property is underlain by two dominant
lithologies: metamorphic basement
rocks of Archean and Paleoproterozoic
granitoid, covered by Proterozoic
flat-lying to shallow-dipping, postmetamorphic quartz sandstone.

support classes were developed ranging

from conventional bolt, screen and
shotcrete, to spilling and steel arch (full
invert) support. Using the Rocscience
software Phase2 a squeezing ground
assessment was undertaken, with steel
set and shotcrete support simulated as a
composite liner.
Since the support materials and
installation processes needed to function
within the initial cold permafrost ground
temperatures, choices included an
oil-based rebar resin, and a customised
shotcrete mixture that used heated
aggregate and high water temperatures.

Uranium mineralisation is of the

unconformity-associated uranium
deposit type. It occurs 710 to 740
meters below the current surface
and beneath the thick sequence
of Athabasca Group sandstone.
Three styles of mineralisation are
encountered, based on their position
adjacent to the Athabasca unconformity,
and overall morphology. They comprise
unconformity-hosted, basement-hosted,
and perched uranium mineralisation.
Uranium mineralisation is associated
with extensive clay alteration, which
affects the lower sandstone and
extends into the basement rocks.
SRK evaluated and refined an existing
structural site model to define the
potential risks to a conceptual stage

underground mine design. SRK then

incorporated the analysis of drillcore
data and photos, 3D geological
modelling, whole-rock geochemistry,
and geophysics to evaluate the potential
structures, which are blind at surface.
During the studies four generations
of faults were identified, each with
individual fill, roughness, strength, and
permeability characteristics, including
previously unidentified faults that may
affect uranium distribution.
James Siddorn: [email protected]

J a m e s S i ddo r n

ames Siddorn,
PhD, PGeo,
is a Principal
Structural
Geologist with
SRKs Toronto
office. He is a
specialist in
the structural
analysis of ore
deposits, focused on deciphering
the deposit scale controls on ore
plunge, geotechnical domains, and
hydrogeological pathways. James has
extensive underground and surface
mapping experience and broad mining
experience in conventional and
mechanised underground mining. He
has spent 15 years in the structural
analysis and 3D geological modelling
of Au, Ni-Cu-PGE, Ag, U3O8, tantalum,
and diamond deposits.
James Siddorn: [email protected]

With a moving glacier and waste dump

material on the surface, it was extremely
difficult to produce a full geotechnical
evaluation along the proposed
path of the decline. To manage the
geotechnical risk, the team developed
a comprehensive process of cover
and probe drilling and monitoring of
excavation and support performance.
SRK, as part of a multi-disciplinary team
helped develop this complex design.
Bruce Murphy: [email protected]

3D fault network with the Athabasca sandstone unconformity, Shea Creek

9

Integrating structural geology and

geotechnics, Los Caracoles Dam
T

he Los Caracoles is a 140m high

hydropower water dam, located in San
Juan Province, Argentina, in an arid
region of high seismic activity. The
spillway system consists of two large
parallel tunnels while the gateway
structure is formed by two twin boxes,
each 30m high, excavated in the
upstream slope of the abutment.
Natural stability relies in the continuity
of the rock layers along the entire
slope and into the foundation levels
but this continuity would be altered
by the gateway excavation. Design
countermeasures were necessary to
keep the slope stable.
Soon after the excavation started,
fractures appeared on the shotcreted
slope surface, the excavation face, and
the rock buttress. The job was halted
and SRK was called in. The photo below
shows the excavation and buttress
status at that time.
SRK performed a thorough site
inspection and detailed analysis of
all conceivable failure modes and
determined that, due to the shape
of the buttress and lack of lateral
confinement, the secondary joints or
fractures had been activated so the rock
mass slipped along them. The outcome
was that secondary joints, other than
the bedding planes, had been activated
due to the shape of the buttress and
lack of lateral confinement. A second
reinforcing bolt system (passive,

grouted rockbolts made with rebars)

perpendicular to the original one, was
designed and installed inmediately,
and the excavation was continued and
completed successfully.
Another challenge was the design of
the gateway. The gateway is a critical
component of the spillway, and must
remain operative after an earthquake.
It was feared that the slope would
displace further during an earthquake,
deform the concrete structure and
block the gateway.
When dynamic slope stability analyses
were performed to address this
concern, SRK found that two large
blocks were potentially unstable. For
the first block, a step-by-step dynamic
Newmark analysis showed that the
support system would need to carry
650 MN to assure that its displacement
during the shake was compatible with
operating the gates. Two large concrete
buttresses were built near the rock
buttress, both confining it laterally and
carrying part of the huge load.
Unfortunately, the 250 MN second
block does not contact either the
rock or the concrete buttress. Twenty
prestressed permanent anchors were
designed and installed to reduce
displacement. After this design change,
the project was completed and works
successfully.
Alejo Sfriso: [email protected]

Standing on footwall of open pit coal mine, Colombia

or pit slope design, geotechnical

data is typically collected by mapping
the benches to supplement data
collected from boreholes. Where an
open pit has been in operation for
some years, bench faces are often
difficult to access and, increasingly,
access is being restricted to reduce
the risk of exposure to rockfall
hazards. In order to address these
issues, photogrammetry is being used
more frequently.
SRK Consulting (UK) Ltd has
acquired the expertise to undertake
photogrammetric surveys using the
Sirovision system developed by
CSIRO Australia. Besides purchasing
the data manipulation and analysis
software, SRK has invested in the
photographic and survey equipment
needed to collect the data.
SRK has previously used Sirovision
successfully on a number of open-pit
projects. In Colombia, South America,

Upstream face of Los Caracoles and excavation for the spillway tunnels
10

Xander Gwynn

Xander Gwynn

Use of photogrammetric mapping

techniques for slope stability

holds a BSc (Hons) in

Engineering Geology
and Geotechnics
(ACSM) and has
been studying for
a PhD in Earth
Resources at the
Camborne School
of Mines, University
of Exeter. He joined SRK in April 2008
and is currently finishing his PhD thesis.
Xander previously worked offshore
in the oil industry after completing his
undergraduate degree. He specialises
in the geotechnical characterisation of
rock masses using photogrammetric
mapping methods. Xanders PhD focuses
on the assessment and advancement of
digital remote data capture techniques
for natural and man-made slopes. He is
now applying his PhD expertise for SRK
and is able to undertake Sirovision
photogrammetric mapping for various
open-pit, end-use applications.
Xander Gwynn: [email protected]

