Maintenance of Substation
Maintenance of Substation
Maintenance of Substation
Chapter 1
GENERAL PHILOSOPHY
1.0 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 In today's competitive market scenario power utilities are under tremendous
pressure to cut down their maintenance costs as they form a significant portion of
the operation costs. This has led the utilities to adopt condition-based maintenance
of the equipments rather than usual preventive maintenance being carried out at a
fixed interval of time. Maintenance intervals are normally fixed on the basis of type
of equipment and sometimes on the equipment history. However, tests or
measurements are also carried out to assess the condition of the equipment.
2.0 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
Different types of maintenance being done on equipment are:
i) Breakdown maintenance
ii) Preventive maintenance
iii) Condition based monitoring
iv) Reliability centered maintenance
i) Breakdown Maintenance
As the name implies the maintenance is carried out when the equipment fails. This
type of maintenance may be appropriate for low value items. However for costly
substation equipments, it is not desirable to wait till the breakdown of the
equipment, as this cost more to the utility as well as the availability and reliability of
power gets affected. The revenue loss due to non-availability of the system shall be
much more than the cost of the failed equipment. Therefore identifying the defect
before failure, is more appropriate to plan repair / replacement.
ii) Preventive Maintenance
The preventive maintenance of equipment is being mostly adopted by almost all the
utilities. In this type of maintenance, the equipments are inspected at a predetermined period. The frequency determined based on the past experience and also
guidance from the manufacturer of the equipment. This type of maintenance would
require specific period of shut-down. Maintenance procedure, periodicity of
maintenance and formats for maintaining records for various types of sub-station
equipments have been discussed separately in detail in a separate section.
surge arrestors and current transformers. Some of the typical failures of equipment
and the remedial measures adopted have been discussed in a separate section.
4.0 NEED FOR CONDITION BASED ASSESSMENT OF EHV EQUIPEMNT
4.1 In the present competitive environment, all utilities are making efforts to reduce
the O&M expenditure. This puts lot of pressure on the utilities to minimize the
outage period due to failure of equipment. This necessitates adopting of condition
based monitoring as the Need of the Hour. This has necessitated all the power
utilities to introduce condition based monitoring for EHV class equipment so that
actual condition of the equipment and its residual life could determine. Modern
techniques are available for condition based monitoring and the concept of residual
life assessment is picking up worldwide.
Chapter 2
CAUSES OF FAILURES OF MAJOR SUB-STATION EQUIPMENTS
AND REMEDIAL MEASURES
1. INTRODUCTION
This section briefly describes about the probable causes of failure of major substation equipment viz. Power Transformers, Reactors, Circuit Breaker, Instrument
Transformers, Surge Arrestors etc. and remedial measures taken to prevent such
failures.
2. POWER TRANSFORMERS
Power Transformers are vital links in the chain of components constituting a power
system, the failure of which affect the supply of electric power to the consumers.
Internationally, the transformers are found to be very reliable but in our country
the failure rates are quite high. Failure analysis quotes a host of reasons behind the
failure of power transformers. These may include abused operations inept
maintenance, substandard techniques adopted during manufacturing, testing and
commissioning, substandard input materials, inconsistency environment, design
deficiencies, abnormal operating conditions, over voltages, system short circuits etc.
% of cases
36
28
Components
Winding
Terminal
Tank and Di-electric
fluid
Magnetic Circuit
Other accessories
% of cases
29
29
13
13
5
4
2
11
5
However the main causes of failure as pertaining to our country are given below:
Table
Causes
Design defects
Manufacturing problems
Material defects
Transport or storage problems
In-correct maintenance
Abnormal overload
Over-fluxing
Lightning
External short circuit
Loss of cooling
Unknown
% Failures
35.7
28.6
13.1
1.2
4.8
Less than 1
1.2
3.6
2.4
1.2
7.1
Remedial Measures
Insulated yoke bands preferred
or yoke bolt insulation should
be class B insulation or
higher.
