making quality sense

a guide to quality, tools

and techniques, awards and
the thinking behind them

Jane Owen

raising quality
and achievement
programme

The Raising Quality and Achievement Programme is

run by the Learning and Skills Development Agency
in partnership with the Association of Colleges and
the Centre for Economic and Social Inclusion.

We aim to reach all colleges and work-based learning providers.

We offer extra support to colleges and work-based

learning providers that are receiving Standards Fund money
to improve their practice.

All our activity themes are backed by a programme

of research and evaluation.

The Raising Quality and Achievement Programme is

funded by a grant from the Learning and Skills Council.

making quality sense

a guide to quality, tools
and techniques, awards and
the thinking behind them

Jane Owen

Published by the Learning and Skills Development Agency

www.LSDA .org.uk
Feedback should be sent to :
Information Services
Learning and Skills Development Agency
Regent Arcade House
1925 Argyll Street
London W1F 7LS .
Tel 020 7297 9144
Fax 020 7297 9242
enquiries@LSDA .org.uk
Registered with the Charity Commissioners
Copyeditor : Karin Fancett
Designers : Dave Shaw and Tania Field
Cover illustration : Joel Quartey
Printer : Blackmore Ltd, Shaftesbury, Dorset
ISBN 1 85338 760 6

Learning and Skills Development Agency 2002

1201A /07 /02 /4000

You are welcome to copy this publication for internal use

within your organisation. Otherwise, no part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical,
optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
prior written permission of the copyright owner.

Further information
For further information about the issues discussed
in this publication please contact :
Jane Owen
Development Adviser
Learning and Skills Development Agency.
Tel 020 7297 9083
jowen@LSDA .org.uk
This publication was funded by the Learning and Skills Council
as part of a contracted support and development programme.

Contents
Introduction

The basics

Processes, processes, processes

11

Quality tools and techniques

17

Models, awards and assessment

37

Quality gurus

45

Quality jargon buster

51

Next steps

53

Further information

55

Appendix Example code of conduct for process benchmarking

57

Introduction

Quality management is now a part of all sectors and its language

has become part of everyday business speech. However, the
terminology can be off-putting for people who are not part of the
quality profession, and quality and the different gurus and theories
can seem confusing. Books on quality are often fairly heavy tomes,
and as a result the world of quality management can remain closed
to many people.
The truth is that quality is based on common-sense principles
that most people can easily understand. The practices and theories
are as applicable to education and training as they are to any other
sector. This publication is intended to guide you through some of
the commonly used tools, techniques and theories. It is not
comprehensive but will, I hope, give you a basic knowledge of the
subject and point you towards further reading and organisations
should you need to find out more.

The basics

Quality
There are many definitions of quality, including :

conforming to requirements

fitness for purpose

meeting customer needs

exceeding customer needs.

The common link between all of these definitions is the customer.
Conforming to requirements and fitness for purpose, even if they
are the requirements and purpose of the organisation, should be
based on delivering quality products and services to the customer.
All organisations, even those who believe their prime objective
is making profit, survive by delivering customer needs.
Remember that meeting customer needs is not the same as meeting
customer wants. For example, the service or product customers want
might be so costly that they could not afford to pay for it. In such a
case it would not meet their needs. There is no point in offering
a Rolls-Royce to someone who can only afford a family saloon.
There are a number of quality methods that are used in organisations,
the following are the the most common.
Quality control (QC ) This is a method of controlling the quality
of goods or services by having a system in place that monitors
the quality of goods throughout the production process. A reliable
quality control system will prevent goods or services that do not
meet the required standard either reaching the end of the
production process or being given to customers. If errors are
found they are corrected.

Quality assurance (QA ) This is a method of both assuring the

quality of the final goods or services, as well as assuring the quality
of processes. It requires planned and documented systems and
processes that identify failures in design, production or delivery
of goods or services before they become problems. It also requires
those systems and processes to be audited and reviewed to ensure
their ongoing suitability.
Total quality management (TQM ) This involves integrating
quality systems into every aspect of an organisations operation.
It is a management model that is based on the philosophy that
quality is the responsibility of everyone in an organisation and that
all systems within the organisation should support that philosophy.
It requires a management-led commitment to continuous improvement
and recognises that the customer is central to an organisation.
With all of these techniques it must be remembered that though
inspection will identify errors, quality cannot be improved by
inspection alone.

Processes
Processes are the building blocks of every organisation. It is
important that each organisation understands its processes,
how they work, what internal and external influences there are
on them, their inputs and outputs.
Processes are often confused with documented procedures and
can be seen as bureaucratic additions to already paper-laden work.
The related documentation that many object to can hide the fact
that everything we do, in work or out of it, is a process.
One technical definition of a process is an activity or a series
of activities that changes an input into an output. In the learning
and skills sector, inputs can include requests for information,
letters of complaint or books. Outputs can include qualifications,
learning or data.
Simply put, a process is something we do to add value to a product,
an idea or a service. In its simplest form it can be illustrated
as shown in Figure 1.

4 Making quality sense

Figure 1 Diagrammatic representation of a process

Supplier

Input

Process

Output

Customer

Process knowledge and process management is key to any

organisation-wide quality system.
More information on process management and improvement
is given in the following chapter.

Customers
Customer is a term that has been increasingly used and abused
in all sectors over the past years. It is easy to get hung up on
the terminology of customer service instead of looking at service
improvement. Most of us have experienced being called a customer
while clearly not being treated as one. For example, announcements
that tell overheated, delayed train passengers to make room for
other customers do not make them feel like valued customers.
In fact, such announcements can make them feel annoyed or
patronised, especially when the service or the attitude of staff
does not match the words.
There is emerging evidence that overusing the term customer can
alienate the very people you are trying to serve. A recent NHS survey,
for example, showed that people being treated wanted to be called
patients. It is not what term is used by an organisation that is
important, it is the way people are treated.
Customers are simply people to whom we give a service, be they
learners, employers or funders and regardless of whether they
pay directly or indirectly for the service. Each group will have its
own needs and expectations and the service we provide to them
has to reflect this. It is our responsibility to ensure that the service
is provided for each group and individual to a quality that would
satisfy us if we were the customer.

The basics 5

Internal customers
We all have customers though not everyone deals with
external customers. A good indicator of how well an organisation
will treat its external customers is how well its staff treat their
internal customers.
Internal customers are your colleagues. They are anyone to
whom you provide a service. It is important to ensure that they
are satisfied with the service you provide for them.