SRKs brief was to carry out a slope

design optimisation study for a cut
back of an open-pit coal mine that
would increase the height of the
highwall from 150m to 250m. As part
of this study, during a five-day site
visit, Sirovision was used to:
Map large-scale geological
structures on the existing highwall.
For this the camera set up was
positioned at the footwall slope
crest about 400m from the highwall
Capture bench scale structural
data for use in detailed kinematic
analysis from close range (4m-10m)
In conjunction with the large-scale
mapping, detailed physical properties
of over 1200 individual discontinuity
occurrences were obtained from
selected bench face locations. These
properties included:
Three dimensional location of
features

Orientation (dip/dip direction)

Trace lengths/plane area (also used
to calculate joint persistence)

A l e jo S f r i so

Large-scale joint surface roughness

Termination indexes (to ascertain
feature chronology)
Fracture set spacing
Sirovision allowed the rapid collection
of a large data set of new structural
information, saving the client time and
money over more traditional methods
of geotechnical data collection. The
structural data collected, together with
the incorporation of newly measured
faults into the geotechnical model,
provided for robust and statisticallysound kinematic analysis of the
proposed new highwall pit slope
design. The 3D positional information
of the coal seams and other geological
boundaries allowed the geological
model to be verified and updated.
Xander Gwynn: [email protected]

lejo, Principal
Geotechnical
Engineer, is
managing director
for SRK (Argentina).
Concurrently, he
serves as Professor
of Soil Mechanics
and Head of the
Geomechanics Group
at the University of Buenos Aires. His
academic and professional experience
is reflected in the many papers he has
authored and delivered at conferences
worldwide. For SRK, Alejo and his
team focus on optimising construction
processes, providing expert consultancy
in geotechnical engineering, tunnel
design, soil-structure interaction and
computational geomechanics.
Alejo Sfriso: [email protected]

11

Assessing geotechnical management

using the Ground Blockiness Index (GBI)

DAMANG FAULT

Location plan of the Damang pit layout in April 2009

isk management and risk assessment

are important processes, and should
be applied to both the development of
mining studies and the implementation
of designs. SRK has completed a risk
assessment as part of the cutback
feasibility study and practical design for
the Damang pit in Ghana.

East and West Wall domains as Good,

Fair and Poor in green, yellow and red,
respectively. The rock mass conditions
were extrapolated where similar
conditions were assessed as likely
to be encountered. The approximate
water level is shown by the light blue
colored infill.

For operational risk management,

reliable field data needs to be
collected. By using the Geotechnical
Blockiness Index (GBI) in our field
mapping, SRK applied a rapid
rock mass characterisation tool to
accelerate assessment at Damang.

The Good rock zone comprises

sandstone and, locally, dolerite, where
it has been intruded along bedding
structures. The domain fabric typically
comprises large blocky to massive, very
thin, widely-spaced bedding shears with
occasional minor wedge or planar failure.

The GBI concept, developed by Diane

Walker and Ian de Bruyn of SRK
(Perth) in 2006 classifies the rock
mass according to 8 categories of
block size and rock mass texture. It
has the additional benefit that direct
access to the face is not required.

The Fair rock mass zone exposes the

steeply dipping Damang Fault. The
rock mass quality generally appears
similar to the Good domain, although
the presence of the fault provides
a zone of persistent sub-vertical
structural weakness.

Rock mass domains were derived

from field observations, which were
related to locations shown in the
adjacent site plan. The location plan
(left) shows the shows the principal

The Poor domain corresponds to the

zone where bedding shears and faults
intersect with reduced block size,
variable bedding dip and the flatter
westerly dipping joints and shears.

12

UDEC modelling
T

he Universal Distinct Element Code

(UDEC), developed by the ITASCA
Consulting Group, is a distinctive
element program for discontinuum
modelling. UDEC simulates the
response of discontinuous media
(different rock types) when they are
subjected to either static or dynamic
loading. Linear or non-linear forcedisplacement causes movement in
both normal and shear directions.
SRK used UDEC modelling on
part of the east pit of a gold mine
in western China to gain a better
understanding of the mechanical
behavior of the rocks in the two main
joint sets encountered in the east
wall, when the upper pit is excavated
sequentially, and to provide a basis for
the design of the final pit.
Two cases were modelled:

View of Damang cutback looking south

The risk assessment incorporated the

results of the GBI mapping with the
Abosso Goldfields risk-assessment
methodology. Geotechnical hazards
were considered in terms of the
consequences of slope failure. The
principal hazards for the Damang Pit
relate to the perceived instability of
slope elements at decreasing scale
(from the whole slope to an individual
bench), including whether there
was a ramp at risk, and according to
slope material (oxide, weathered or
unweathered rock).
The Damang cutback is generally
situated within strong rock.
Blockiness variability within the
main pit walls represents an
important structural control on bench
performance. The approach adopted
presents a robust field technique
that allowed identification of
common geotechnical domains, and
categorisation and definition of risk
mitigation measures.

Model 1: Includes only one set, 1m

continuous
Model 2: Includes both sets, 1m
continuous and 4m discontinuous
It was assumed that the horizontal
and vertical stresses are equal
and are caused purely by their
own weight. A strength reduction
technique was used to evaluate the
factor of safety (FOS). The material

strength was reduced to a level

where the pit becomes unstable and
failure develops. Figure 1 shows
the point where the slope becomes
unstable, providing clues to the likely
mechanical behavior of the pit walls
as the pit is gradually deepened.
Yonglian Sun: [email protected]

Yo n g l i a n S u n

Dr Yonglian Sun

is a Principal
Consultant with over
20 years experience
in geotechnical
engineering, rock
mechanics and
mining engineering.
He has worked in
five countries across four continents. His
considerable experience emphasizes
site investigation, analysis and modelling
of geotechnical issues in open pits,
underground mines and tunnels, and
evaluating mining projects. Yonglian
established the SRK (China) Beijing office
in 2005 and 49 full-time employees now
provide technical review, exploration
management and audits, design, scoping
and feasibility studies on mining projects.
Yonglian Sun: [email protected]

Figure 1: Factor of safety (FOS = 2.05)

5.50

UDEC (Version 4.00)

5.00

LEGEND
22-Aug-06 8:18
cycle 207101
time = 1.247E+02 sec
table plot
3.30E-01 stab 301>5.05E+00 _____
Vs.
1.00E+00<X value>2.20E+00

4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40

Jeff Price: [email protected]