Flux density should not exceed
1.9 Tesla at maximum
operating voltage
Adequate duct from point of
effective cooling
Adjust the transpositions so
that all conductors should have
equal reactance
Provide adequate clearance as
per the voltage class
Inadequate
May result in short circuit
clearance between
phases
Clamping ring not May fail during short circuit condition Thickness of clamping ring
properly designed
should be designed such as to
withstand short circuit forces
Insufficient
May fail during short circuit condition Strong supports are required
bracing of leads
for bracing of leads
Radiators
not Result in improper cooling causing Proper calculation of radiators
properly designed higher temperature for oil/windings
is necessary
Effect
Remedial Measure
and Result in interturn or interdisc Proper sizing for keeping
short circuit
winding
under
clamping
condition
Burrs on lamination
Result in local short circuit and Burr free condition to be
result in heating
ensured
by
good
manufacturing facility
Burrs on spacers and Result in damaging conductor Burr free condition to be
blocks
insulation
ensured
by
good
manufacturing facility
Bad brazed joints
Damage
the
conductor Adopt
good
brazing
insulation and winding may procedures
fail
Metallic parts left over May cause partial discharge
Better house keeping to
during manufacture
ensured
Insulation
surface Results in insulation failure
Cleanliness to be ensured
contamination
All metal components not Partial discharge may start and All metal components are to be
earthed
oil quality may get affected
properly earthed and this is to
be added in check-list
Bad and porous welding Result in oil leakage
Surface cleanliness to be
of transformer tank
ensured and adopt good
welding procedures
Improper drying process Winding and insulation are not Extensive drying and oil
fully stabilized due to moisture impregnation process should
leading to failure
be strictly followed as per
voltage class
2.4 Failures due to defective materials
The quality of material used also reflects on the life of the transformers. A rigid
control of quality at all the successive stages of manufacture right from raw
material to finished product will avoid the failure in transformers. Some of the
failures due to defective material is listed in Table given below:
Cause
Sharp edges
conductors
Improper
insulation
Effect
in copper Produce partial discharge and
damage
the
conductor
insulation
conductor Deteriorate under influence
of high voltage stress and
damage insulation
Insulation failure
Remedial measure
The surface finish should be
smooth
Check
the
incoming
conductor insulation and also
no. of layers for conductor
covering
Maintain BDV & PPM as per
manufacturers
recommendations
Maintain oil cleanliness
On load tap changers are the second largest reason for trouble in power
transformers after short circuit. The defects in OLTC are of the following type:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It appears that the manufacturer does not exercise proper care in selecting
current rating of the OLTC. Factors for efficiency of operation and over
loading capability of transformer have to be accounted for to arrive at design
current rating. The selected current rating normally should be one step
higher than the calculated value. It would be advisable if purchasers
technical specifications do not leave this option to the manufacturer and
current/voltage ratings are specifically stipulated.
Quality and rating of transition resistors have been one of the main sources
of problem in OLTC. Repeated incidences of burning of transition resistors
are an area, which calls for serious attention from OLTC manufactures.
Open circuiting or burning of transition resistors leading to selector switch
spark over and fire in tap switch resulted into bursting of pressure relief
diaphragm in MR type tap changer.
Failure of limit switch to stop operation at extreme position of tap changer
have led to severe arcing, pressure build-up and bursting of OLTC
compartment.
In sealed breathing transformers, defective oil seals and O rings have led to
transfer of oil under pressure from main takn to diverter switch and leakages
through silicagel breather resulting into fall in main tank oil level which is an
operational hazard.
Crack in barrier board has also been a cause of failure owing to nonequalization of pressure between main tank and OLTC, while applying
vacuum at the time of first erection and drying out.
10
portion sealed in oil filled tanks to be removed at site at the time of erection to avoid
moisture ingress.
2.11 Suggestions to reduce failures
From the foregoing discussion reasons for transformer failure could be attributed to
various causes. Some of the possible corrective steps are enlisted herein, to reduce
such casualty.
2.12 Improved design and manufacturing practice
By adopting CAD and better shop floor management, more reliable units could be
manufactured to eliminate:
Overloading
Over fluxing and over voltage
Hot joints and spark over
Frequent feeder tripping due to reflected faults
11
interrupting chambers
pre-insertion resistor chambers
grading capacitors
support column including tie/operating rods
Besides the above, the failure of breakers could also be attributed due to following
reasons:
12
13
14
Besides the above following problems were also observed in one make of CVT:
The only remedial measures suggested to avoid failures is to do the proper condition
monitoring checks of CVTs at site.
5. FAILURES OF SURGE ARRESTORS
Analysis of failure of surge arrestors have revealed failures mostly due to premature
degradation of ZnO discs. To minimize the failure of surge arrestors it is suggested
that surge arrestors are monitored online for presence of third harmonic resistive
current in the leakage current flowing through surge arrestors. Leakage current
upto 500 micro Amp is generally considered within acceptable limits.
15
Chapter 3
Typical Limiting Values and Maintenance Schedules
Sl. No.
1.
(A)
Permissible limits
Reference
IS 1866
- During O&M
IS 1866
15 PPM (Max.)
IS 1866
- During O&M
25 PPM (Max.)
-do-
a) BDV
b) Moisture content
B)
12
c) Resistivity at 90 degree C
-do-
d) Acidity
e) IFT at 27 degree C
IS 1866
0.20 (Max.)
-do-
g) Glash point
-do-
D)
E)
F)
0.007*
IEEE/C57.12.90.1980
10 M. Ohm / Connector
H)
2.