Customer complaints
A complaint could be described as any expression of dissatisfaction
from a customer. Generally, if a customer believes he or she
is making a complaint then it is a complaint.
For every person who makes a complaint around 20 will say nothing
to you but will either stop using your service or will stay unsatisfied
with you. So, if they have gone to the trouble of making a complaint
they usually feel genuinely disgruntled.
Again, it is important that we do not become tied up in the technicality
of language. Some organisations can over-complicate their
complaints procedure by stratifying complaints using categories
such as minor, formal, informal, verbal, written, major, etc.
This does not mean that complaints should not be coded to assist
analysis. Coding is an important means of identifying root causes of
problems, but it is not something that customers need to know about.
How an organisation recovers from service failure is one of the
most important aspects of its service delivery. Research has shown
that customers who complain and have their problems resolved
quickly are more likely to repeat purchase than customers who
had no problems with the service or organisation.
Though it is best to get things right first time, a well-handled complaint
can leave customers more satisfied with an organisation than if
the service had not failed at all.
There are times when you cannot do what your customer wants
you to do. If this happens you should always be willing and able to
explain why you cannot do it. There is nothing more likely to infuriate
a customer who is making a complaint than a jobs worth attitude.

6 Making quality sense

Responses such as its not our policy or its not my job are
more likely to antagonise the situation than explaining why
something cannot be done and making a useful suggestion
about an alternative service or action.
There are some basic principles that are common to organisations
that make good use of customer complaint feedback.
Access and information How easy is it for your customers to tell you
when something goes wrong ? An organisation that boasts of very
low complaint rates may in fact just be inaccessible. Make it easy
for your customer to let you know that something has gone wrong
and consider how your customers prefer to communicate with you.
Staff knowledge and access Publicity about the complaints
procedure should not be confined to customers. Some organisations
give each staff member a full copy of the complaints procedure
or make it available on the organisations intranet. Alternatively,
some organisations produce leaflets for staff that explain the
reasons why complaints procedures are needed and what
the processes are that should be followed.
Reporting Both what is reported and who it is reported to send
out strong messages about the importance given to successful
complaint handling.
Organisations should beware of using the number of complaints
received as a performance indicator. If staff feel they will be
penalised for reporting complaints made about themselves or their
services it becomes easier simply not to report them. Remember
a low number of logged complaints is as likely to be caused by the
inaccessibility of the complaints process as by high satisfaction levels.
Some alternative performance indicators are :

time taken to make initial response to complaints

time taken to resolve complaints

complaint type

number of improvements made as a result of complaints

number of complaints that are passed on to the review panel

satisfaction with complaint response.

The basics 7

Reporting on complaints should be part of the management cycle.

Senior management should be aware of the nature and causes
of complaints and the resource implications of putting corrective
actions and resultant improvements in place.

Benchmarking
Benchmarking, at its simplest, is a way of comparing something,
whether it is a product, service, process or output, to establish
the relative level of performance.
There are three distinct types of benchmarking.
Metric benchmarking This involves the comparison of statistical
data. Usually the data compared is a performance indicator,
for example customer satisfaction levels, costs or staff turnover.
The results are often compiled in a league table. It is a relatively
low-cost method. It shows how an organisations results compare
with other organisations but does not explain why there is a difference.
Diagnostic benchmarking This involves examining how an organisation operates and comparing this with how other organisations
operate. It is a method of identifying what processes might be
causing particularly good or poor results. It helps to identify areas
of comparative strength and weakness within an organisation and
pinpoints where to focus effort when making improvements.
Process benchmarking This is a systematic method of comparing
specific processes with other processes within the organisation
or within other organisations. It is quite resource intensive but has
the potential to give impressive results. It is explained in more detail
in the following chapter.

A comparison of the efforts / resources / costs and knowledge /

benefits of these three types of benchmarking is shown in Figure 2.

8 Making quality sense

Figure 2 Relationship between effort and results for different types

of benchmarking
Increasing
knowledge
and benefits
process
benchmarking
diagnostic
benchmarking
metric
benchmarking

Increasing effort / resources / costs

The basics 9

Processes, processes,
processes

Processes are the building blocks of an organisation and so their

management, review and improvement are fundamental to its success.
Before attempting to improve or manage processes it is important
to understand them fully. In many organisations processes are
documented in written procedures and quality manuals. These
can form an excellent record of how the organisation operates
and a useful reference for staff who need to know how things work.
Organisations that have not documented their processes should
consider doing so as a matter of urgency. Rather than trying to
produce text-based documents from scratch, organisations should
start with flowcharts.
Producing flowcharts ( see the chapter on tools and techniques ) has
a number of advantages. Apart from the obvious one of documenting
what is done, a flowchart allows the staff producing it to take a fresh
view of the process using a systematic approach. It is surprising
how many potential improvements can be identified by producing
a flowchart. Staff can also start to see how their work impacts
on other people.
As well as identifying and documenting how the process works,
it is important to establish the following.
The process owner Who is the person with overall responsibility
for the process ? ( This is usually the manager. )
The process supplier Who or what does the process rely on
to operate and how does the organisation feed back the
process needs to the supplier ?
The process customer Who or what does the process supply ?
How does the organisation ensure that the process customer
is satisfied with the output of the process ?

11

Once the details of a process are confirmed, work should begin

on establishing how well it operates. The following questions
might be asked.

Does the process produce a product or service

that meets customer requirements ?

Are there failures in the process operation ?

What is the cost of the process in terms of time,

materials, equipment and overheads ?

How responsive is the process to the customer ?

Continuous process improvement

Many people have difficulty with the concept of continuous
improvement. They argue that if something is perfect it cannot
be improved. Processes may well produce exactly what they
were designed to produce but it is unlikely that simply doing the
same thing will result in a product or service that continues to
meet customer needs.
Customers needs change over time. Both internal and external
customers tend to expect higher standards and shorter timescales,
often at lower prices. Learners expectations rise and funding
and inspection bodies expect standards to rise. Costs change,
technology changes and regulations change. The only way to ensure
that a process continues to meet needs is to review it regularly.
Continuous process improvement is a systematic method of
analysing data, identifying root causes of problems, understanding
likely future changes to product or service requirements, and acting
on the results. It involves ensuring that feedback from internal and
external customers and staff is actually fed back to the right people
and that the information is used to review and improve the process.
Problems with the process are then identified and solutions are
developed using a variety of quality tools ( see the following chapter ) .
Front-line staff tend to be heavily involved in this way of working,
but need the support of senior management.