SRK Consulting China Ltd
Beijing China

13

Antamina geological modelling, Peru

The Antamina Cu-Zn mine which
lies in the high Andes of Peru,
270km north of Lima, is operated by
Compaa Minera Antamina S.A., for a
consortium of owners including BHP
Billiton, Xstrata, Teck Resources, and
Mitsubishi Ltd. An expansion of the
mine has been recently approved which
takes advantage of a 75% increase in
reserves; the current extraction rate of
94,000 tonnes/day will be increased

S a l l y G ood m a n

Sally Goodman,

PhD, PGeo, is a
Principal Consultant
with SRKs Toronto
office. She has
over 20 years
experience in the
structural analysis
of complex areas.
Her key skill is
integrating the structural framework
with diverse data sets to reconstruct
the spatial and temporal development of
mineralising systems. She applies this
skill to ranking project targets, optimising
drill-testing, resource estimation, grade
control and geotechnical studies in
Europe, North and South America.
Sally has taught geology at McGill and
Concordia Universities, Montreal.
Sally Goodman: [email protected]

by 38% by 2012, with a corresponding

extension of the mine life to 2029.
With a rapidly expanding open pit in
mountainous terrain, it is imperative
to have a good understanding of the
structural and lithological architecture,
to ensure continuing safe and profitable
extraction of the orebody.
Since 2004, SRK has been involved in
producing and updating a 3D model
of the major structures in the vicinity
of the open pit. The current model
comprises 60 structures in 6 suites of
faults, characterised by their initiation
and development history, continuity
and geotechnical characteristics. A 3D
LeapfrogTM geological model produced
from drillhole data shows the distribution
of the major rock types encountered
during pit development, including
intrusive rocks, endoskarn and exoskarn,
hornfels, marble and limestone, as
illustrated and explained below.
The combined structural and
lithological models have been used
for a variety of purposes, including
geological and geotechnical evaluations
and hydrogeological studies. As
development of the mine proceeds,
updated information will continually be
used to revise and refine the structural
geological model.
Sally Goodman: [email protected]

LeapfrogTM model of
distribution of intrusive
rocks (pink), endoskarn
(brown), exoskarn (green),
hornfels (light blue), marble
and limestone (dark blue),
domained to a future pit shell,
to show distribution of rock
type in pit walls

14

Left: Wedge failure resulting in closure of the pit

Right: Pit and general surface arrangement

he Koidu Kimberlite Project is

situated in the Kono District of Sierra
Leone, approximately 330 km east of
the capital city, Freetown. The mining
lease area is 4km2 and comprises
two kimberlite pipes, four dyke zones
and a number of blows off the dykes.
In 2003, Koidu Holdings established
operations on the property and
began dewatering and removing silt
from the existing 30m excavation
of the No.1 Pipe. While the original
planning for the pipes included
conventional open pit operations,
mitigating factors such as the
proximity of the town, the presence
of houses close to the perimeter
of the pit, the size of the kimberlite
pipe and the planned open pit depth,
combined with relevant stripping
ratios and uncertainties on the
grades concerning an underground
operation, lent themselves to the
vertical pit concept. A diagram
showing the comparison of a
conventional pit and vertical pit is
included as Figure 1.

Koidu vertical pit, Sierra Leone

P e t e r T e r b r u gg e

Peter Terbrugge, a

Principal Engineering
Geologist, has over
40 years experience
in engineering
geology, rock
slope stability,
site investigations
and tunnelling. His
expertise includes open pit slope design
for large copper mines, diamond mines,
gold mines and iron ore mines; feasibility
studies; the design of remedial measures
to maintain access in critical areas, civil
engineering projects.
Peter Terbrugge: [email protected]

Elevation

Surface

391m

Elevation

Surface

391m

350m
345m
335m

Old pit floor

Blast 1
335m Cut

350m
339m

310m

310m Cut

310m

Vertical Pit
collar

Vertical Pit
270m Cut

270m
Cut

Ore Tonnes

Waste Tonnes

Strip Ratio

335m Cut
310m Cut
270m Cut

79,400
158,000
317,000

488,000
1,000,000
4,300,000

6.2
6.3
13.6

265m
Cut

339m Cut
Collar Devel.
Vertical Pit

Ore Tonnes

Waste Tonnes

Strip Ratio

54,200

485,000
845,600
358,000

9.6

551,000

0.65

Figure 1: Comparison of the open pit and vertical pit scenarios

The vertical pit was established

using an A-frame headgear for the
hoisting arrangement, with sidewall
support comprising a combination
of cable anchors 20m and 40m
long, rock bolts, wire mesh and
pneumatically applied concrete. The
pit reached steady state production
in January 2007 and produced some
26,000 tonnes of head feed per
month until August 2007, when

mining reached a depth of 74m

below the pit collar (approximately
126m below surface). Mining was
suspended following a sidewall
failure that disrupted operations.
Now that the grades in No.1 Pipe
have been validated, the focus
has switched to an underground
operation taking account of both
No. 1 Pipe and No. 2 Pipe.

15

While the mining costs for the

vertical pit have been higher than for
a conventional open pit, the concept
did circumvent the social implications,
the issue of grade consistency and
diamond value at depth; it also
provided the time to carry out a full
underground mining study.
Peter Terbrugge: [email protected]

Ian de Bruyn

Numerical analyses for evaluating pit wall

and underground stability at Ok Tedi

an de Bruyn has
15 years experience
in the geotechnical
engineering field,
over a wide range
of projects in both
the mining and civil
engineering sectors.
He has strong
expertise in geotechnical assessment
and in providing design parameters
for open pit mining operations. He
has worked on projects involving very
large pits in challenging rock mass
conditions. He is well versed in rock mass
characterisation and domain modelling
for input into fragmentation analysis, the
selection of mining method and support
design for underground mines. Ians
projects have involved site investigation,
characterisation, analysis, evaluation,
design, risk assessment and reporting at
all levels from conceptual through prefeasibility, feasibility and working design.
Ian de Bruyn: [email protected]

Jim cremeens

im Cremeens
has over 20 years
experience in
geotechnical
engineering,
primarily related to
the mining industry.
He has managed
large multidisciplinary projects,
both domestically and internationally. His
areas of expertise include surface rock
mechanics, heap leach facility design,
and mine reclamation. Jim is a registered
professional engineer in Colorado
and New York, and is a registered
professional geologist in Wyoming.

