Physical Chemistry

Electrochemistry I
Dr. Rajeev Jain
School of Studies in Chemistry
Jiwaji University, Gwalior 11
CONTENTS
Conduction in Metals and in Electrolyte Solutions
Metallic Conductors
Electrolytic Conductors
Conduction in Electrolyte Solutions
Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Strong Electrolytes
Weak Electrolytes
Specific Conductance and Molar Conductance
Measurement of Molar Conductance
Determination of Cell Constant
Variation of Molar and Specific Conductance with Dilution
Kohlrauschs Law of Independent Migration of Ions
Migration of Ions
Arrhenius Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation
Ostwalds Dilution Law
Applications of Ostwalds Dilution Law
Debye-Huckel-Onsagar Equation
Transport Numbers
Applications of Conductivity Measurements

1. Conduction in Metals and in Electrolyte Solutions

Conductors can be divided broadly into two categories:
(i)

Metallic or electronic conductors

(ii)

Electrolytic conductors

(i) Metallic Conductors

Metals are the best conductor and it remains unchanged with the passage of current. A metallic
conductor behaves as if it contains electrons which are relatively free to move. So electrons are
considered as charge carrier in metals. Therefore, these conductors are also called electronic
conductors. Metallic conduction or electronic conduction is the property possessed by pure metals,
most alloys, carbon and certain solid salts and oxides.
(ii) Electrolytic Conductors
1

Conductors, through which passage of an electric current through them results in actual transfer
of matter or brings about a chemical change in them, are called electrolytic conductors or electrolytes.
Electrolytic conductors are of two types: (a)

In the first category are electrolytic conductors, which conduct electrolytically in the
pure state, such as acids, bases and salt in water. e.g. NaCl, NaNO3, K2SO4 etc.

(b)

In second category are generally put electrolytic conductors which consists of solutions
of one or more substances. Electrochemistry is mainly concerned with this type of
electrolytic conductor.

Generally electrolytic solutions are prepared by dissolving a salt, acid or base in water or other
solvents. There is a special class of conductors, which conduct partly electronically and partly
electrolytically, are known as mixed conductors. For example, solution of the alkali and alkaline earth
metals in liquid ammonia are mixed conductors. Fused cuprous sulphide conducts electronically, but a
mixture with sodium or ferrous sulphide also shows electrolytic conduction.
1.1 Conduction in Electrolyte Solutions
The passage of current through solutions of salts of metals such as zinc, iron, nickel, cadmium,
lead, copper, silver and mercury results in the liberation of these metals at the cathode and from
solutions of salts of the metals. If the anode consists of an attackable metal, the flow of the current is
accompanied by the passage of the metal into solution. When the anode is made of an inert metal, e.g.,
platinum, an element is generally set free at this electrode; from solutions of nitrates, sulphates,
phosphates, etc., oxygen gas is liberated, whereas from halide solutions, other than fluorides, the free
halogen is produced. The decomposition of solutions by the electric current, resulting in the liberation
of gases or metals, is known as electrolysis.
1.2 Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Solutes giving conducting solution in a suitable solvent are called electrolytes. On the basis of
degree of ionization, these electrolytes have been divided into two categories.
(i)

Strong electrolytes

(ii)

Weak electrolytes

1.2.1 Strong Electrolytes

Substances, which are highly dissociated and give solutions with high conductance in water, are
called strong electrolytes. Due to the high degree of dissociation of strong electrolytes these substances
are good conductor of electricity i.e., aqueous solutions of these substances have high value of molar
conductance and on dilution the increase in their molar conductance is very small. This is due to the
fact that such electrolytes are completely ionized at all dilutions therefore on further dilution the
number of current carrying particles does not increase in the solution. Thus, solutions of electrolytes
that have high molar conductance, and increases very slowly on dilution has a high degree of
dissociation is called strong electrolyte.
During the passage of an electric current through solutions, flow of electricity is associated with
the movement of particles, which are called ions. The ions carrying positive charges and moving in the
direction of the current, i.e., towards the cathode, are referred to as cations and those carrying a
negative charge and moving in the opposite direction, i.e., towards the anode, are called anions.
2

1.2.2 Weak Electrolytes

Weak acids and weak bases, e.g., amines, phenols, most carboxylic acids and some inorganic
acids and bases, such as hydrocyanic acid and ammonia, and a few salts, e.g., mercuric chloride and
cyanide, are dissociated only to a small extent at reasonable concentration; this group of compounds in
general are called as weak electrolytes.
The molar conductance of the solutions of these electrolytes increases rapidly on dilution.
The reason of this is that more molecules ionize on dilution inspite of this they are never completely
ionized. For these electrolytes, the nature of the solvent is also important; a particular compound may
be strong electrolyte, being dissociated to large extent, in one solvent, but may behave as weak
electrolyte in other solvent due to low degree of dissociation.
Q. Which of the following are strong electrolytes?
(a) CH3COOH

(b) H2SO4

(e) HNO3

(f) NH3

(c) NH4Cl

(d) NaCl

(c) & (d) are soluble hydroxides; (b) and (e) are first proton.

2. Specific Conductance and Molar Conductance

Conductance
Consider a uniform bar of conductor of length l cm and cross-sectional area a sq. cm and the
cross section is rectangular and that the whole body is placed into cubes of one cm. side, as shown in
Figure 1.

Fig. 1

Ohms law states that The magnitude of current (I) passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference (E) applied across it and inversely proportional to the resistance
(R) of the conductor.

Q. The molar conductivity of a solution containing 2.54 g of CuSO4/L is 91.0 cm2/.mole. What is the
resistance of a cm3 of this solution when placed between two electrodes 1.00 cm apart, each having an
area of 1.00 cm2.

, where C =

N
= mole/cm3
1000

2.54 g of CuSO4

1mol 2mol

159.5 g mol = 0.0318 M CuSO4

L

91cm2 0.0318mol

= 2.89 x 10-3 Scm-1
3
mol 1000cm

We know that,

1
1
=
R= .
A 2.89 x 10 3 Scm 1

i=

E
R

1.00cm
= 346

2
1.00cm

(1)

Thus, metallic conductor and electrolytes obey Ohms law. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance
and is expressed in Siemen (S).
Conductance =

1
R

(2)

2.1 Specific Conductance or Conductivity

The resistance of the bar (Fig.1) to the passage of electricity through it is proportional to its
length l (cm) and inversely proportional to the area of cross section a, therefore, the resistance R is
given by the relationship.
1
1
or R = ohms
a
a

(3)

Where, is a constant known as specific resistance or resistivity.

If, l = 1cm., a = 1 cm2
Then, = R ohm cm
Specific conductance of any conducting material is defined as the reciprocal of its specific
resistance. It is given the symbol and is stated in reciprocal ohm cm-1, nowadays called Scm-1.
Conductance G is then defined as

G=

G=

a
S
l

(4)

1
R

The conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance, i.e. G =

(5)
1
R

2.2 Molar Conductance

Molar conductivity of a solution is the conductivity of that volume containing 1 mole of an

electrolyte when placed between two sufficiently large electrodes, which are 1 cm. apart. It is
represented by m.