12 Making quality sense

This constant review will help to ensure that the process, and
hence the product or service it produces, continues to meet
customer needs over time.
The key steps of continuous improvement are :

document the process

establish process suppliers / customers / owner

measure the process

identify problems

identify solutions / improvements

implement changes

review changes

start again.

Process re-engineering
Process re-engineering is a technique employed to make major step
changes in quality. In many cases a re-engineering project starts
( in theory ) from the concept of the blank sheet of paper or thinking
the unthinkable. In practice, it is rare that there will be a genuine start
from scratch as the costs involved would be prohibitive.
Unlike continuous improvement, there is more of a top-down feel
to process re-engineering. This does not mean that staff are not
involved at all. They will eventually have to implement the new process
and so it is usually beneficial to involve them to some extent.
The main steps of re-engineering are :

decide on the scope of the project

assemble a team

gather data on the customer needs

design a new process

test the new process

implement the new process.

Processes, processes, processes 13

Such re-engineering can result in substantial leaps in process

quality, but if not dealt with properly can cause major problems.
The main barriers to success when using this are :

lack of long-term management commitment

resistance to change

unrealistic expectations

cost implications.
Some of these barriers can be overcome by using a
more incremental approach to the project.

Continuous process improvement

versus process re-engineering
Table 1 compares continuous process improvement
with process re-engineering.
Table 1 Comparing continuous improvement to re-engineering
Continuous
improvement

Re-engineering

Involvement

All staff

Project group

Type of change

Gradual, incremental

Sudden, major

Time-scale

Ongoing

Sudden, one-off

Personnel focus

Bottom-up with
management support

Top-down with
some staff input

Process benchmarking
Process benchmarking is a systematic method of improvement that
uses others good practice and learning to improve your own processes.
It is a method of identifying what must be improved in an organisation,
finding ways of making those improvements, and then implementing
the improvements.
It requires an organisation to fully understand its processes
and its customers and stakeholders needs. From that point
it is possible to identify gaps between needs and performance.

14 Making quality sense

Once an organisation knows what to improve it can use the knowledge

and experience of the organisations it is benchmarking with
its benchmarking partners to identify better ways of working.
Process benchmarking can be :

internal learning from other departments within your organisation

sector specific learning from organisations that are in

a similar area of work

generic learning from organisations that may operate in

a totally different area.
There are four vital requirements that must be in place before
starting a benchmarking project.

Strong commitment from senior management to act on the

findings of the project. Identify a suitable champion at senior level.

Support for the staff taking part in the project, including training
and resources. Training in quality tools is particularly useful.

Authorisation for staff to develop, pilot and implement new practices

where appropriate.

Agreed time off from their normal duties for those staff taking part
and arrangements in place to cover staff when they are working
on the project.
Any process can be benchmarked. However, one of the most
common reasons for failure in a benchmarking project is that the
subject area was too wide and nebulous. Once people realise
the benefits of benchmarking it is easy to become enthusiastic
and to over-stretch. A common area identified for benchmarking is
communication. This issue, seemingly raised by every staff survey
ever conducted, is so large that few organisations really understand
how it works. As a result, any attempts to improve it, especially as
a first project, through benchmarking tend to be problematic.
Before deciding to benchmark sizeable chunks of processes, it is
necessary to consider the resources available, the experience of
staff involved, the size of the problem ( if known ) and the importance
of the process.

Processes, processes, processes 15

Process benchmarking steps

The following is a summary of the steps to be followed when
conducting process benchmarking.
Identify and scope the process Be realistic about what can
be tackled and the resources available.
Establish a benchmarking team Use staff who are involved in
the process and who are customers or suppliers of the process.
Do not rely solely on managers.
Ensure staff are trained Can they use the relevant quality tools ?
Do they understand the benchmarking process ? Do not lose
valuable staff input by not offering suitable training.
Document the process Use flowcharting to get a thorough picture
of how the process operates. Be honest, and document how
the process actually operates not how it might or should operate.
Establish the customer needs What outputs are required from
the process ? What inputs are required ?
Identify gaps and duplications What does not work well ?
Where do problems occur ? Is there any obviously unnecessary work ?
Produce a benchmarking questionnaire What information is needed
from a partner organisation ? What documentation is available ?
Identify benchmarking partners Internal or external ?
Specific or generic ? Who is best at what you are looking at ?
Contact potential partners Include details of the project,
your process flowchart, the benchmarking questionnaire and
a copy of the benchmarking code of conduct ( see the Appendix )
in your correspondence.
Conduct the visit to the partner Offer a reciprocal visit. Keep
the partner informed of what has happened as a result of the visit.
Review the information gained Use the team to identify good practice
found during the visit. Is any additional information required ?
Implement changes Adapt good practice then adopt new methods.
Do not assume that the partner organisations methods will be
a perfect fit for your organisation.
Review Has it worked ? Are there more changes to be made ?

16 Making quality sense

Quality tools
and techniques

The tools and techniques listed in this chapter are used to

identify problems and to identify and implement solutions within
an organisation or a department :

affinity diagrams

brainstorming

cause and effect

check sheets / tally sheets

flowcharts

force field analysis

Gantt charts

histograms

moments of truth

Pareto analysis

scatter diagrams

SWOT analysis.

They can be used with minimal training by staff at all levels and
help to provide a more focused examination of quality issues.

Affinity diagrams
Affinity diagrams ( Figure 3 ) are a way of sorting a variety of ideas,
problems or issues into related groups or under specific headings.
Affinity diagrams are usually constructed by a team of people.

17

Steps in constructing affinity diagrams

The team identifies the possible issues, problems or ideas

( try using brainstorming ) .

Each issue, problem or idea identified is recorded on

a separate card or Post-it note.

The cards or notes are laid out randomly.

The team begins to group each of the cards or notes, moving those
that they do not agree with until everyone is happy with the grouping.

A short description is produced for each grouping.

The team identifies how the headings relate to each other.