The southeast pit wall at Ok Tedi

staged numerical analysis program

was conducted for the final pit
and proposed underground mining
excavations at Ok Tedi Mine in
Papua, New Guinea. The analyses
were conducted to evaluate the
performance of the final east and
west pit walls, and the stability of
the underground mining excavations
beneath these walls, as mining
progresses. These evaluations were
intended to facilitate the design
and to assist with decision-making
concerning the viability of the
underground mining project.
The mine is situated in a complex
geological setting including faulted and
highly altered rock in an area that is
seismically active and that is subject to
very high rainfall. Detailed geotechnical
characterisation and hydrogeological
modelling was therefore carried out
to provide accurate input for the
numerical analyses.

Jim Cremeens: [email protected]

16

The numerical analyses were

performed while the most suitable
mining methods were still being
assessed, and therefore the analysis
had to be flexible in method and
application. The initial method selected
was two-dimensional distinct element
analysis using UDEC software for
evaluating pit wall stability throughout
the underground mining sequences.
However, it became evident that
certain mining geometries were not
amenable to satisfactory analysis
in two dimensions. Therefore, SRK
performed three-dimensional finite
difference analyses using FLAC3D
to investigate pit wall and rock mass
stability and the effectiveness of
prospective stabilisation measures.
In addition, SRK performed boundary
element modelling to rapidly assess
the likely extent and magnitude of
stress concentrations within the rock
mass.

Blasting program optimises pit slope

performance
Barton Mines, a garnet mining operation
in upstate New York, contracted SRK
to conduct a slope stability evaluation
of the active Ruby Mountain pit. Three
geotechnical coreholes were planned,
along with cell mapping of the pit
exposures to provide data for the
slope stability analyses. During our site
investigation, it became apparent that
rock mass characteristics would not limit
the slope design. The rock was relatively
uniform lithology, and of relatively high
strength. SRK recommended against
drilling the third geotechnical corehole,
because the uniformity of the rock mass
observed in the first two coreholes
indicated that collecting more data
would not significantly affect design
recommendations.

An Open Benching mining method

was originally considered, with the
remainder of the ore then to be mined
out by these underground methods:
Sub Level Caving beneath the east
and southwest pit walls, and Block
Caving beneath the central west
pit wall. Subsequent to the first
phase of numerical analyses, it was
decided that only underground mining
methods would be used.

SRK also observed that the slope

instability in the Ruby Mountain pit was
due primarily to failure of the blocks of
rock created by a more or less randomlyoriented fracture system, characteristic
of blast induced damage. The instability
was not necessarily consistent with
the tectonic rock structures observed.
Based on these observations and
given the high rock strength and
favorable orientation of structures, SRK
recommended that a full-scale pit slope

Conclusions were reached concerning

the risk and scale of slope failure
resulting from the underground / pit
wall stress interactions. SRK assessed
measures to mitigate the failure of
slopes and underground excavations,
including using rock-fill to minimise
underground voids, and leaving
stabilising pillars within the orebody.
Ian de Bruyn: [email protected]

Recent photo of Barton Pit

17

evaluation was not warranted. Instead,

a review of the blasting design was
considered.
SRK made several recommendations
regarding blast procedures. These
included decreasing the production hole
burden, using bottom-up detonation
on the pre-split row, and changing to
zero subgrade on the pre-split row.
As a result of implementing these
recommendations, there was very little
blast damage to the pit walls, allowing
a near vertical pit face to develop in
the high strength rock. Oversized rock
had previously created the need for
secondary blasting and handling. The
SRK blast recommendations significantly
reduced the amount of oversized rock
and the associated cost of secondary
handling and blasting.
The reduction in the drilling program,
and the resolution of pit stability issues
with a low-cost blasting plan, compared
to a full-scale pit slope evaluation,
demonstrated SRKs commitment to
providing the most efficient solution to
our clients complex problems.
Jim Cremeens: [email protected]

Economic success in underground

soft rock mining
T

he economic success of industrial

mineral projects,such as potash, often
depends on recovering high tonnages
at low cost. These deposits are often
tabular and, are subjected to the full
weight of the overburden, are of relatively
low strength, which makes underground
high extraction problematic. Most of the
tools and techniques available to the
mining and rock mechanics engineer are
based on the experiences of practitioners
in hard rock mining. While a good
starting point, these experiences often
do not account for the unusual physical
properties of soft rock that lead to
adopting a conservative design.
The normal stresses of mining can
exceed the uniaxial compressive strength
of soft rock even at shallow depths, and
excavations based on criteria accepted in
hard rock mining inevitably fail. Instead,
such excavations must be modified
to allow the controlled yielding and
displacement available with alternative
mining methods.
The time dependent behaviour of many
soft rocks can be taken advantage of by
allowing creep deformation of the rock
with minimal loss of strength. Pillars can
be allowed to yield to maintain the safety
and integrity of excavations long enough
to allow the mineral to be extracted.
The mining method chosen must
accommodate the large displacements
of the rock around an excavation when
yielding pillars are used. It is essential to
consider the stability of the larger rock

mass located at a distance from the mine

excavations, particularly where even
minor inflows of water easily managed
in hard rock mining can result in the loss
of a mine.
In concept, the techniques applied to
the design of excavations in soft and
weak rock are very similar to hard
rock design techniques. However, the
datasets used to develop the design
tools are smaller and, combined with
sedimentary rocks variability, must be
used with care. Empirical and numerical
design tools developed for excavation
design are based mainly on experience
gained in coal and potash mining
operations and research in nuclear
waste disposal. SRK has experience
in classifying soft and weak rocks to
set the parameters for these tools.
Two- and three-dimensional numerical
assessments of large deposits can be
conducted rapidly using displacement
discontinuity methods in the Map3D
boundary element code, while more
detailed assessments use the FLAC
and FLAC3D finite difference codes.
Working within the constraints that the
low strength of the intact rock places
on mine design, soft rock miners use
an approach that will interest traditional
hard rock miners as they target resources
at greater depths. This is where the
economic challenge of excavation design
will be critical to success.
Tim Coleman: [email protected]

The Jwaneng Mine is situated in the

Republic of Botswana, approximately
160 km west of Gaborone. The open
pit has a general NNE-SSW orientation,
with waste dumps located to the
west and the process plant area to
the east. The excavation of the Cut 8
pit will remove part of the plant area.
The current pit has a depth of 330m
while the planned pit will have a depth
of 645m. SRK carried out a detailed
probabilistic stability analysis of the east
slope to optimise the design of Cut
8 and ensure adequate performance
of the slope and integrity of the plant
installations in its vicinity. The analysis
also provided data for a quantitative risk
evaluation which will incorporate the
impacts of slope failure.
The Jwaneng open pit cuts through
Paleoproterozoic-aged sedimentary
rocks dipping between 10 and 40
towards the NW. The main rock types
are laminated shales, carbonaceous
shales and quartzitic shales occurring