Suppose 1 mole of an electrolyte is dissolved in m cm3 of a solution. Such a solution will

cover an area of cm2 of the electrodes kept 1 cm apart. The conductance of this system, which is the
l
, where a is equal to cm2 and l is 1
molar conductance m, may be derived from equation R =
a
cm; thus
(6)

m =

Where is the dilution of the solution in cc. per mole. If c is the concentration of the solution,
in mol /l, then is equal to 1000/c, then it becomes
m = 1000

(7)

However if c is expressed the equivalent conductance of any solution can thus be readily
derived from its specific conductance and concentration. Since the units of are S cm-1, those of m
comes out from eq. (6) or (7) to be Scm2 mol-1.
If one uses SI units then the units for is m-1 for is Sm and for m is Sm2 mol-1. In earlier the
term equivalent conductance was used. It is defined as the conductance of 1gram equivalent of
electrolyte in solution with a given concentration.
3. Measurement of Molar Conductance

Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance and the resistance can be determined by a

Wheatstone bridge circuit in which the conductivity cell forms one arm of the bridge, this method is
known as Null Method (Kohlrausch conductance bridge).

(A)

(B)

Fig. 2: (A) Wheatstone bridge circuit for measurement of conductivity, (B) Conductivity cell with one
arm of a resistance bridge for measurement of conductivity of an electrolyte.
The arms AB and BC represented by resistance R1 and R2 are usually in the form of a single
calibrated slide wire resistor with a sliding contact connected to the null detector. The solution whose
conductance is to be determined is placed in conductivity cell. When the bridge is balanced, assuming
that the conductivity cell behaves as a pure resistance, then the voltage between B and D is equal to
zero.
R
R = 1 x R3
R2

(8)

By adjustment of the ratio R1/R2, a wide range of resistances can be measured. However,
whenever possible, this ratio should not deviate too far away from unity. The cell capacitance is
balanced out by providing a variable capacitor in parallel with resistance R3. It is so adjusted that the
detector gives a sharply defined balance point. The null detector is not an ordinary galvanometer as it is
not sensitive to alternating current at the frequency, which is employed to excite the bridge. The most
popular detector in use is the magic eye, or the cathode ray oscilloscope.
The problem in determining the resistance of the solution of an electrolyte by the above method
is that electrolysis of the solution also occurs simultaneously with the conduction of the current and due
to this: a) Polarisation sets in and causes the resistance to vary.
b) The concentration of the solution changes.
In order to avoid these complications an alternating source of power with frequency ~ 1000 Hz
is used.
3.1 Determination of Cell Constant

The electrodes in the cell are not exactly 1 cm apart and may not have surface area of 1 sq. cm
(1cm2). Thus the value of observed conductivity is not equal to specific conductance but is proportional
to it.
R =

1
R
or R = x or x =
a

(9)

Where, x = l/a = cell constant

Cell constant, x = /G or
Specific conductance, k = cell constant a X observed conductance G.
Taking an example of N/50 KCl solution, the specific conductance at 25oC is 0.002765 Scm-1.
We know that,
Cell constant, x = 0.002765/observed conductance (G)
By putting the value of observed conductance in the above expression, one can calculate cell
constant. Once the value of cell constant has been determined, great care must be taken not to change
the distance between the electrodes during further measurements in any way.
4. Variation of Molar and Specific Conductance with Dilution
4.1 Effect of Dilution on Molar Conductance

With dilution following variations on molar conductance are observed:

(i) The value of molar conductance increases on dilution. The increase is due to the fact that molar
conductance is the product of specific conductance (k) and the volume (V) of the solution
containing 1 mole of the electrolyte. As the decreasing value of specific conductance is more than
compensated by the increasing value of V, thus the value of molar conductance (m) will increase
7

with dilution. The variation of molar conductance at different dilutions of some common
electrolytes are shown Table 1:
Table 1: Molar Conductance of some common electrolytes at 250C in Scm2.
Concentration NaOH

KCl

HCl

CH3COOH

AgNO3

(mole/L)

0.0005

246

147.81

422.74

131.36

0.001

245

146.95

421.36

48.63

130.51

0.005

240

143.55

415.80

22.80

127.20

0.01

237

141.27

412.00

16.20

124.76

0.02

233

138.34

407.24

11.57

121.41

0.05

227

133.37

399.09

7.36

115.24

0.10

221

128.96

391.32

5.20

109.14

Molar Conductance

(ii) Effect of dilution on molar conductance is shown in the Figure.4, where the molar
conductance at different dilutions is plotted against concentration (M).

Concentration in mole per litre

Fig. 3: Variation of equivalent conductance with concentration

From Figure 3 it is clear that strong electrolytes such as KCl, can have limiting value at zero
concentration obtained by extrapolation (i.e. at infinite dilution) whereas for weak electrolyte such as
acetic acid, there is no indication that a limiting value can be obtained by the extrapolation of the graph
to zero concentration. It means we cannot experimentally determine molar conductivity of weak
electrolytes at infinite dilution.
(iii) The maximum value of the molar conductivity is termed as the molar conductivity at zero
concentration (or infinite dilution) and is termed m .
4.2 Effect of Dilution on Specific Conductance

The specific conductance depends on the number of ions present per unit volume of the
solution. Since on dilution the degree of dissociation increases but the number of ions per unit volume
decreases, therefore it is expected that the specific conductance of a solution decrease on dilution
(Table.2).
Table 2: Specific Conductance of NaCl Solution at 250 C:
Concentration

Molar Conductance
(Scm2)

0.000

0.012645

0.0005

0.012450

0.001

0.012374

0.01

0.011851

0.100

0.010674

5. Kohlrauschs Law of Independent Migration of Ions

It has been observed that the conductivity of solution increases with dilution until it reaches its
limiting value at infinite dilution is represented as m .

Kohlrausch made a systematic study of m for different electrolytes and concluded that each
ion contributes a characteristic value of its own to molar conductivity at infinite dilution irrespective of
the nature of the other ion present. Consider the values in Table.3 to appreciate the law:

Table.3: Values of o for different electrolytes

Electrolyte

o at 25

Difference

(Scm2)

(Scm )
I.

II.

III.

IV.

KCl

130.16

NaCl

108.99

KNO3

126.50

NaNO3

105.33

KCl

130.16

KNO3

126.50

NaCl

108.99

NaNO3

105.33

21.17

21.17

3.66

3.66

Electrolytes in set I and II have a common anion so that the difference can only be due to the
difference in contribution to by K+ and Na+ ions. In the same way in sets III and IV the constant
difference may be attributed to the difference in contribution to m made by the Cl- and NO3- ions.
These observations can be explained by Kohlrauschs law of independent migration of ions which
states that:
At infinite dilution, where the electrolytes are fully dissociated and free from interionic effects,
each ion migrates independently of its co-ion. As such each ion contributes its definite share to the total
equivalent conductivity of the electrolyte, which depends only on the nature of the contributing ions
and not at all on the ion with which it is associated as a part of the electrolyte. In other words, the molar
conductivity at infinite dilution of an electrolyte is equal to the sum of the ionic conductances of the
ions composing it, provided the solvent and temperature are the same.
m = + m + m

(10)

Where, a and c are the ionic conductances of the anion and cation respectively at infinite
dilution and + and is the number of cations and anions in which one molecule of the electrolyte. For
anion and cation this value is constant at a fixed temperature and in a given solution. It is expressed in
Scm2mol-1 or Sm2mole-1.