Figure 3 An example of an affinity diagram

Staff morale problems
Conditions
of service
Low pay
Lost benefits
Poor pension
Compulsory
overtime

Environment

No staff
empowerment

Cramped office
conditions

Staff feedback
not acted on

Location

Not visible

Old buildings
Decoration

Managers
seem aloof

No staff-room

Equipment

Workload

Staff

Failing IT

Excessive workload

Office gossip

Machinery
breakdown

Staff shortages

No socialising

Unequal work
distribution

Untrained staff

Unpaid overtime

Shortage of
photocopiers

18 Making quality sense

Management style

Some staff not

helping out with
problems

Unhelpful
colleagues

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a simple way to generate a large number of
ideas from a group of people in a relatively short period of time.
The idea is that a group of people bounce ideas off each other.
Even really impractical ideas are seen as useful as they can
generate new ideas that are more practical.

Steps in brainstorming

Write the problem on a board or flipchart.

Choose a group leader.

Assemble the group around the board or chart.

Members of the team call out ideas for solving the problem.
This can either be done in rotation or people can call out
as they get ideas.

All ideas are written up.

Once the ideas are generated the team eliminates those

that are unlikely to work and prioritises those that remain.

Brainstorming rules

Everyones comments and ideas are equally valid.

All ideas must be recorded, no matter how off the wall they seem.

There should be no criticism of ideas during the idea-generating

part of the brainstorming.

Think the unthinkable.

Quality tools and techniques 19

Cause and effect

The cause and effect diagram ( Figure 4 ), sometimes called an
Ishikawa diagram, is a graphical representation of the likely causes
of problems in a process. Because of the shape of the diagram
it is also sometimes referred to as fish bone analysis.
Figure 4 An example of a cause and effect diagram
People

Plant
Equipment
breakdown

Skills

Training

Ingredients

Badly
cooked food

Product
specification

Staff numbers

Cooking time
Policies

20 Making quality sense

Procedures

Maintenance rota

Each of the possible causes of a problem is drawn against a branch.

One method used is the 5M method, where each branch is assigned
one of the following headings :

machinery

manpower

method

material

maintenance.
In non-manufacturing organisations the 4P method ( see Figure 4 )
is often used :

people

plant ( the equipment used )

policies

procedures.
Of course, each situation is different and it may be better to use
your own headings.
The contributory causes of each of these main causes are
then identified, usually using brainstorming.
The diagram is generally drawn up by a group of people who are
involved in the process being examined. As with brainstorming,
the method is guided by a facilitator who ensures that everyone
can contribute to the discussion.

Quality tools and techniques 21

Check sheets / tally sheets

Check sheets / tally sheets ( Figure 5 ) are simple methods of
recording and displaying data. They need to be prepared in advance
and can then be completed with ease.
Figure 5 An example of a check / tally sheet showing issues highlighted

on a staff satisfaction survey for a college department

Date : 3 December 2001
Issue raised

Most important
issue raised

Other
issue raised

Management

Staff morale /Appreciation

IT

Salary

Workload

Other

22 Making quality sense

Flowcharts
Flowcharts are diagrammatic representations of processes. They can
be constructed using a very small number of symbols ( Figure 6 ) .
Figure 6 Flowchart symbols

Start of
process

End of
process

Process

Decision

Connecting arrow showing direction of activity

There are many other symbols, but it is often best to keep to
as small a number as practicable to ensure that as many people
as possible can understand them.
Flowcharting is a way to make sure that you understand each stage
in a process and how each stage links to the next stage. A flowchart
is simply a pictorial description of a process that shows activities
and their results in the order they take place ( Figure 7 ) . Though
producing flowcharts is time consuming there are a number of
benefits to using them. The interaction between activities becomes
much clearer using a flowchart than looking at a text-based description.
It is much easier to identify duplication of effort, and work that
does not add to the value of the process.

Quality tools and techniques 23

Figure 7 An example of a flowchart

Start

Member of staff
contacts
department
about possible
publication
Publications
administrator helps
proposer to
complete form
Has proposal
form been
completed ?

No

Yes
Form
checked by
publications
manager

Discuss timetable
with author and
negotiate a
new timetable

No

Is
timetable
achievable ?

Yes

Does
publication
have appropriate
budget and
approval ?

No

Yes
Publications
manager signs form
with comments
and passes to
coordinator

24 Making quality sense

Publication put on
schedule with job
number

End

The following guidelines should be considered before flowcharting.

The people who should develop the flowchart are those people
involved in the process area.

Use a facilitator who is not involved in the process to ask the obvious
questions that people involved in the process are often not free
to ask why do this ?, who is responsible ? and what is this for ?.

Decide how detailed the flowchart will be before starting

it is easy to become so involved in the detail that the flowchart
becomes unmanageable.

The flowchart should initially be constructed using a wipe board

or Post-it notes, as there will inevitably be a number of additions
and changes to the chart as it is developed.

Remember to flowchart what actually happens,

not what should happen.

Flowcharts often take longer to construct than anticipated.

Allow for a second meeting where staff can bring along additional
information highlighted during the first meeting.

Force field analysis

Force field analysis is a way of illustrating the positive and negative
forces acting on a process. It allows an organisation to see what
positive aspects need to be reinforced and what negative forces
need to be dealt with.
A straight line, representing the process being analysed, is drawn
down the centre of a sheet. Drivers and barriers are then added,
drawn as arrows pointing away from the line. Positive forces ( drivers )
point in one direction and negative forces ( barriers ) point in the other.
To give additional detail the arrows can be weighted that is,
drawn in proportion to their influence on the process.
Figure 8 shows some of the most probable positive and negative
forces for a process of changing work methods at one organisation.
The drivers and barriers would be different in each organisation
and the length of the arrows would also depend on the culture
and situation of the organisation.

Quality tools and techniques 25

Figure 8 An example of a force field diagram

Positive force

Negative force

Staff
resistance

Management
commitment

Resources
Lack of
funding
Quality
culture
Possible
job losses
Need to
improve

Drivers

26 Making quality sense

Barriers

Gantt charts
A Gantt chart ( Figure 9 ) is a useful method of planning and monitoring
a project. It shows the progress of each element of a project on
a separate line, plotted against the estimated or actual time for
each element. The elements can run consecutively, or in parallel.
Gantt charts show the likely overall timescale for projects and,
by updating them regularly, it is possible to highlight any
potential problems that could alter the completion date.
Though there are specific software packages available for
constructing Gantt charts, they can be drawn by hand or by using
a basic spreadsheet package.