Abandoned potash production panel entry, Boulby Mine, UK

18

Probabilistic stability analysis for pit

slope optimisation at Jwaneng diamond
mine, Botswana

General view of the east wall of the Jwaneng Mine as it is today with plant installations at the top of the slope

in a complex assemblage of tilted and

displaced blocks, with dolomites at
the base of the slope. The relatively
unfavorable attitude of the strata in the
east wall is the overriding geological
factor governing the stability of the
slopes. For this reason SRK used an
anisotropic rock mass model for the
stability analysis of the interramp
and overall slopes, with welded joint
strength in the direction of foliation and
rock mass strength in other directions.
The rock mass strength parameters
were estimated based on the
geotechnical borehole logs and
on the results of the laboratory
testing program. A comprehensive
database with this information
was used to characterise the rock
mass. Groundwater conditions were
estimated from the data collected
in piezometers considering different
dewatering scenarios. The estimated
properties were calibrated with analysis
of the current slope geometry.

The slope stability analyses were

performed on representative sections of
the slope with the Rocscience program
Slide. Factors of safety (FoS) were
calculated using average Mohr-Coulomb
parameters. The analysis of probability
of failure (PoF) was done using the
Response-Surface methodology,
considering the rock parameters UCS
and GSI as uncertain variables for the
probabilistic calculation.
As a result of the study, SRK confirmed
the low likelihood of overall failures
and low potential of economic impact
from these events. The critical areas of
interramp stability were identified and
flagged for a detailed risk consequence
analysis. Finally, key design aspects that
need to be re-assessed and upgraded
on a regular basis as the mining
progresses were identified.
Luis-Fernando Contreras:
[email protected]

L u i s - F e r n a n do
Co n t r e r a s
Luis-Fernando
Contreras is a Civil
Engineer with a
MSc. in Engineering
Geology and over 30
years experience
in projects in
South America, the
Caribbean and Africa,
such as hydroelectric developments,
open pit mining, foundations and tunnels.
His work covers project development
from conceptual and prefeasibility
studies, through to detailed design and
analysis and risk evaluation studies.
He joined SRK in 2000 and was a
Partner in the Chilean office until July
2007. Currently Luis-Fernando is a
Principal Geotechnical Engineer in the
Johannesburg office.
Luis-Fernando Contreras:
[email protected]

Tim coleman

Tim Coleman has

over 15 years
experience in the
mining industry,
particularly in
high tonnage
underground
mining. He
specialises in soft
and weak rock; the practical application,
selection, testing and design of ground
support and reinforcement; geotechnical
instrumentation; numerical modelling;
the geotechnical aspects of underground
mine design, and review, feasibility, risk
assessment, and hazard management.
His experiences with the challenging
ground conditions at the worlds deepest
potash mine have qualified him to provide
practical mining solutions in soft rock.
Tim Coleman: [email protected]

19

Geotechnical design considerations

for mine shafts

William Joughin

William Joughin is

a Principal Mining
Engineer with 19
years experience
in mining and
rock engineering.
He specialises
in the design of
underground mining
excavations and
support systems, with a special interest
in deep, high stress mining. His expertise
includes geotechnical investigation,
numerical modelling, seismic analysis,
rockburst and rockfall risk analysis. He
joined SRK in 1998 and is a Partner in the
South African office. William has worked
in Africa, North America, Australia and
Asia and has 33 publications concerning
rock engineering.
William Joughin: [email protected]

The design, development and

operation of a shaft system is a critically
important element in mining, and needs
specialised technical input.
Experience has shown that the
consequences of damage to shaft
systems caused by geotechnical factors
are serious and costly.
Control of ground conditions is a key
factor in the design and sinking of
shafts, as these conditions may vary
considerably throughout the length of a
shaft and require specific technologies
to ensure safety and functionality.
Close to the surface, weathered rock
and residual soils are common; these
materials generally are too weak to
carry the high foundation loads exerted
by large headgear structures, winder
houses and other surface infrastructure.
SRK has designed concrete piles to
carry surface loads exerted by the
shaft headgear. In swelling soils, an
innovative double pile system has been
used to carry loads and also to prevent
soil pressure from damaging the
infrastructure.
20

Ground water often affects upper areas

of the shaft and must be controlled by
grouting to prevent water from entering
the shaft, or by drainage systems built
into the lining structure.
Natural breaks in the rock, such as joints
and faults, affect the behaviour of the
rock mass at shallow and intermediate
depths (down to 1,000m below surface).
Dolerite sills encountered near surface
pose their own problems; they tend to
break up into small blocks. Often, around
1000m below surface, the stresses that
exist naturally in the ground become
large enough to begin to induce
additional fractures in the rock mass.
Simple support systems like rock
bolts or split sets, wire mesh and
shotcrete are adequate to protect the
workforce involved in sinking the shaft
under these conditions. A monolithic
concrete lining, usually 300-500mm
thick, gives permanent support and
carries the fastening systems for
buntons, pipework and electrical cable
bundles. It also seals the rock and
prevents weathering and deterioration
over the planned operating life.

Geotechnical investigation for

Kwatebala copper open pit, DRC
Kwatebala is located 12km westnorthwest of Fungurume in the Katanga
Province of the Democratic Republic of
Congo. The topography of the area is
characterised by gently rolling hills with
pronounced ridges which are frequently
associated with copper mineralisation.
These ridges have areas of open
grassland, known as copper clearances,
but are mostly covered with moderately
dense bush. Kwatebala is a 1900m long
east-west trending ridge that rises from
the surrounding valleys to an altitude of
1503m. Before mining began, the hill was
covered in grassland with some surface
exposure and trial pits, trenches and adits
from previous exploration.

Concrete piles in residual soil to carry the headgear

foundation load and provide support during sinking
Left: Mini piles in soils above concrete lining

Certain weak geotechnical zones

exhibit time dependant behaviour and
can deform excessively (squeezing)
when the shaft experiences stress
changes during its life. This squeezing
can cause severe failure of the lining.
SRK has designed and implemented
a support system which can
accommodate large deformations
in the shaft barrel and maintain
serviceability of the shaft.
SRK has developed a systematic
design process during the sinking of
several shafts, which incorporates
experience gained from rehabilitating
existing shafts. The design process
comprises gathering data from
borehole cores and mapping of
exposed rock; analysing this data to
assess the rock mass response to
excavations; assessing the possible
modes of failure; analysing excavation
and support designs, through to
monitoring the implementation of the
design.