10

Q. The limiting molar conductivities of KCl, KNO3, and AgNO3 are 14.99 mSm2mol-1, 14.50 mSm2mol-1
and 13.34 mSm2mol-1 respectively at 25C. Calculated the limiting molar conductivity of AgCl at this
temperature?

The basis for the solution is Kohlrauschs law of independent of ions. Switching
counterions does not affect the mobility of the remaining other ion at infinite dilution.

m = + + +

m (KCl) = ( K + ) + (Cl ) = 14.99 mSm2mol-1

m (KNO3) = ( K + ) + ( NO3 ) = 14.50 mSm2mol-1

m (AgNO3) = ( Ag + ) + ( NO3 ) = 13.34 mSm2mol-1

Hence,

m (AgCl) = m (AgNO3) + m (KCl) - m (KNO3)

= 13.34 + 14.99 14.50 mSm2mol-1
= 13.83 mSm2mol-1

5.1 Applications of Kohlrausch Law

5.1.1 Calculation of molar conductivity of a weak electrolyte at infinite dilution

It is not possible to determine the value of m for weak electrolytes since we cannot obtain the
limiting value of the molar conductivity for a weak electrolyte. This is done indirectly by the molar
ionic conductance for the individual ions of the weak electrolyte as follows:
For e.g. molar conductance of acetic acid at infinite dilution can be calculated from the molar
conductance at infinite dilution of hydrochloric acid, sodium acetate and sodium chloride as follows:
m HCl = m H+ + m Cl-

m CH3COONa = m Na+ + m CH3COO m NaCl = m Na++ m Cl-

--------------(11)
---------------(12)
-------------- (13)

Add eq. 11 and 12 and subtract 13 we get:

m HCl + m CH3COONa - m NaCl = m H+ + m Cl- + m Na+ + m CH3COO- - m Na+ - m

Clx + y z = m H+ + m CH3COO- = m CH3COOH

m CH3COOH = x + y z

11

5.1.2 Calculation of Degree of Dissociation of Weak Electrolytes

The degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte such as NH4OH, acetic acid can be determined by
measuring the molar conductivity , of the solution of the electrolyte at any given dilution. For e.g. the
degree of dissociation (c) of a weak electrolyte at the concentration C mole per liter may be given by
the following relation:

c =

(14)

Where, c is the equivalent conductance of electrolyte at concentration c and is the

equivalent conductance of the same electrolyte at infinite dilution. Hence, measurement of c permits
evaluation of c if is known.
5.1.3 Determination of Solubility of Sparingly Soluble Salts

Salts like AgCl, BaSO4, CaCO3, Ag2CrO4, PbSO4, PbS, Fe(OH)3 etc. are ordinarily regarded as
sparingly soluble and have a very small but definite solubility in water. The solubility of such sparingly
soluble salts is obtained by determining the specific conductivity () of a saturated salt solution. The
molar conductivity at such high dilution can practically be taken as m , i.e. for sparingly soluble salts,

m = .V

(15)

Where, V is the volume in cm3 containing 1 mole of salt while m , can be calculated using
Kohlraushs law.
Substituting the values of and m in eq. 15; below the value of V can be calculated:
V = m / ( + + + ) /

(16)

But Vcm3 of saturated solution contains = 1 mole of salt

1000 cm3 of saturated solution contains= 1000 / V mole of salt
Hence, solubility of salt,

S = 1000/V M
= 1000/V x M. Wt. = g/L

5.1.4 Determination of ionic product of water

With the help of specific conductivity of water, the ionic product of water can be determined. The
ionization of water may be represented as,
H+ + OH-

H2O

The product of the concentrations of H+ and OH ions expressed in mol/L is called ionic product of
water and is represented by Kw.

12

[H+] [OH-] = Kw

i.e.

The measured specific conductivity of the purest form of water is 0.055 x 10-6 S cm-1. The
molar conductance is given by

m = Kv x 18

(17)
-6

= 0.055 x 10 x 18

Thus,

= 0.990 x 10-6 Scm2mol-1

The molar conductance of water at infinite dilution can be obtained by

m (H2O) = (H+) + (OH-)

(H2O) = 349.8 + 198.5 = 548.30 Scm2mol-1

Therefore,

= m /

and for water,

= 0.055 x 10-3 x 18/ 548.3

CH+ = COH- = 0.055 x 10-3 x 18/ 548.3
(Concentration of water = 1000/18 = 55.55 M
CH+ = COH- = x 55.55 x 10-9
= 1.806 x 55.55 = 1.003 x 10-7
Kw = (1.003 x 10-7)
= (1.006 x 10-14)

13

Q. Calculate the value of Kw for water in 0.100 M NaCl solution. The experimental value is 1.65 x 10-14.

The thermodynamic value of the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of water
+

H 3O + OH

2H 2O

Kw =

a H O + + aOH
3

( a H 2O )

= 1.01 x 10

-14

Water is a liquid acting as a solvent, & its activity is its mole fraction, here 55.3/55.4 1. Then

K w0 = [ H 3O + ] [OH ]. f H O + . f OH
3

K w0 = K w . f H O + f OH
3

Where K w is the constant in terms of concentration activity coefficients from the extended DebyeHuckel eqn., f H

3O

= 0.825 and f OH = 0.753.

Using these values, we obtain

1.01 x 10 14

Kw =

0.825 x 0.753

K w = 1.61 x 10-14

5.1.5 Determination of Ionic Mobility of an Ion

Ionic mobility of an ion is defined as the speed of the ion in centimeters per second, when a
potential of one volt is applied between two electrodes kept 1 cm apart. The usefulness of ionic
mobilities is that they provide a link between measureable and theoretical quantities. Following
equation shows the relationship between an ions mobility and its molar conductivity.

= zuF

(18)

where F is the Faraday constant (F = NAe)

Equation (18 ) applies to the cations and to the anions and can be deduced to equation (18a ) for
solution in limit of zero concentration when there are no interionic interactions.

m = ( z + u + + + z u ) F

For a symmetrical z : z electrolyte this equation simplifies to

14

(18a)

 m = z ( u + + u ) F

(19)

6. Migration of Ions

As in a solution of an electrolyte the electricity is conducted by migration of ions and the ions
move in solution independently towards the oppositely charged electrodes. This fact can be illustrated
by following simple experiments:
(i) Lodges moving boundary evidence

A glass tube of the shape as shown in the Figure 4 is taken and its middle portion between two
arms is filled with a jelly of agar-agar. A trace of sodium hydroxide (or any alkali) and phenolphthalein
are added during the preparation of the jelly. It becomes red due to phenolphthalein in alkaline
medium. The jelly is allowed to set. After that dilute sulphuric acid is added to the left arm containing
the anode and sodium sulphate solution to the right arm in which the cathode is placed. On passing the
current, hydrogen ions migrate along the solution towards the cathode and their movement can be
monitored by observing the gradual fading of red colour in the jelly due to the neutralization of the
alkali by the hydrogen ions and the movement of the original boundary. Experiment clearly shows that
positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) are moving towards negatively charged cathode.