Constructing a Gantt chart

Split the project into bite-sized elements.

Estimate the time it will take to complete each element.

Determine whether each element is dependent on the completion

of a previous element before it can be started or completed.

List the elements down one side of the sheet in time order
of them starting.

List the overall timescale along the top of the sheet.

Draw in a block on each line showing the timescale for each element.
The chart should be updated regularly, using different colours
or shading to show completed, current and pending elements
of the project and altering timescales where appropriate.

Quality tools and techniques 27

Figure 9 An example of a Gantt chart

Staff consultation project
Week ending
Scope project
Assemble team
Establish main issues
Design questionnaires
Distribute questionnaires
Questionnaires completed and returned
Scanning returns
Analysing results
Produce report
Print report
Distribute report to staff
Complete
Planned
External deadlines shown by line

28 Making quality sense

8 Sep

15 Sep

22 Sep

29 Sep

6 Oct

13 Oct

20 Oct

27 Oct

3 Nov

10 Nov

17 Nov

24 Nov

1 Dec

8 Dec

15 Dec

22 Dec

Quality tools and techniques 29

Histograms
A histogram ( Figure 10 ) is a bar chart that is used to demonstrate
the variation in a set of data. It shows the frequency with which
particular values occur and is a good method of illustrating
the shape of the distribution.
Figure 10 An example of a histogram
Learners on a course
9
8

Number of learners

7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Age range

30 Making quality sense

42 45

38 41

34 37

30 33

26 29

22 25

18 21

Moments of truth
Moments of truth (M o T ) are the times when a customer comes
into contact with a member of staff.
Organisations are often not aware of how many of these moments of
truth there are. There is a tendency to concentrate on more obvious
examples such as when a customer is greeted at reception or when a
call is made to the service department. This can lead to less obvious
moments of truth, such as when a customer makes a telephone call to
the finance department or asks a cleaner for directions in a corridor,
being ignored. It is often these less obvious moments of truth that
are the make or break points for customers when they are deciding
whether they are satisfied.
It is a good idea for organisations to map moments of truth to
establish what areas and processes they should review and
what staff may need additional training.

Pareto analysis
Pareto was an Italian economist who realised that 85% of the
countrys wealth was in the hands of 15% of the people. This basic
principle, sometimes called the 80 /20 rule, appeared to be
applicable to vast numbers of numerical facts.
Using this theory, we can assume that 80% of problems result from
20% of causes. In factories, for example, 80% of the value of the
stock in storerooms is likely to be held by 20% of the items in stock.
In surgeries, 80% of visits to GP s are likely to be made by 20% of
registered patients.
A simple way to use this tool is to analyse the root cause of complaints
and comments made over the past year. These root causes could
then be categorised into groups and ranked according to how much
they cost, how often they occur or how much time is spent solving
the problems. By using the Pareto method to analyse the root cause
of complaints you can focus on processes whose improvement
will make the biggest difference to service delivery.
It is usual to portray the results as a Pareto diagram ( Figure 11 ),
a type of bar chart with the most frequently occurring or most
costly area to the left of the diagram and the least to the right.

Quality tools and techniques 31

Figure 11 An example of a Pareto diagram

Frequency of complaint types received

Complaints received in college X

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

Complaint type

32 Making quality sense

he
r
Ot

li t
ci
Fa

Tr
an
sp
or
t
Bu
ild
in
gs
Ca
te
r in
g

ie
s

ce
vi
Ad

Te
ac

hi

ng

Scatter diagrams
A scatter diagram is a chart that shows data by displaying the
relationship between two variables. It is a way of finding out whether
one variable ( eg the number of hours a learner revises for an exam )
is affected by another variable ( eg the exam results ) and whether
the effect is positive or negative.
Figure 12 An example of a scatter diagram with positive correlation
90
80

..
. .
..

70

Exam mark

60

Line of best fit

50
40

.. .
.

30
20
10
0
0

10

Hours studied
Figure 12 shows that for this mocked-up group of learners,
the more they studied the better their exam results. This suggests
that studying had a positive effect on exam results.
Other diagrams ( Figure 13 ) might show a negative correlation.

Quality tools and techniques 33

Figure 13 An example of a scatter diagram with negative correlation

.. .
.. .
. . ..

80
70
60

Line of best fit

50
40

. .

30
20
10
0
0

10

The closer the data points are grouped around a theoretical

straight line the stronger the relationship. Figures 14 and 15 show
scatter diagrams with strong and weak relationships, respectively.

34 Making quality sense

Figure 14 An example of a scatter diagram with a strong relationship

3.75
3.5
3.25

. ..
..
.
.
. ......
.

3
2.75
2.5
2.25

..

..

Line of best fit

2
3

3.25

3.5

3.75

4.25

4.5

4.75

Figure 15 An example of a scatter diagram with a weak relationship

3.75

3.5

..
... . .
. .. . .
.. . .. . .

3.25
3
2.75
2.5
2.25

Line of best fit

2
3

3.25

3.5

3.75

4.25

4.5

4.75

Quality tools and techniques 35

SWOT analysis
SWOT ( strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats ) analysis

is a useful tool for establishing the strengths and weaknesses

of a process, innovation, department or organisation.
The relevant issues are recorded against each of the four headings.

Example issues for strengths :

what do we do well ?

what advantages do we have ? ( staff knowledge,

good resources, good reputation, etc ) .

Example issues for weaknesses :

what do we do badly ?

what needs improvement ?

what disadvantages do we have ? ( inadequate funding,

staff shortages, poor reputation, etc ) .

Example issues for opportunities :

social changes

new technology

government policy changes

new funding

additional customers.

Example issues for threats :

competition

declining customer base

funding cuts

high staff turnover.

It is always a good idea to involve others when going through
this process, as one person is unlikely to be able to understand
or recognise all of the issues. Use brainstorming to gather a
more comprehensive view.

36 Making quality sense

Models, awards
and assessment

There are several quality models that are used by organisations

in all sectors. Some models are intended to be a basis for
self-assessment, others are used to demonstrate that organisations
have reached specified quality standards and are externally assessed.
Though each model has a slightly different focus they are all based
on providing products and services that systematically meet
customer needs and, through formalised reviews, ensure that
the organisation concerned continues to meet those needs.
The five examples discussed in this chapter are :

Charter Mark

EFQM Excellence Model

Investors in People

ISO 9000

PROBE ( Promoting Business Excellence ) .