A)
NGC.UK
Recommendations
IS 2705
B)
C)
CB Operating timings
400 kV
220 kV
150 MS
200 MS
25 MS
35 MS
3.33 MS
3.33 MS
C)
G)
IEC 137
+ 39
Dew point values as per Annexure II
2.5 MS
16
PIR time
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
M)
3.
A)
BHEL make
12-16 MS
CGL make
8-12 MS
ABB make
8-12 MS
NGEF make
8-12 MS
M&G make
8-12 MS
TELK make
8-12 MS
8-12 MS
Manufacturers
Recommendations
-do-
Contact resistance of CB
terminal connector
IR value:
1. Phase earth
2. Across open contacts
3. Control cables
IEC 358
150 M. Ohm
NGC, UK
recommendations
- During O&M
Mfgs.
Recommendation
Mfgs.
Recommendation
Current Transformers
IR value
1. Primary earth
2. Secondary earth
3. Control cables
17
B)
0.007* at 20 Deg. C
C)
Terminal Connector
D)
CT ratio errors
+ 3% - Protection cores
+ 1% - Metering cores
4.
A)
B)
C
Capacitance
Contact resistance of terminal
connector
IR Value
1. Primary earth
2. Secondary earth
3. Control cables
D)
E)
NGC, UK
Recommendations
IS 2705
-do-
IEC 358
NGC, UK
Recommendations
IS 1866
35 ppm
-do12
c) Resistivity at 90 Deg. C
0.1 10 Ohm. CM
-do-
d) Acidity
-do-
e) IFT at 27 Deg. C
-do-
1.0 Max.
-do-
g) Flash point
-do-
+ 5% protection cores
+ 0.5% metering cores
IEEE/C93.1.1990
IEC 186
Permissible limits
5.
A)
Isolators
Contact resistance
B)
1. Phase earth
3. Control cables
6.
A)
Surge Arrester
Leakage current
B)
IR value
F)
Sl. No.
C)
Reference
NGC, UK
Recommendations
Hitachi, Japan
Recom.
18
7.
A)
Miscellaneous
Station earth resistance
B)
Thermovision scanning
C)
D)
2. Control cables
3. Lt. Transformers
4. Lt. Switchgears
8.
Batteries
A)
10 M Ohm + 20%
B)
Specific gravity
HGC, UK
Recommendations
ANSI/IEEE 450
1987
10
0.8
15
0.9
20
1.0
25
1.12
30
1.25
35
1.40
19
40
1.55
45
1.75
50
1.95
10
55
2.18
11
60
2.42
12
65
2.70
13
70
3.00
If Tan Delta of bushing/winding/CVT/CT is measured at oil temperature T Deg. C. Then Tan Delta at 20
Deg. C shall be as given below:
Tan Delta at 20 Deg. C = Tan Delta at Temp T Deg. C / Factor K.
Make of CB
Dew point at
rated Pr. Deg. C
1.
BHEL
-15
Corresponding
dew point at
Atmo. Pr.
-36
M&G
-7
-5
--
-29
-27
-39
CGL
-15
-32
-35
ABB
-10
-15
-31
-35
NGEF
-5
-15
-26
-36
-7
-5
-29
-27
2.
3.
4.
5.
Remarks
At the time of
commissioning
During O&M
Critical
At the time of
commissioning
During O&M
At the time of
commissioning
During O&M
At the time of
commissioning
During O&M
At the time of
commissioning
During O&M
Critical
20
Note: Dew point of SF6 gas varies with pressure at which measurement is carried out. So
it is to be ensured that if measurement is done at pressure other than atmospheric
pressure, it needs to be converted to the atmospheric pressure as given below.
Testing Sequence for Power Transformers
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Test
AT
Manufactuers
Work
Ratio
Yes
Winding
resistance Yes
measurement (at all taps)
Insulation
resistance
and Yes
Polarisation Index
Polarity, vector group
Yes
Separate source withstand Yes
voltage
Measurement of No. load Yes
losses
Load losses and measurement Yes
of impedance (at all taps)
Temperature rise test
Yes
Impulse withstand test
Yes
Switching surge withstand test Yes
Induced voltage withstand and Yes
partial discharge measurement
Measurement of iron losses Yes
(after all type tests)
Measurement of insulation Yes
resistance and polarization
index
Measurement of capacitance Yes
and tan delta of windings
While
Commissioning
During
Maintenance
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
---
-----
Yes
---
Yes
---
Yes
-------
---------
Yes
---
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
21
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
a)
b)
c)
d)
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
22
e)
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
Tasks assigned
Periodicity
A.
I R MEASUREMENT
a.
SD
In case of
requirement
b.
SD
3 Yearly*
c.
SD
In case of
requirement
d.
Magnetization Chracteristics
SD
In case of
requirement
23
e.