Fig. 4: Lodges moving boundary experiment

(ii) Movement of coloured ions

A U shaped glass tube is taken and its middle portion is filled with an aqueous solution of 5%
agar-agar and a mixture of copper sulphate and potassium dichromate in distilled water. This dark
green-coloured solution after cooling forms a jelly and sets. The position of the surface of green
solution in both the arms of the U-tube is marked by placing small amount of charcoal on it as shown in
the Figure 5(A).

15

(A)

(B)
Fig. 5: Migration of ions

In both the arms then a solution of potassium nitrate and agar-agar is filled. This on cooling also set as
jelly. Over this jelly, solution of potassium nitrate in distilled water is added and the electrodes are
immersed in it. With the application of potential difference across the electrode the blue colour of
copper ions rises in to the jelly towards the cathode. The reddish yellow dichromate ions move up in
the other arm of the tube towards the anode. In this experiment two types of ions can be clearly seen
moving with well-defined boundaries {Figure 5(B)}.
6.1 Speeds of migration of ions during electrolysis

During electrolysis ions are liberated according to Faradays law at cathode and anode but their
relative rate of movement towards the electrodes may be different.

16

Fig. 6: Anodic and Cathodic compartments showing speeds of migration of ions

during electrolysis
In the Figure. 6 A and C are two porous diaphragms, which prevent convection currents but
allow the passage of ions. The cell is divided into an anodic and cathodic compartment. Suppose
initially 13 molecules were present. The number of molecules in each anode and cathode compartment
is equal i.e. 4 and 5 molecules are present between the two segment in ac {Fig.6(I)}.
Consider the following possibilities in reference to the above experiment.
(i)

{Fig.6(II)} shows the movement of two anions alone, here only anions are capable of
movement.

(ii)

Both anions and cations move at the same rate towards the opposite charged electrodes, the
condition as shown in {Fig.6 (III)}.

(iii)

In another situation cations move at twice the rate of the anions (Fig.6 (IV)}.

In all the above conditions ions are always liberated in equivalent amounts; the effect of
difference in their rate only cause a change of concentration around electrodes. Further, from
the above experiment the following expression can be deduced.
Reduction in number of anions around anode

Speed of cation towards cathode

=

Reduction in number of cations around cathode

17

Speed of anion towards anode

Q. At 25C the molar ionic conductivities of Li+, Na+, and K+ are 3.87 mSm2mol-1, 5.01 mSm2mol-1, and
7.35 mSm2mol-1 respectively. Calculate their mobilities.

We have, u =

zF

3.87mSm 2 mol 1
96485Cmol 1

(i) u ( Li ) =

= 4.01 x 10-5 mSC-1m2

= 4.01 x 10-8 m2V-1s-1 (1C = 1As = 1Vs)
+

(ii) u ( Na ) =

5.01mSm 2 mol 1
96485Cmol 1

= 5.19 x 10-8 m2V-1s-1

(iii)

u(K + ) =

7.35mSm 2 mol 1
96485Cmol 1
= 7.62 x 10-8 m2V-1s-1

7. Arrhenius Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation

Arrhenius (1887) put forward the theory of electrolytic dissociation, as a more explicit form of
one he had proposed in 1883, which forms the basis of the modern treatment of electrolytes. The
assumption made was that when an acid, base or salt is dissolved in water, a considerable portion
becomes spontaneously dissociated into positive and negative ions. Considering an electrolyte

Av + Bv , which might undergo complete dissociation to form + positive ions and negative ions
according to the equation
Av + Bv = + A z + + B z

(20)

We must calculate the net number of particles that result from a degree of dissociation . If m
is the molality of the electrolyte, is the degree of dissociation, the concentration of undissociated
electrolyte will be m - m = m(1 - ). In addition, the concentration of A z + and B z will be
+ m and m, respectively.

Here the concentration of particles is m(1 - ) + ( + ) m + ( ) m and let be the total

number of ions yielded by complete dissociation of the electrolyte, i.e, = + + . With this
notation the molality of particles for the partially dissociated electrolyte is m(1- ) + m rather
than the value of m expected for no dissociation.
The vant Hoff I factor can be written as
=

m(1 ) + m
= 1 +
m

18

(21)

From this interpretation of i , one obtains

i 1
1

(22)

This relation can also be used inspite of the relation =

, for calculating the degree of

m

dissociation of an electrolyte.
8. Ostwalds Dilution Law

The weak electrolyte ionizes to a very small extent and their molar conductivity doesnt attain a
limiting value at high dilution. In such solutions there is equilibrium between free ions and
undissociated molecules. The equilibrium can be written in the form:
MA

M+ + A-

c (1-)

(23)

Where M+ = A- = free ions

MA = undissociated portion of the electrolyte including both nonionized molecules and ion
pairs.
By law of equilibrium,
K=

aM + x a AaM A

(24)

Where, as = activities of indicated species

K = the equilibrium constant called dissociation constant of the electrolyte
Equation (24) can be written as the product of concentration C, in g ions or moles per litre, and the
activity coefficient f, above equation becomes;

K=

cM +

x c A
c MA

f M + x f A
f MA

(25)

Here, is the degree of dissociation of electrolyte, i.e., the fraction of the electrolyte in the
form of free ions and c is its total concentration, (M). Both cM+ and cA- are equal to C while cMA is
equal to c (1- ) then eq. (25) can be written as,

19

K=

fM x f A
2c
(1 )
f MA
+

(26)

In sufficiently dilute solution the activity coefficient is approxiamately unity, then eq. (26) takes
the form:
K=

2c
(1 )

(27)

This is the expression of the dilution law, first derived by W. Ostwald in 1988.
For weak electrolytes like acetic acid (CH3COOH) or ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) the value
of degree of dissociation is very small, i.e., (1 ) 1
eq. (27) can be written as;

K = 2c

2=

(28)

K
c

(29)

K
c

(30)

8.1 Verification of the Dilution Law

The degree of dissociation , is determined by conductivity measurements and is

obtained by dividing the molar conductance at a certain dilution, v by the equivalent conductivity at
infinite dilution , and is given by eq. (31).

cm
=
m

(31)

8.1.1 Determination of Dissociation Constant of Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)

Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte and when it dissolves in water it dissociates as

+
CH 3COO + H

CH3COOH

20

If c g moles of acetic acid are dissolved per liter of the solution and is the degree of
dissociation, then the dissociation constant K is given by

K=

2c
(1 )

(32)

If cm is the equivalent conductance of the CH3COOH solution at the given dilution and m at

infinite dilution, then

cm
m

(33)

The value of cm is determined by conductivity measurement at concentration C. The value of

m for acetic acid can be calculated with Kohlrauschs law i.e.,

for (CH3COOH) = (CH3COO-) + for (H+)

= 40.9 + 349.8
= 390.7 mhos

The value of K can be calculated by substituting the values of cm , m and c.