Charter Mark
The Charter Mark scheme is a customer service standard and an
award promoted by the government. All public sector organisations
that deal directly or indirectly with the public can apply to be awarded
a Charter Mark.
Charter Marks are given to organisations by a panel of independent
judges on the basis of the recommendations of a team of assessors.

37

To gain a Charter Mark an organisation has to fulfil

the following ten criteria.
1 Set standards
2 Be open and provide full information
3 Consult and involve
4 Encourage access and the promotion of choice
5 Treat all fairly
6 Put things right when they go wrong
7 Use resources effectively
8 Innovate and improve
9 Work with other providers
10 Provide user satisfaction.

Applicants must send a 13-page written application explaining how

they meet the criteria, along with supporting documentary evidence.
The organisation is then visited by an assessor who gives detailed
feedback on the visit and on the evidence provided. If the organisation
is judged to have reached the required standard it is awarded a
Charter Mark. Organisations wishing to retain their Charter Mark
must be re-assessed every 3 years.

EFQM Excellence Model

The European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM )
Excellence Model is promoted in the UK by the British Quality
Foundation (BQF ) . The model ( Figure 16 ) is based on nine criteria ;
five of these are enablers covering what an organisation does
leadership, people, policy and strategy, partnership and resources,
and process and four are results covering what an organisation
achieves people results, customer results, society results and
key performance results.

38 Making quality sense

Results

People

People results

Policy and
strategy

Partnerships
and resources

Customer
results

Society
results

Key performance results

Enablers

Processes

Leadership

Figure 16 Diagram illustrating the EFQM Excellence Model

The model is designed to be used as a self-assessment tool, but

if an organisation feels its performance against the model is of
a sufficient level an external assessment can be requested to obtain
a Quality Award. To apply for the award an organisation must submit
a document for assessment. If shortlisted, the organisation is then
visited and a jury considers the results of the visit.
The Excellence Model helps identify strengths and weaknesses,
provides a benchmark against which an organisation can measure
itself from year to year, and allows an organisation to compare itself
against other organisations.

Investors in People
Investors in People (I i P ) is an award that is given to organisations
that meet criteria laid down for the training and development of
people. It was developed in 1990 by the National Training Task Force,
in collaboration with a number of well-respected organisations
including the CBI ( Confederation of British Industry ), Trades Union
Congress (TUC ) and Institute of Personnel and Development (IPD ) .

Models, awards and assessment 39

It is based on the premise that an organisation cannot continue to be

successful if it does not ally its peoples skills with its business needs.
Table 2 sets out the principles and indicators of the standards.
Table 2 Principles and indicators of I i P standards
Investors in People UK 2000
Principles

Indicators

Commitment
An Investor in People is fully
committed to developing its
people in order to achieve
its aims and objectives

The organisation is committed to supporting

the development of its people
People are encouraged to improve their own
and other peoples performance
People believe their contribution to
the organisation is recognised
The organisation is committed to ensuring
equality of opportunity in the development
of its people

Planning
An Investor in People is clear
about its aims and its objectives
and what its people need to do
to achieve them

The organisation has a plan with clear aims and

objectives which are understood by everyone

Action
An Investor in People develops
its people effectively in order
to improve its performance

Managers are effective in supporting

the development of people

Evaluation
An Investor in People understands
the impact of its investment
in people on its performance

The development of people improves the

performance of the organisation, teams
and individuals

The development of people is in line with

the organisations aims and objectives
People understand how they contribute to
achieving the organisations aims and objectives

People learn and develop effectively

People understand the impact of

the development of people on the performance
of the organisation, teams and individuals
The organisation gets better at developing
its people

40 Making quality sense

ISO 9000
ISO is the International Organisation for Standardisation. It is made up

of national standards institutes from countries across the world.

It develops technical standards for all types of organisations
and sectors.
ISO 9000 , one of the most widely known standards, is an
internationally recognised standard for quality management
systems. It originates from the British Standard BS 5750 .
The standards origins are in the manufacturing sector but it
is now used by organisations in all sectors.

The most recent version of the standard, ISO 9000 :2000 ,

is based around eight quality management principles :
1 Customer focus
2 Leadership
3 Involvement of people
4 Process approach
5 Systems approach to management
6 Continual improvement
7 Factual approach to decision-making
8 Mutually beneficial suppliers relationships.
Once an organisation has implemented a system that meets
the standard it can apply for accreditation. This means that
the organisation can advertise the fact that it has an approved
quality management system.
It is important to remember that ISO 9000 accreditation is for
the quality system and not for the products or services that
the organisation provides. Beware of organisations that claim
their products are manufactured to ISO 9000 they are not.
ISO is also responsible for many other standards, some generic,

and some specific to sectors, products or services.

ISO 14000 an environmental management standard

is also becoming more widely used in all sectors.

Models, awards and assessment 41

PROBE
PROBE ( Promoting Business Excellence ) is a questionnaire-based

diagnostic benchmarking tool developed to give organisations

a snapshot of their current state. It is managed by the University
of Northumbria at Newcastle (UNN ) for the CBI and is based on
work published in 1998 as an International Service Study by
Richard Chase, Aleda Roth and Chris Voss.
PROBE covers the practices and performance across
a broad range of issues :

business leadership

service processes

people

performance management

results.
Each of these areas is examined in detail to establish
the organisations current practices.

PROBE steps
The PROBE benchmarking process is team-based and consists
of the steps outlined below.
Team selection Individuals are chosen from across the organisation
and from different management levels. They are people who are able
and prepared to contribute to the discussion.
Initial communication The team leader acts as the point of
communication to team members. Leaders distribute the team
member procedures, guidelines and questionnaires to the team.
Questionnaire The individuals on the team complete the questionnaire
before meeting ( consulting with colleagues where appropriate ) .
First meeting The team leader arranges the first team meeting,
which lasts a half day ( maximum recommended time 3 to 4 hours )
to enable discussion and reflection of the individual scores,
reaching a team consensus score where possible.

42 Making quality sense

Facilitated day An accredited facilitator leads the facilitated day

with the team members, ideally held within 1 to 2 weeks of the
first meeting. Summary results from the exercise are presented to
the team at the end of this day. A written summary report is submitted
by the facilitator, normally within 10 working days. This report will
highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the organisation.
Action planning day The facilitator revisits the organisation
to work through key issues with the team.