Extensive development now includes

the construction of the plant, tailings
storage facility, storm water dams, waste
rock dumps, stockpiles and a mine slope
consisting of three exposed benches.
The anticlinal ore body is mined using a
Vermeer continuous miner and leaving a
central waste portion as high walls; the
waste rock is drilled and blasted. The ore
material supplied to the plant is sufficiently
well fragmented while reducing the
disturbance to the rock mass.
The parameters of rock mass strength
used in the stability analysis were derived
from laboratory tests of representative
samples of core taken from selected
boreholes during the exploration drilling
program. This data is continually updated
as samples are collected and tested in
ongoing quarterly audits.

The stability of the slopes were

characterised Dry and Wet based
on piezometric data gathered from the
2007 groundwater study.
The slope stability analyses were
performed on representative sections of
the slope with the Rocscience program
Slide and Phase2. Factors of safety
(FoS) were calculated using average
Mohr-Coulomb parameters. The analysis
yielded acceptable FoS and slopes with
a low Probability of Failure. Kinematic
analysis indicated that stability would
be governed by structures rather than
material strengths.
Noel Smith: [email protected]

No e l s m i t h

Noel Smith graduated

from the Nelson

Mandela Metropolitan
University in 2001
with a BSc (Hon) in
geology. He worked
as an offshore
geologist onboard
the MV Zacharias
diamond exploration vessel off the coast
of Namibia before joining Baker Hughes
Inteq as a surface logging specialist. Noel
began his Rock Engineering/Geotechnical
Engineering career with AngloGold
Ashanti in 2004. After three years, he
joined SRK Consultings Johannesburg
office on the Rocks team, involved
with feasibility studies, core logging, due
diligence studies and support auditing.
Noel Smith: [email protected]

William Joughin: [email protected]

Kwatebala open pit with benches exposed in central waste portion
21

Auditing the ground control

management plan
SRK

has developed an audit

procedure for Ground Control
Management Plans (GCMP) designed
for open pit and underground operations.
The audit procedure is based on
guidelines provided by the Western
Australian Department of Minerals and
Petroleum (DMP), published in 1997
and 1999, relating to geotechnical
considerations for both open pit and
underground operations. The original
intent of the guidelines was to provide
examples of good geotechnical
engineering practice and assist mining
operators in achieving compliance
with the Mines Safety and Inspection
Regulations 1995 (MISR 1995).

Auditors can use this checklist to ensure

that all aspects required are addressed
consistently.

This procedure was developed as

a service to clients who require
their GCMP documentation and
implementation process be audited
to ensure compliance to industry
standards. The procedure is designed
to evaluate and benchmark the GCMP
plan consistently and satisfy legal
requirements.

Excavation or pit design and controls

The DMP department recognises that

mining experience and professional
judgment in geotechnical engineering
are not easily quantified, but can
contribute significantly to formulating
various solutions to a particular mining
problem. Management is required to
recognise, identify and address the
geotechnical issues that are unique to
their mine, using current geotechnical
knowledge and tools.
This approach provides a methodology,
checklist and assessment process that
auditors can follow when evaluating
a clients GCMP. Since operations
can have unique geotechnical issues,
certain aspects on the audit form may
not apply; auditors use their judgment
to include any additional geotechnical
aspects identified on the specific
operation.

The aims of the GCMP Audit are to:

Provide the client with a systematic
evaluation of the current effectiveness
of their GCMP and level of compliance
Provide an action plan or
recommendations to address any gaps
or deficiencies
The audit process covers:
Life of mine planning
Geological structure and rock mass
parameters
Blasting considerations
Ground support reinforcement
Hydrogeological considerations
Monitoring
Risk management
Personnel responsibilities
The auditor rates specific questions in
each section for compliance and notes
any comments and supporting evidence
needed or provided by the mine site.
Each section is rated according to
standard definitions.
Following the audit, the client receives
a report highlighting the level of
compliance of their GCMP plan and the
effectiveness of the controls; and an
action plan with priorities addressing
areas requiring action.
The intent of this audit procedure is
to provide transparency and identify
any deficiencies or vulnerabilities in
the current GCMP. In the long term,
this process will encourage selfmanagement and auditing of ground
control-related risks, which typically
improve performance.
Kobus du Plooy: [email protected]

22

ollowing a multi-bench structural

instability along the primary haul
road for an operating open-pit copper
mine, SRK was tasked with rapidly
evaluating geologic structure in the
area and subsequently assessing pit
slope stability. It was important to
determine whether significant pit slope
design modifications were necessary
for further mining and whether safe
transport through the area would be
possible.
Given the critical time frame and high
risk associated with field mapping near
the area of instability, SRK employed
remote data collection techniques to
characterise geologic structure from a
safe distance. Pit walls were scanned
using an I-Site 4400CR laser (LiDAR)
scanner, automatically integrating
high-resolution digital images with
detailed 3-dimensional point clouds.
Approximately 50,000m2 of pit wall were
scanned from three primary setups
covering four mining bench levels..
The total time required to complete the
scanning, including data post-processing,
was approximately 8 hours.

Rapid characterisation of slope instability

using LiDAR

Michael Levy

Typical 3-dimensional bench face model obtained using LiDAR. Digitised structures
are shown as discs colored by joint set

Using the Vulcan Geotechnical Module,

details of rock structure were digitised
directly into an electronic database
exported for analysis. The parameters
collected in the customised geotechnical
database for each of the approximately
400 discontinuities digitised included
discontinuity type, coordinates (easting,
northing and elevation), orientation (dip
and dip direction), length, spacing and
termination (single, double or none). The
use of these techniques also allowed
accurate modelling of several major
(pit wall scale) structures. Structural
characterisations based on the LiDAR
scanning were ultimately confirmed with
field reconnaissance.
A sufficiently large sample of the
discontinuity population acquired
from the LiDAR scans enabled SRK to
develop a representative geotechnical
model. Statistical datasets were
analysed using stochastic simulations
of discontinuity orientation, strength
and persistence to determine the
probability of similar instabilities
occurring within the existing bench
design and wall orientation as