Q. At 25C, the molar conductance of propanoic acid at infinite dilution is 386.6 S cm2mol-1. If its
ionization constant is 1.4 x 10-5. Calculate molar conductance of 0.05 M propanoic acid solution at 25C?

cx 2
Ka =
If x << 1 than Ka = cx2
(1 x)

Ka =

Ka
=
c

x =

1.4 x 10 5
0.05

= 0.0167

cm
m

cm = x x m
= 0.0167 x 386.6
= 6.47 S cm2 mol-1

21

(34)

9.2 Applications of Ostwalds Dilution Law

Applications of ostwalds dilution law are many. Some of them are discussed below: 9.2.1 Dissociation constant of monobasic acid

Dissociation constant of weak electrolytes such as weak acids, weak bases can be determined
with the help of Ostwalds dilution law. Consider the solution of a weak acid HA with concentration
c. If is the degree of dissociation at equilibrium, then
+
H +A

HA

(35)

0 (initial conc.)

c(1- )

By applying the law of mass action,

[H ] [A ]
+

Ka =

[HA]

(equilibrium conc.)

(36)

where Ka is the dissociation or ionization constant of the acid.

Substituting [H+], [A-] and [HA] in eq. (36), we get

Ka =

2c
(1 )

(37)

9.2.2 Dissociation constant of a weak base

Let us consider a weak base BOH dissolved in water. With concentration c. Let be the
degree of dissociation at equilibrium, the following ionic equilibrium exist in solution,
+

BOH

B + OH

c(1-)

The dissociation or ionization constant is given by

22

(38)
c

[B ] [OH ]
+

[BOH ]

Kb =

2c
(1 )

(39)

(i) Experimental determination of dissociation constant

We have already shown that the dissociation constant of weak acids and weak base can be
represented by

Ka =

2c
(1 )

(40)

Here can be determined from the expression,

cm
=
m

c
c m

K a = m c

m
1
m

(41)

c cm
( m cm )
2

(42)

The value of cm of the solution is determined from its specific conductivity. m of this solution
is calculated from Kohlrausch law i.e.

m = a + c

(43)

Where, a and a are ionic conductance of anion and cation of weak acids or bases.

By knowing the value of cm and m values of can be calculated. The dissociation constant can also
be calculated using equation (40).

23

Q. Molar conductivities at infinite dilution at 25C of NH4Cl, NaOH and NaCl are 129.8, 217.4 & 108.9 S
cm2mol-1. For 0.01 M NaOH molar conductance is 9.33 S cm2mol-1. Calculate ionization constant of
NH4OH.

NH4 + OH

NH4OH

By Ostwalds dilution law, ionization constant Kb of weak base is

X = degree of ionization =

cm
m

cx 2
Kb =
(1 x)

cm (0.01N) = 9.33 S cm2 mol-1

By Kohlrauschs law

m (NH4OH) = m (NH4Cl) + m (NaOH) - m (NaCl)

= 129.8 + 217.4 108.9
= 238.3 S cm2mol-1

9.33
= 0.0392
238.3
cx 2
Kb =
(1 x)
x =

0.01 x (0.0392) 2
=

(1 0.0392)

= 1.6 x 10-5

10. Debye-Huckel-Onsagar Equation

In order to explain the abnormal behaviour of strong electrolytes number of scientists worked in
this field viz. Noyes (1904), Sutherland (1906), Bjerrum (1909) and Milner (1912), Debye and Huckel
in 1923, and Onsagar in 1926 put forward the modern theory of strong electrolytes known as DebyeHuckel- Onsagar theory of strong electrolyte.
Debye-Huckel treatment deals with the distribution of ions around a given ion and the net effects of
these neighbouring ions have on the central ion. Debye and Huckel derived an equation based on the
quantitative treatment of inter ionic attraction. This equation was later on modified by Onsagar and is
known as Debye-Huckel-Onsagar (DHO) equation for strong electrolyte. It shows how the potential
energy of an ion in solution depends on the ionic strength of the solution. In the case of strong
24

electrolytes the value of molar conductance at infinite dilution is much less than unity due to following
effects:
(i) Relaxation effect

Interionic forces are present and each ion has a tendency to be surrounded on the time average
by ions of opposite charge called the ionic atmosphere. A negative ion is surrounded by the ions of
opposite charge called the ionic atmosphere. When an EMF is applied, the negative ions migrate
towards the anode where the ionic atmosphere of positive ions is left behind to disperse, at this time a
new ionic atmosphere is under formation. The rate of formation of new ionic atmosphere is not the
same at which the previous ionic atmosphere disperses and the later takes more time. This time is
called the relaxation time. In the case of the moving ion there will always be an excess of ions of
opposite charge. The ions will always be dragged back. This effect will decrease the mobility of the
ions and is known as relaxation effect or asymmetric factor.
(ii) Electrophoretic effect

The solvent molecules attach themselves to ionic atmosphere and the ions move in the direction
opposite to that of central ion. It produces friction due to which the mobility of the central ion is
retarded. This effect is called the electrophoretic effect. The electrop horetic effect reduces the
molbility of the ions and hence also reduces their conductivities. The quantitative formulation of these
effects is far from simple, but the Debye-Huckel-Onsager theory is an attempt to obtain quantitative
expression at about the same level of sophistication as the Debye-Huckel-theory itself. The theory leads
to a Kohlrausch like expression in which

with

z 2 eF 2 2
A=

3 RT

= A + B m

qz 3 eF 2
B=

24RT RT

1/ 2

Where, = flux of momentum

= electric permittivity of the solvent and

q = 0.586 for a 1,1-electrolyte (Table 4)

25

(44)
1/ 2

(45)

Fig. 7. The dependence of molar conductivities on the square root of the ionic strength, and
comparison (shown by dotted lines) with the dependence predicted by the Debye-Huckel-Onsager
theory.

Figure 7 shows the dependence of molar conductivities on the square root of the ionic strength and
comparison with the dependence predicted by the Debye Huckel theory. The agreement is quite
good at very low molar concentrations (less than about 10-3 M, depending on the charge type).
Green Kubo relationship can be applied on electric conduction, which expresses a transport properly
in terms of the fluctuations in microscopic properties of a system. The electrical conductivity is related
to the fluctuations in the sample that arises from variations in the velocities of the ions.