Learning PROBE
The Learning and Skills Development Agency (LSDA ) has developed
a version of the tool that is designed specifically for the learning
and skills sector Learning PROBE . The tool is readily applicable
to colleges and training providers throughout the sector but at the
same time ensures full compatibility with the non-education-based
version Service PROBE .

Models, awards and assessment 43

Quality gurus

This chapter summarises the ideas of four well-known quality gurus :

Crosby, Deming, Ishikawa and Juran. Their work has been used
as a foundation for much quality theory over the past 50 years.
There are, however, many other specialists who have contributed
to the advancement of quality theory and practice. Some of these
are also identified.

Crosby
Philip R Crosby was born in 1926 . The Crosby philosophy is that
quality is free and that the goal of any system should be zero defects.
It is based on four absolutes of quality :

the definition of quality is conformance to requirements

quality is achieved by prevention rather than inspection

the quality standard should be zero defects

the measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance.

Crosby identified a 14-step quality improvement process :

1 establish that management is committed to quality improvement

2 form a quality improvement team
3 establish the actual quality of the process, product or service
4 evaluate the cost of quality ( price of non-conformance )
5 raise quality awareness across the entire organisation
6 take corrective actions
7 plan a zero defects programme
8 give all staff training in quality
9 hold a zero defects day
10 ensure that staff and departments set goals for improvement
45

11 ensure that staff identify causes of errors and

are given management support to remove them
12 recognise all improvements and all staff involved in the improvements
13 establish quality councils
14 do it all over again.

Deming
W Edwards Deming was born in 1900 . He is most famous for his
work on quality in Japan. He began teaching in Japan in 1950 at the
request of the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE ) ;
the Deming Prize for Quality began the following year, 1951 .
Demings philosophy, summarised in his 14 points, is that quality
can only be achieved by adopting an organisation-wide commitment
to continuous improvement and training, and by ensuring that
all people work together, removing barriers between departments
and between staff and management. There is an emphasis
on the psychology of motivation for both staff and managers
in Demings philosophy.
Demings 14 points are :
1 create constancy of purpose towards improvement
of product and service
2 adopt the new philosophy
3 cease dependence on mass inspection
4 end the practice of awarding business on the basis of price
5 constantly improve the system of production and service
6 institute training
7 institute leadership
8 drive out fear
9 break down barriers between departments and staff
10 eliminate slogans for staff
11 eliminate numerical goals and management by objective
12 remove barriers that stop staff having pride in their work,
such as annual ratings and merit payments
13 institute a vigorous programme of education and training for all staff
14 take action to accomplish the transformation.

46 Making quality sense

Ishikawa
Kaoru Ishikawa was born in 1915 . His theories are based on
the belief that quality improvement is a continuous process.
He developed a system of seven basic quality tools that can be
used to support this continuous improvement. The tools are
designed so that staff at all levels can use them without having
to undergo excessive training.
Ishikawas seven basic tools are :

cause and effect diagrams

check sheets

control charts

flowcharts

histograms

Pareto diagrams

scatter diagrams.
His philosophy promotes the use of quality circles and the
involvement of staff at all levels in the quality process. It also
stresses the importance of management support to ensure
the quality of an organisations products or services.

Juran
Joseph M Juran was born in 1904 . He defined quality as fitness
for purpose and stated that the customers needs should inform
process, product and service design. Like Deming, he believed
that staff are not the main cause of poor quality, and that less
than 20% of problems are caused by an organisations staff.
His philosophy is based around three specific areas ;
his quality trilogy :

quality planning

quality control

quality improvement.

Quality gurus 47

He identified 10 steps in the quality improvement cycle :

1 build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement
2 set goals for improvement
3 organise to reach the goals
4 provide training throughout the organisation
5 carry out projects to solve problems
6 report progress
7 give recognition
8 communicate results
9 keep score of any improvements
10 maintain momentum by making improvement part
of the processes and systems of the organisation.

Other gurus
Feigenbaum
Arman V Feigenbaums philosophy promotes the use of
organisation-wide systematic quality methods that involve
all staff and areas of an organisation.

Moller
Claus Moller asserted that the cornerstone of quality within an
organisation is the personal development of its staff. Many of his
ideas are based around identifying the ideal performance (IP ) and
actual performance (AP ) levels of staff and how to improve the AP .

Peters
Tom Peters stated that leadership is key to an organisation.
His theories promotes the concept of MBWA management by
walking about. They also place great emphasis on the customer focus
of an organisation. His more recent work focused on the need
for innovation, summarised as distinct or extinct, and the
need for organisations to make the most of women as customers
and employees.

48 Making quality sense

Shingo
Shigeo Shingo is best known for his concept of Poka-Yoke, a method
of foolproofing that prevents mistakes being made. His theories
emphasise the need to set up systems that will, by their design,
always produce quality products or services.

Taguchi
Genichi Taguchis ideas place the emphasis of quality in the
pre-production of products or services. His theory is that quality
and reliability are the result of the design of services and products
rather than inspection.

Quality gurus 49

Quality jargon buster

BEM Business Excellence Model Now known as the

EFQM Excellence Model
BQF British Quality Foundation The BQF is a not-for-profit
membership organisation promoting business excellence in
all sectors
BSI British Standards Institution Responsible for standards
across a wide range of sectors ; awards the Kitemark
DTI Department of Trade and Industry Government department
that focuses mainly on the needs of business. It produces many
good-practice guides that are applicable to the learning sector
EFQM European Foundation for Quality Management EFQM was
founded in 1988 and has more than 800 members. It was responsible
for developing the EFQM Excellence Model in 1991 ( see page 38 )
I i P Investors in People Investors in People is an award that
is given to organisations that meet criteria laid down for training
and development of their staff ( see page 39 )
IQA Institute of Quality Assurance A membership organisation
for the promotion of quality practices
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation ISO develops
technical standards for all types of organisations and sectors. ISO 9000

is its standard for quality management systems ( see page 41 )

JIT just in time Producing and purchasing products just in time

for delivery to avoid building up large stock levels. It can save

a considerable amount of money but must be well planned
and should incorporate a good quality management system