excavation progressed. Approximately

3 days were necessary to digitise
discontinuities and analyse datasets.
Given the variability in geologic
structure, SRK determined that bench
scale stability could be significantly
improved by implementing relatively
minor changes to the pit design.
Specifically, rather than continuing
with a curved wall, which oriented a
significant portion of the wall in the
newly identified adverse direction
(relative to rock structure), the design
was modified to include two linear
walls with an obtuse corner,
effectively eliminating the portion
of the wall oriented in the adverse
direction and, consequentially, reducing
the likelihood for reoccurrence of the
same mode of instability. Mining of the
remaining pit wall has been completed
without further such instances of
instability.
In this application, LiDAR provided
several advantages over conventional
field sampling techniques including
the ability to acquire comparatively
23

ichael Levy, P.E.,

P.G., is a Senior
Geotechnical
Engineer based in
SRKs Denver office
with an MSc in
civil-geotechnical
engineering and
over 12 years of
experience in civil
and mining geotechnical projects.
Experienced in soil and rock mechanics
engineering, he specialises in the
analysis and design of open pit slopes
including statistical characterisation
of geotechnical data and probabilistic
modelling. He has managed and
supported geotechnical projects
throughout the U.S., Canada and Mexico,
as well as Central and South America.
Michael Levy: [email protected]

large and accurate data sets quickly and

with limited exposure of personnel in
areas that would otherwise be unsafe and
inaccessible. Directly digitising the data
into electronic format also eliminated data
input steps and their potential source of
error. Above all, LiDAR proved a useful and
efficient tool for collecting objective rock
mass information which can supplement
the subjective observations and
assessments of the geotechnical engineer.
Michael Levy: [email protected]

Slope stability fundamental

concepts

G r a h a m Ho w e l l

Graham Howell is a

Principal Geotechnical
Engineer with over
35years of experience
in civil, structural,
mining and slope
engineering. He
specialises in soil/rock
structure interaction.
Graham holds a PhD in numerical methods
with research interests in applying
statistical and probabilistic methods in
engineering. His recent projects include
planning numerous mining shafts in
soft unconsolidated soils, solving slope/
earth retaining problems. Since joining
SRK in 1985, he has worked from the
Johannesburg office on projects in Africa,
North America, Europe and Australia.
Graham Howell: [email protected]

The remnants of a failed gabion wall

r ya n c a m p b e l l

Ryan is an

Engineering Geologist
in SRK Vancouvers
Mining and Geology
Division. Since joining
SRK in 2004, Ryan
has concentrated
on geotechnical
investigations for
open-pit and underground mine
development and decommissioning.
His technical strengths are in rockmass
characterisation and structural
geology for open-pit optimisation and
underground mass mining studies,
especially in block cave and sub-level
cave mining, with experience in technical
and project management roles in both
greenfield and active mine sites in China,
Africa, Australia, Central and South
America, and Canadas north.
Ryan Campbell: [email protected]

espite the widespread availability of

software programs using sophisticated
numerical methods, the physical
principles of slope engineering should
not be forgotten. Simple, well considered
engineering judgment based on
fundamental principles, which identify
all potential mechanisms of failure
and account for the stability of each
mechanism in the design, are critical.
Recently, SRK was involved in reviewing
the design of a 15m high gabion structure
that collapsed. The gabion had supported
a crusher terrace for the mine. The
potential failure mechanisms included
toppling/rotation, sliding, deep seated
slip circle, bearing and wedge failure. The
designers had used software that only
considered horizontal sliding, and circular
slip failure. The wall was built on rock and
the lower section was doweled, making
slip failure unlikely, while bearing failure
and horizontal sliding were within the
bounds of acceptability, but the wall still
collapsed. The reason SRK identified was
that the software interpreted the gabion
structure as an infinitely strong monolith
which did not allow internal diagonal
24

failure. But the planar wedge failure

mechanism was plane to see on site.
This is a clear example of using software
that was inappropriate for the task.
Simple hand calculations identified the
potential flaw immediately. Subsequent
numerical analyses using Slide and
Phase2 confirmed the failure mechanism.
Whenever slope stability is being
assessed, the concept of demand
versus capacity of the structure must be
continually considered. Demand is the
loading action applied by gravity through
the mass of the material being retained
and includes the water, dynamic and
seismic effects. Capacity is the internal
strength of the material or structure to
resist those loads. Both the concept
of Factor of Safety and Probability of
Failure are derived directly from these
terms. The factor of safety is the simple
ratio between capacity and demand
calculated for defined values. Since the
17th century, engineers have calculated
the strength (capacity) of material with
given or defined properties, and assessed
the load (demand) imposed, to make sure
the capacity exceeded demand so the

Weathered rock masses

SRKs

rock mechanics engineers

have recently undertaken open-pit
design studies for rock masses hosted
within saprolites and highly weathered
bedrock. One such example is Oromin
Explorations Ltd. Sabodala gold project
in Senegal. Since 2006, SRK has
designed a series of field programs
to satisfy geotechnical, structural and
hydrogeological objectives for scoping,
pre-feasibility, and feasibility studies.

structure was deemed acceptable.

The probability of failure is a far more
powerful concept based on the difference
between the fundamental statistical
variability of capacity and demand that
strives to answer the question: what is
the probability that demand will exceed
capacity from all possible values of the
intrinsic variables?

Geologically, the project is

characterised by steeply dipping,
shear-hosted gold veins set within
Precambrian greenstones. During
early study stages, a vertical zonation
of material properties was identified
within the weathered profile. The
degree of weathering was found to
decrease systematically near surface
from completely weathered soil
through a transitional zone into a thin
fracture-controlled weathered horizon
above fresh rock. This zonation,
separated into unique geotechnical
3D domains, has been determined
to affect the behavior of the rock
mass. Accurate characterisation of
the weathered rock mass is vital
not only for slope stability, but also
for trafficability and metallurgical
requirements.

The SRK structural understanding

indicates that most brittle features
occur along reactivated structures
associated with earlier ductile shear
zones. In these areas, the weathered
profile (i.e. saprolite and saprock)
often extends beyond 75m in depth;
much deeper than typical background
conditions distal to the shear zones.
In-situ sampling using clear plastic
liners, as well as more traditional Shelby
tubes, has provided the best means of
obtaining relatively undisturbed samples
of the weathered horizons.
Reverse circulation (RC) drilling has
been used to complement geotechnical
information gained through in-situ
sampling, mapping and diamond
drilling. The RC option has proven to
be a rapid, cost-effective approach for
characterising the weathered profile
along proposed pit walls where existing
core drilling intercepts are sparse. RC
results have been used to calibrate
adjacent diamond drillholes from the
pre-feasibility geotechnical program.
This correlation has improved the
confidence of the various geotechnical
domains within the weathered profile.
Ryan Campbell: [email protected]

Closely allied is the concept of risk.