1
KTV

j (0) j (t )dt

z e

(46)

j=

(47)

where i is the velocity of the ion i at a given instant and the angular brackets denote an average
over the sample. If the ions are very mobile, there will be large fluctuations in the instantaneous
currents in the same, and the conductivity of the medium will be high. If the ions are locked into
position, as in an ionic solid, there will be no instantaneous currents, and the ionic conductivity will
be zero. The velocities of the ions are calculated explicitly in a molecular dynamics simulation, so
the correlation function, the quantity j (0 ) j (t ) , can be evaluated reasonably simply.
i

26

11.Transport Numbers

The transport number ( t ) is defined as the fraction of total current carried by the particular ionic
species in the solution. In a simple case of a single electrolyte yielding the ions designated by the
suffixes (+ )and (-), the corresponding transference numbers are given as follows:
t+ =

q+
Q

(48)

Where q + is the quantity of electricity carried by the cation and Q is the total quantity of
electricity carried by all the ions through the solution. Similarly, the anion transport number t is
defined as:
t =

q
Q

(49)

Where q is the quantity of electricity carried by the anion, equations (48) and (49) can be
expressed as

t+ =

c+ u +
c+ u + + c u

(50)

t =

c u
c+ u + + c u

(51)

The quantities c + and c which represent the concentrations of the ions, are equal and therefore
for this type of the electrolyte.
t+ =

t =

u+

u+
+ u

(52)

u+

u
+ u

(53)

and t + + t = 1

27

u + and u are the mobilities of the ions in the same solution and we know that the speed of an
ion in a solution at any concentration is proportional to the conductance of the ion at that concentration
and therefore the transference number may be represented in the form;
t+ =

and t =
m
m

(54)

Where the values of + and (ion conductance) and m (molar conductance) of the solution,
are at that particular concentration at which the transference numbers are applicable.
11.1 Determination of Transport Number

Three method have been generally employed for the experimental determination of transference
numbers: the first, based on the procedure originally proposed by Hittorf, involves measurement of
changes of concentration in the vicinity of the electrodes; in the second, known as the moving
boundary method, the rate of motion of the boundary between two solutions under the influence of
current is studied; the third method, is based on electromotive force measurements of suitable cells.
11.1.1 Hittorfs Method

This method of determining transport numbers was described as long ago as 1901.
Apparatus

To understand the principle involved consider the overall description of the method given
below. The apparatus consists of two separated compartments joined by a substantial middle
compartment and may be of any of the shape as shown in figure 8(A) and (B). Let us take silver nitrate
solution in a cell having silver electrodes. Before the experiment begins, the concentration of AgNO3 is
the same throughout the cell. The experiment involves passage of a direct electric current from a power
source through the cell.

28

(a)

(b)
Fig.8: Hittorfs cell

At the left-hand electrode, Ag dissolves and increases the AgNO3 concentration in its
compartment. In the right-hand compartment, Ag+ ions deposits so the AgNO3 concentration decreases
in the solution. Measurement of the changes in concentration in each compartment after a 2-3 h passage
of current yields the transport number of the anion (since t+ + t- = 1, it also gives that of the cation). The
current is passed for a fixed time. Thereafter, the anolyte (Figure 9) has an increased concentration c1
and the catholyte a decreased concentration c3. The middle compartment does not change its
concentration of silver nitrate, which will be designated c2.

Fig. 9: The Principle of Hittorfs experiment (Adapted from J.O.M. Bockris and A.K.N. Reddy,
Modern Electrochemistry, volume I, 2nd edition, Plenam Press, N.Y. (1998)).

After t seconds (s) at current I, the number of moles of Ag introduced into the anolyte is

29

N=

It
F

(55)

Where F is the faraday or electrical charge on one 1 mole of Ag+.

In the central compartment, in which the concentration is shown by experiment to remain
constant, current is given by the equation:
I = Ac2F (u+2 + u-2)

(56)

Where A is the cross sectional area of the central compartment and u+2 and u-2 are the ionic
mobilities, respectively, of Ag+ and NO3-. Therefore, from eq. (55) and (56),
N = Ac2 (u+2 + u-2)t

(57)

In the left- hand compartment, Ag+ ions are produced and also moved out. Hence,
dN 1
1
= - Ac1u +1
dt
F

(58)

According to principle of electroneutrality the concentration of both positive and negative ions in the
left -hand compartment should be the same. Therefore,
dN 1
= Ac 2 u 2
dt

(59)

which represents the rate at which anions introduced by dissolution from the silver electrode move into
the left hand compartment to join the cation. Integrating eq. (59) gives
N 1 N 10 = Ac 2 u 2

(60)

Where N 10 is the number of moles of AgNO3 in the compartment before the current I was switched on.
In the catholyte compartment, Ag+ ions are removed by deposition and transported from the
middle compartment,
dN 3
=
dt

Ac 2 u + 2 -

1
F

(61)

NO3- moves out to allow elctroneutrality to be maintained. It must move out at the same rate as Ag+
disappears. Thus

Integration of eq. (62) gives

dN 3
= - Ac3 u 3
dt

(62)

N 30 - N 3 = Ac3 u 3 t

(63)

It has been assumed that the central compartment keeps a constant concentration while the
AgNO3 is increasing on the anolyte and decreasing in the catholyte.

30

0
0
N1 - N1 = N 3 - N 3

Hence,

(64)

Now from eq. (57) and (60),

t =

N N 10
u 2
Gain in weight in anolyte
= 1
=
u +2 + u 2
N
Loss of weight in anode

(65)

Again from eq. (57) and (63),

N 30 N 3
N

Loss of weight of silver in catholyte

Gain in weight of cathode

(66)

Q. A solution containing 0.00739g of AgNO3 per gram of water was electrolyzed between silver
electrodes. During the experiment 0.0078g of silver was deposited in a silver coulometer placed in
series. At the end of experiment, the anodic solution contains 23.14g of water and 0.236g of AgNO3.
What are the transport number of Ag+ and NO3- ions?

Before electrolysis: Mass of water = 1g

Mass of AgNO3 = 0.00739g
Number of gram equivalent of Ag =

0.00739
170
= 4.347 x 10-5

After electrolysis: Mass of water = 23.14 g

Mass of AgNO3 = 0.236g
Number of gram equivalent of Ag in 1g of water
=

0.236
1
x
23.14 170

= 5.992 x 10-5
Increase in concentration of Ag+ in the anodic compartment where no silver ions migrate =

0.0078
= 4.588 x 10-5
170
Increase in concentration of Ag+ in the anodic compartment when Ag+ ions migrate.
= Concentration of Ag after electrolysis Concentration of Ag before electrolysis
= 5.992 x 10-5 4.347 x 10-5
= 1.645 x 10-5
Fall in concentration of Ag+ in anodic compartment
= 4.588 x 10-5 1.645 x 10-5
= 2.943 x 10-5

Fall in conc. around anode

+

Transport number of Ag ions =

Silver deposited on Ag electrode

2.943 x 105

4.588 x 110 5

= 0.641

Also transport number of NO3- ions can be calculated as

= 1 - t Ag +
= 1 0.641
= 0.359

31

11.1.2 Moving boundary method

The moving boundary method is based on measuring the rate of migration of one or both of the
ionic species of the electrolyte, away from the similarly charged electrodes and by this method we can
directly observe the migration of ions under the influence of an applied potential unlike the Hittrofs
method in which concentration changes at the electrodes are observed. This method is very accurate
and has been used in recent years for precision measurements.
In the practical application of the moving boundary method one boundary only is observed, and
so the necessity of finding two indicator solutions is obviated; the method of calculation is as follows.
If one faraday of electricity passes through the system, t+ equiv. of the cation must pass at any given
point in one direction; if c mole of the unit volume is the concentration of the solution in the vicinity
of the boundary formed by the M ions, this boundary must pass through a volume t+ / c while one
faraday is passing. The volume taken out by the cations for the passage of Q coulombs is thus

= Q t+/ F c

(67)

Where F is one faraday, i.e., 96,500 coulombs. If the cross section of the tube in which the
boundary moves is sq. cm., and the distance through which it moves during the passage of Q
coulombs is l cm., then is equal to l , and therefore from eq. (65)
t+ == l F c / Q

(68)

Since the number of coulombs passing can be determined, the transference number of the ion
may be calculated from the rate of movement of one boundary.
The apparatus used for the determination of the transport number by this method, consist a long vertical
tube of uniform bore fitted with two electrodes at the two ends as shown in figure 10.