51

MBWA management by walking about The theory that managers

should manage an organisation by getting to know front-line staff
and their work. It ensures that managers have a better understanding
of the issues that arise outside the management team
M o T moment of truth The moment when a customer comes
into direct contact with a member of staff ( see page 31 )
PDSA plan, do, study, act A systematic method of

improving processes, services or products

PROBE Promoting Business Excellence

A diagnostic benchmarking tool ( see page 42 )

QA quality assurance A method of assuring the quality of the

final goods or services as well as the quality of the processes

( see page 4 )
QC quality control A method of controlling quality

through monitoring and measurement ( see page 3 )

RQA Raising Quality and Achievement Programme A programme
within the Learning and Skills Development Agency that offers
support on quality issues
SPC statistical process control Used predominately in a
manufacturing context. SPC is a method of controlling the
quality of a process by using systematic measurement and
monitoring techniques
SWOT strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats
SWOT analysis is a useful framework on which to assess a situation

( see page 36 )
TQM total quality management TQM is a management model that

is based on the philosophy that quality is everyones responsibility.

It involves integrating quality systems into every aspect of
an organisations operation ( see page 4 )
UKAS United Kingdom Accreditation Service UKAS is the

sole national body for the accreditation of testing and calibration

laboratories, certification and inspection bodies

52 Making quality sense

Next steps

Remember that quality is not just about meeting the standards

set down by external agencies or about passing inspections.
It is about ensuring that you constantly meet the needs of all
of your customers.
If you want to find out more about quality theories and quality tools
there are many resources available.
The Raising Quality and Achievement (RQA ) Programme within
LSDA was established to support the sector in this area. Details of
support are listed on the RQA website. There are also downloadable
publications available.
Other organisations also offer resources and information.
The DTI site, in particular, has downloadable publications on
many management theories.
Details of useful websites are given under Further information.

53

Further information
Books
Dale BG . Managing quality ( 3rd edn ) . Blackwell Publishers,
Malden Massachusetts, 1999 .
DTI . Statistical process control : an introduction to
quality improvement. URN 95 /656 DTI Publications, 1995 .
DTI . From quality to excellence. URN 00 /1226 DTI Publications, 2000 .

Evans JR , Lindsay WM . The management and control of quality

( 5th edn ) . West Publishing Company, St Paul, Minnesota, 2001 .
Oakland JS. TQM ( 2nd edn ) . Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000 .
Owen J. College guide to benchmarking. LSDA , 2000 .
Owen J. Consultancy for free. LSDA , 2001 .

Websites
Charter Mark www.chartermark.gov.uk
This site gives details of Charter Mark criteria and has background
information on some organisations that have gone for the award.
DTI (Department of Trade and Industry) www.dti.gov.uk

The site has lots of useful information on quality issues and

general management theory. There is also access to a number
of useful downloadable publications.
EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management) www.efqm.org
This site gives background information on the EFQM , details of

the Quality Model, and explains how to apply for the award.
IQA (Institute of Quality Assurance) www.iqa.org

The site gives details of the Institute and the services it offers.
LSDA (Learning and Skills Development Agency) www.LSDA .org.uk

The site shows all of the support available from the Agency. There is
also access to a considerable number of downloadable publications.
RQA (Raising Quality and Achievement) www.rqa.org.uk
The RQA site lists details of the support available to the sector
from the Benchmarking and Information strand and from each of
the other strands within the programme.

55

Appendix

Example code of conduct for

process benchmarking
Preparation
Demonstrate commitment by being prepared before making
an initial benchmarking contact.
Make the most of your benchmarking partners time by being
fully prepared for each meeting.
Help your benchmarking partners prepare by providing them
with a questionnaire and agenda before benchmarking visits.

Contact
Respect the culture of partner organisations and work
within mutually agreed procedures.
Use the preferred contact( s ) designated by the partner organisation.
Agree how far communication or responsibility is to be
delegated in the course of the benchmarking exercise.
Check mutual understanding.
Obtain an individuals permission before providing their name
in response to a contact request.

Exchange
Be willing to provide the same type and level of information that you
request from your benchmarking partner to your benchmarking partner.
Clarify expectations and avoid misunderstanding by establishing
the scope of the project as early as possible.
Be honest.

57

Confidentiality
Treat benchmarking findings as confidential to the individuals and
organisations involved. Such information must not be communicated
to third parties without prior consent ; make sure that you specify
clearly what information is to be shared, and with whom.
An organisations participation in a study is confidential and
should not be communicated externally without their prior permission.

Use of information
Use information obtained through benchmarking only for purposes
stated and agreed with the benchmarking partner.
The use or communication of a benchmarking partners name
with the data obtained or the practices observed requires
the prior permission of that partner.
Contact lists or other contact information provided by benchmarking
networks or databases will only be used for benchmarking.

Legality
If there is any potential question on the legality of an activity,
you should take legal advice.
Avoid discussions or actions that could lead to or imply
anti-competitive practices. Dont discuss your pricing policy
with competitors.
Do not obtain information by any means that could be interpreted
as improper.
Do not disclose or use any confidential information that may have
been obtained through improper means, or that was disclosed
by another in violation of duty of confidentiality.
Do not pass on benchmarking findings to another organisation
without first getting the permission of your benchmarking partner
and without first ensuring that the data is appropriately anonymous
so that the participants identities are protected.

58 Making quality sense

Completion
Follow through each commitment made to your
benchmarking partner in a timely manner.
Try to complete each benchmarking project to the satisfaction
of all benchmarking partners.

Understanding and agreement

Understand how your benchmarking partner would like to be treated,
and treat them in that way.
Agree how your partner expects you to use the information provided,
and do not use it in any way that would break that agreement.

Appendix 59

raising quality
and achievement
programme

Quality management is now a part of all sectors

and its language has become part of everyday
business speech. However, the terminology can be
off-putting for people who are not part of the quality
profession, and quality and the different gurus and
theories can seem confusing. Books on quality
are often fairly heavy tomes, and as a result the
world of quality management can remain closed
to many people.
The truth is that quality is based on common-sense
principles that most people can easily understand.
The practices and theories are as applicable to
education and training as they are to any other
sector. This publication is intended to guide you
through some of the commonly used tools,
techniques and theories. It is not comprehensive
but will, give you a basic knowledge of the subject
and point you towards further reading and
organisations should you need to find out more.

ISBN 1 85338 760 6