Increasingly, clients want to know the
risk of their structure failing, including the
concepts of voluntary and involuntary risk.
Involuntary risk applies to civil structures
used by the public, while voluntary risk
applies to mining operations. Risk and
probability techniques investigate and
assess these consequences.
Employing fundamental concepts of
probability of failure, factor of safety
and risk are obligatory in design. SRK
personnel are proficient in all these
concepts and regularly bring them to bear
on our projects.
Graham Howell: [email protected]
Geotechnical drilling though saprolite at Oromins Sabodala project
25

Slope design in challenging conditions

at El Teniente, Chile
T

he El Teniente mine complex, owned

and operated by the National Copper
Corporation of Chile (CODELCO), is
located about 80 km south of Santiago,
Chile in the Andes Mountains, at 2,500
meters above sea level. The complex
includes a series of underground
operations that use block caving and
panel caving to extract copper.

Es t e b a n
Ho r m a z a b a l

steban Hormazabal
is a Mining
Engineer with a
Masters degree,
specialising in applied
hydrogeology; he
is head of Mining
Geotechnics for
SRK (Chile). With
14 years experience in geotechnical
engineering and rock mechanics, he
analyzes and designs underground and
surface excavations, using 2D and 3D
modelling, stability analysis and slope
design for open-pit slopes, waste dumps
and heap leach pads. He has worked
on geomechanical assessments and
technical reviews of numerous projects
across Latin America.

To provide flexibility in production rates

and for strategic planning purposes,
CODELCO is currently evaluating the Rajo
Sur project at a pre-feasibility engineering
level. This project involves developing and
operating an open pit near the southern
border of the subsidence crater. The
close proximity to the subsidence crater
makes Rajo Sur a challenging project,
and a clear example of open-pit mining in
difficult ground conditions.
To evaluate the mechanical stability of the
open-pit walls, SRK studied approaches
involving bench-berm design, and slope
stability, at bench, inter-ramp and global
scales, based on limit equilibrium models
and finite difference elasto-plastic
continuum models. SRK developed a
complex three-dimensional mechanical
model to assess the influence of
subsidence cracks and abrupt topography
on the stability of the planned openpit walls, particularly in the southern
boundary of the crater.
Since subsidence due to underground
caving is a dynamic process, and the
crater boundary location would have
a pronounced effect on the stability
of the planned pit walls, SRK has
recommended studies which include
different scenarios of underground
development.
Esteban Hormazabal: [email protected]

Esteban Hormazabal: [email protected]

CMET
Secondary

Broken
rock (crater)

Tonalite
Secondary

3D numerical model using FLAC3D of the interaction between subsidence crater and Rajo Sur Final Pit

26

At the Venetia diamond mine in

northern South Africa, owned by
De Beers, the country rock structural
geology has been under investigation
since before the mine was opened in
1994. This includes academic research
alliances to better understand the
complex structural deformation history
of the mine area. These alliances are
with the University of Johannesburg,
Tect Consulting and more recently the
University of Pretoria.
It is located within the Central Zone of
the Limpopo Belt, which is a multiplydeformed orogenic zone between
the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwean
cratons, formed during the Archean
and Paleoproterozoic. At least four
phases of ductile deformation and
an unconstrained number of brittle
deformation events are now recognised.
The dominant S2 foliation in the gneissic
rocks has been the focus of structural
investigations because of its strong
influence on the anisotropic strength
characteristics of the rock mass within
the open pit and the effect of this on the
slope stability and slope angles.
The S2 foliation is deformed by two
phases of folding that complicate
interpretation (see stereonet inset).
The most obvious structural geometry
is an eastward plunging synform, the
southern limb of which dips between
35o and 55o towards the north. The
southern open pit slope design is
heavily dependent on the dip angle and
projected dip behind the slope, and has
been the subject of advanced analyses
in probabilistic risk analysis by De Beers
and SRK Consulting (South Africa).
More recently, the focus has shifted
to underground mine design and
the objective of trying to interpolate
structural geometries, including
foliations and lithological domain
contacts, to depths of 1km. A database

Integrating structural geology and

geotechnics at Venetia diamond mine
Lezel-Tina Shear
Shear Domain
K03

Metasedimentary
Domain

Marble
Domain

K02
K01

Dolerite

K08

K05
K04
Gneiss Domain

Dolerite
Stereonet inset shows contoured poles Porphyry
to all S2 foliation, with

two dominant lineation trends indicated with an asterisk

Way n e b a r n e t t

ayne Barnett,
PhD, based in SRKs
Vancouver office,
has 13 years of
experience in the
mining and exploration
industry. He was
employed for 8 years
as a mining operations
geotechnical engineer and applied
structural geologist. Subsequently,
he performed the role of consulting
structural geology specialist in mining
and exploration, including providing
review and recommendations on mine
geological and geotechnical data
collection practices. He is a geological
modelling expert, and uses a variety
of specialist software for geological
interpretation, modelling and analysis.
Wayne has significant experience in
geotechnical and structural drill core
logging and open pit and underground
mapping, including geological data
management, data QA/QC and statistical
analysis of structural data. He is
experienced in integrating structural,
lithological and geotechnical data to
define practical rock mass domains for
mine design purposes.
Wayne Barnett: [email protected]

of over 950 drill holes, with at least 108

orientated cores, currently exist that aid
the construction of three-dimensional
computer models representing
structure and lithologically controlled
geotechnical domains.
De Beers logging standards include
detailed structural data, with mineral
lineations. Comprehensive pit mapping
by Tect Consulting combined with
drill hole data has allowed De Beers
and SRK to construct a 3D model
that predicts the dominant structural
geometries at depths below the pit.

In particular, a 3D representation of
the lineation trends and plunges maps
out the dominant fold geometries
or foliation patterns that need to be
considered in geotechnical design
and numerical strain models. SRK
continues to be involved in open
pit and underground design, and in
developing the structural understanding
of the country rock in order to reduce
geotechnical risk.
Wayne Barnett: [email protected]

27

Above: 3D Isometric view eastwards showing

the simplified Venetia lithological domains, the
boundaries of which are strongly determined
by structural geometries.
Stereonet inset shows contoured poles to all
S2 foliation, with two dominant lineation trends
indicated with an asterisk.

Specialist advice for mining projects in all global environments and

geotechnical consulting for other sectors.
To learn more about SRK and how we might help you with your next
challenge, please visit:

www.srk.com
SRK Consulting 2011

28