32

Fig.10: Cell for the determination of transport number by moving boundary method

Let us consider the electrolyte AgNO3 the transport number of whose cation (Ag+) is to be
determined. A layer of a solution of AgNO3 is introduced above the solution of another suitable
electrolyte KNO3 having the common anion NO3-. The electrolyte KNO3 is selected so that the velocity
of K+ ions is less than those of Ag+ ions. Under the circumstances, there will be a clear-cut boundary
between the two electrolytes, even if the two solutions are colourless. On passing current between the
two electrodes, both Ag+ and K+ ions move upward towards the negative electrode while NO3- ions
move downward towards the positive electrode as shown in Figure 10. Since K+ ions have a lower
velocity than Ag+ ions, a sharp boundary is always maintained between the two solutions. Also the K+
ions are not far behind for if it so happens the solution below the boundary would get diluted and its
increasing resistance causes an increased potential drop thereby increasing the velocity of K+ ions.
Thus the boundary moves slowly in the upward direction. On passing n faraday of current, n x tAg+ will
be carried by Ag+ ions and a corresponding amount (n x tAg+) mole of it moves up. If c represents the
original concentration of Ag+ ions in mole ml-1 and the boundary moves through a distance l cm in the
tube of cross-section S cm2, the number of mole of Ag+ moving upward is given by S x l x C. Thus:
n x tAg+ = S x l x C

33

(69)

S xl xC
n

or tAg+ =

(70)

Knowing the experimental values of S, l, C and n, the value of tAg+ the transport number of Ag+ ions
can be calculated.

Q.

In a moving boundary experiment 0.01 M HCl solution was treated on a lithium chloride solution.
The tube used had a diameter of 1 cm. when a current of 11.0 milliampere was passed for 20 min.,
the H+ ions Li+ ions boundary moved through 13.9 cm. Calculate the transport number of H+, Clions in HCl solution used?

s x l x F x C

We have,

Also s =
=

tH + =

22
x 0.5 x 0.5
7

= 13.9cm, F = 96500 coulomb, C = 0.01N

Q = quality of current passed

= 11 x 10-3 x 20 x 60

tH + =

22 x 0.5 x 0.5 x 13.9 x 96500 x 0.01

11 x 10 3 x 20 x 60

= 0.7988
and

tCl = 1 - t H +
= 1 0.7984
= 0.2012

12. Applications of Conductivity Measurements

Some of the important applications of conductivity measurements are as follows:

12.1 Determination of degree of Dissociation

The degree of dissociation of a weak electrolyte is determined by the application of expression:

m
m

(71)

Where m is the molar conductance of the solution and can be obtained experimentally m is
the molar conductance at infinite dilution and can be found from the literature. The method may be
illustrated with special reference to the determination of the dissociation of phosphoric acid. Consider
phosphoric acid, ionizing as a monobasic acid in to H+ and H3PO4- ions, at 25 C.

34

 m (H3PO4) = m (HCl) + m (NaH2PO4) - m (NaCl)

= 378.3 + 70.0 109.0
= 339.3

The measured value of m for 0.1M phosophoric acid is 96.5 Scm2mol-1 and the approximate
degree of dissociation is 96.5/339.3 i.e., 0.285 and the concentration of the ions is approximately
0.0285 M.
12.3 Determination of Solubility Product of a Sparingly Soluble Salt

If a slightly soluble electrolyte such as AgCl, BaSO4, PbSO4 dissociate in a simple manner, it is
possible to determine the solubility of such salts by conductance measurements.
If s is the solubility in mole/liter, of a sparingly soluble salt and is the specific
conductance of the saturated solution, then its molar conductance is given by the relation

m = 1000

i.e. s = 1000

k
s
k
m

(72)

At infinite dilution,
s = 1000

k
m

(73)

The method for the determination of solubility products of a sparingly soluble salt may be
explained by taking the example of solubility of silver chloride in water at 250C. First the salt is
repeatedly washed with conductivity water to remove any soluble impurities. After that it is suspended
in conductivity water, warm and cooled to 250C. A very minute quantity of salt will pass in solution
and the rest will settle down. The conductance of the solution and water used in the preparation of
solution is determined in the usual way by placing the conductivity cell in the thermostat maintained at
250C.
The value of o for AgCl is given by

m (AgCl) = m Ag+ + m Cl- = 61.92 + 76.34 = 138.3 S cm2 mol-1at 250C.

The specific conductance of a saturated solution of AgCl in water is 3.41 x 10-6 S cm-1 at 25oC
and if 1.60 x 10-6 is deducted for the conductance of the water, the value of k is 1.81 x 10-6 ohm-1 cm-1.
Hence solubility of AgCl may be determined by putting the values in eq. (71).
s = 1000

k
m

= 1000 x 1.81 x 10-6 / 138.3

35

= 1.31 X 10-5 mole/L at 25o C.

12.4 Conductometric Titration

The determination of the end point of a titration by means of conductance measurements is

known as conductometric titration. In these titrations measurement of actual specific conductance of
the solution is not required, and any quantity proportional to it is sufficient. The titrant is added by a
burette and change of conductance as a function of added titrant is used to determine the equivalence
point. A conductance cell, in which solution of substance to be titrated is taken, consists of two
platinum electrodes of large surface area across which an alternating low-voltage potential is applied.
Generally, potential in the range 5-10Vat 1000 3000 Hz is employed. The conductance cell,
therefore, is incorporated into one arm of a Wheatstone bridge type of circuit and the conductance is
measured by adjustment of a calibrated resistor to balance the bridge.
Some typical examples of conductometric titration and interpretation of their curves are given
in following paragraphs. In all cases, the equivalence points are located at the intersection of lines of
differing slope. One of the requirements of these titrations is that the titrant should be at least ten times
as concentrated as the solution being titrated, in order to keep the volume change small.
12.4.1 Acid-Base Titration
(i) Strong Acid with a Strong Base

When a strong alkali, e.g., sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of a strong acid, e.g.,
hydrochloric acid, the following reaction occurs:
(H+ + Cl-) + (Na+ + OH-) = Na+ + Cl- + H2O

In this type of reaction, the conductance first falls, due to the replacement of the H+ ( m = 350)

by the added cation Na+ ( m = 40-80) and after the equivalence point has been reached, the

conductance rapidly rises with further addition of strong alkali due to large m value of the hydroxyl

ion ( m = 198). The two branches of the curve are straight lines provided the volume increase is
negligible and their intersection gives the endpoint. At the neutral point the conductance of the system
will have a minimum value, from which the equivalence point of the reaction can be determined.

Conductance

A
B
end point
mL of base (NaOH)

Fig. 11.(A)

36

In actual practice the lines may be slightly curved due to variation in temperature, heat of
neutralization, interionic effect and slight increase in the volume of the solution because of the addition
of titrant. Inspite of this, the inflection is sharp enough to get the end point.
(ii) Strong Acid with a Weak Base

The titration of a strong acid with a weak base may be illustrated by the neutralization of dilute
HCl by dilute NH4OH.
H+Cl- + NH4OH

NH4+ + Cl- + H2O

The first branch of the graph (Figure.11B) represents the neutralization of the acid and its (i.e,
replacement of fast moving H+ ions by slow moving NH4+ ions). After the neutralization (end point) is
completed, the graph becomes almost horizontal, since the excess aqueous NH4OH is not appreciably
ionized in the presence of NH4Cl. As NH4OH is a weakly ionized electrolyte it has a very small
conductivity compared with that of the acid or its salt.

Conductance

end point

mL of base

Fig. 11 (B)

(iii) Weak Acid with a Strong Base

Consider the titration of the weak acid like CH3COOH with strong base NaOH.
(CH3COO- + H+) + (Na+ + OH-)

(CH3COO- + Na+) + H2O

In this titration, the shape of the curve will depend upon the concentration and the Ka of the
acid (Ka ~ 1.8 x 10-5). The sodium acetate salt formed during the titration tends to suppress the
ionization of the acetic acid due to common ion effect and therefore its conductance decreases. The
rising salt concentration will however tend to result in an increase in conductance. When the
neutralization of acid is complete, further addition of alkali produces excess of OH- ions. This excess
OH- ion increases the conductance of the solution more rapidly. Finding an accurate end point is
difficult in this type of titration.
For moderately strong acids, the influence of the rising salt concentration is less pronounced.
Difficulty is also experienced in locating the end point accurately and generally titration of weak acid
and moderately strong acids with a strong base are not recommended for conductometric titration.

37

Conductance

NaOH (strong)

NH4OH (weak)

SAcid
WAcid

mL of base

Fig. 12 (a)

(iv) Weak Acid with Weak Base

When a weak acid is titrated with a weak base the initial portion of the conductance titration
curve is similar to that for a strong base, since the salt is a strong electrolyte inspite of the fact that the
acid and base are weak.
Consider the titration curve of CH3COOH and NH3
CH3COOH + NH3

CH3COONH4

Conductance

Conductivity decreases as the anion formed suppresses the ionization, passes through a
minimum and then increases up-to the end point. This is because of the conversion of non-conducting
weak acid into its conducting salt.

Titrating reagent

Fig. 12 (b)

38

It is observed that such titrations curves are generally curved because the incompleteness of
reaction permits extra hydroxide ions (or hydrogen ions if a weak base is being titrated) to be present.
This causes an increase in conductivity. It is observed that with more incompleteness of the reaction,
the more curvature is observed in the graph.
(v) Mixture of a Strong Acid and a Weak Acid with a Strong Base
1) NaCl + H2O
(HCl + CH3COOH) + NaOH
2) CH3COONa + H2O

Conductance

In such titration, the conductance decreases until the strong acid is neutralized and after that it
rises as the weak acid is converted into its salt. Finally the conductance rises more steeply as excess
alkali is introduced. The three branches of the curve will be straight lines except as: (i) increasing
dissociation of the weak acid results in a rounding off at the first end point. (ii) hydrolysis of the salt of
the weak acid causes a rounding off at the second end point. In case of rounding one can extrapolate to
get a sharp end point.

(II)

(I)

Precipitant added

Fig. 13

12.4.2 Displacement Reactions

When a strong acid reacts with sodium or potassium salts of weak acids, the weaker acid will
be displaced by the strong acid e.g.
(CH3COO- + Na+) + (H+ + Cl-)

CH3COOH + (Na+ + Cl-)

In this reaction the highly ionized sodium acetate is replaced by highly ionized sodium chloride
and almost unionized acetic acid. Only a slight increase in conductance is observed up-to the end point
because chloride ion has slight by higher conductance than the acetate ion. After the end point is
passed, however, the free strong acid produces a marked increase, and its position can be determined
by the intersection of the two straight lines. (Figure 14).

39

Conductance

Titrating reagent

Fig. 14

Another example of such type of reactions is the salt of a weak base and a strong acid when
titrated by a strong base in an analogous manner.
NH4Cl + NaOH

NH4OH + NaCl

12.4.3 Precipitation Reactions

Precipitation titration may also be carried out by conductometric methods. In reactions

of the type,
(K+ + Cl-) + (Ag+ + NO3-)

AgCl + K+ + NO3-

and
(Mg2+ + SO42-) + 2(Na+ + OH-)

Mg (OH)2 + 2Na+ + SO42-

Where a precipitate is formed, one salt is replaced by an equivalent amount of another, e.g.
potassium chloride by KNO3 and here the conductance remains almost constant before the end point.
After the equivalence point is passed, however, the excess KNO3 causes a sharp rise in the conductance
(Fig. 15, I); the end point of the reaction can thus be determined.
In another example, if both products of the reaction are sparingly soluble, the curve obtained takes up
the form as shown in (Fig.15, II), e.g.,
(Mg2+ + SO42-) + (Ba2+ + 2OH-)

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Mg (OH)2 + BaSO4

Conductance

Vol. of titrant added

Fig. 15

First, the conductance of the solution decreases but increases after the end point has passed.
Precipitation reactions, however, cannot be carried out accurately using conductance measurement due
to the following reasons.
(a) Slow separation of the precipitate,
(b) Removal of titrated solute by adsorption on precipitate
The best results are obtained by doing titration with dilute solutions in the presence of a relatively
large amount of alcohol, the presence of alcohol decreases the solubility of the precipitate and also
lesser adsorption.
(IV) Complexometric Titration Reactions

Conductometric titrations have also been employed in the determination of

stoichiometrey of complex compounds. For example, Job titrated roseo-cobaltic sulphate [CO(NH3)5
H2O]2 (SO4)3 with Ba(OH)2 and obtained two breaks in the titration curve (Figure 16). Also consider
the complexometric titrations of KCl with Hg (CO4)2, where two breaks are obtained in the curve as
shown in Figure 16.
Hg(ClO4)2 + 4KCl
HgCl42- + 2K+

HgCl42- + 2K+ + 2KClO4

K2HgCl4

The first break is due to the formation of HgCl42- and the second is due to the formation of
K2HgCl4 at the end of the reaction.

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