CT ratio test
SD
In case of
requirement
f.
In case of
requirement
g.
Yearly
h.
WSD
Monthly
i.
Monthly
MARSHALLING BOX
a.
WSD
Monthly
b.
WSD
Monthly
c.
WSD
Yearly
d.
Yearly
e.
Yearly
a.
Yearly
b.
SD
Yearly
c.
WSD
Monthly
d.
Yearly
e.
3 Yearly
f.
Monthly
g.
6 Yearly
h.
Thermovision
stacks
Scanning
of
SD
SD
Capaacitor WSD
Yearly
MARSHALLING BOX
a.
WSD
b.
Yearly
Yearly
24
Yearly
d.
Yearly
SD
*First time after one year from commissioning and then once in every three years.
Tasks assigned
A.
a.
Monthly
b.
Monthly
c.
SD
Yearly
d.
SD
2 Yearly@
I.
a.
Monthly
b.
WSD
Monthly
c.
WSD
Monthly
d.
Yearly
e.
Yearly
f.
SD
Yearly
II.
a.
Yearly
b.
Half Yearly
c.
B.
WSD
Periodicity
Yearly
25
a.
WSD
Monthly
b.
WSD
Monthly
c.
C.
MOCBs
a.
WSD
Monthly
b.
WSD
Yearly
D.
a.
Yearly*
b.
SD
2 Yearly
c.
3 Yearly
d.
SD
Yearly
e.
Yearly
f.
SD
Yearly
g.
SD
Yearly
h.
SD
Yearly
i.
Yearly
E.
MEASUREMENT/TESTING
a.
SD
Yearly
b.
Yearly
c.
3 Yearly+
F.
CONTROL CABINET
a.
Yearly
b.
Yearly
c.
Repainting
required)
(if WSD
Yearly
d.
WSD
Yearly
**
of
metallic
surfaces
Yearly
26
@At time of commissioning then after 6 months and one & half years of commissioning
and thereafter once in every two years.
*For All HV/EHV Circuit Breakers only
**For 400 kV BHEL, CGL make CBs only
+First time after one year from commissioning and then once in every three years.
Preventive Maintenance Schedule for Bus-Bar, Jumpers, Connectors, Clamps,
Switchyard Illumination etc.
S. No.
Tasks assigned
Periodicity
a.
WSD
Yearly
b.
Cleaning of insulators
SD
Yearly
c.
SD
Yearly
d.
Yearly
e.
SD
Yearly
f.
De-weeding of switchyard
WSD
In case of
requirement
g.
Yearly
h.
In case of
requirement
WSD
Tasks assigned
Periodicity
a.
Testing of DR/EL
WSD
Monthly
b.
Calibration
of
panel
meters WSD
(Indicating/Recording instruments along
with the transducers)
Yearly
c.
Yearly
d.
WSD
27
e.
Yearly
f.
Yearly
g.
WSD
Yearly
h.
WSD
Yearly
I.
LINE PROTECTION
A.
DISTANCE PROTECTION
Reach check for all 4 zones*
WSD
Yearly
Time measurement
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
SOTF
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
Polarization check
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
PSB check
WSD
Yearly
DC Supply monitoring
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
PSB check
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
PSB check
WSD
Yearly
MICROMHO
YTG
RAZFE
LZ 96
28
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
PSB check
WSD
Yearly
WSD
Yearly
THF Reyrolle
SOTF check
VT fuse failure check
Tasks assigned
Periodicity
SD
Yearly
Transmitter checks
SD
Yearly
Receiver checks
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
Reflex test
SD
Yearly
SD
As per
requirement
As per
requirement
PLCC SYSTEM
REACTOR PROTECTIONS
1
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
REF protection
SD
Yearly
DC logic
SD
Yearly
AUTO
PROTECTIONS
TRANSFORMER
SD
Yearly
Over load
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
LBB
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
SD
Yearly
Tasks assigned
Periodicity
a.
WSD
Monthly
b.
WSD
Monthly
c.
Checking of
Conservator
OLTC WSD
Monthly
d.
oil
level
in
i) Manual actuation
WSD
Monthly
SD
Yearly
e.
WSD
Monthly
f.
in WSD
Monthly
g.
WSD
Half Yearly
30
h.
Half Yearly
i.
In case of
requirement
j.
Vibration measurements
Reactors only)
Half Yearly
k.
SD
Yearly
l.
SD
Yearly
m.
(for
Shunt WSD
i) IR measurement of Windings SD
(Polarisation Index and DA+ Ratio)
In 3 Years**
SD
In 3 Years**
In 3 Years**
SD
In case of
requirement
circuit SD
In case of
requirement
v) Measurement
Impedance
of
short
n.
SD
Yearly
o.
SD
Yearly
p.
SD
In case of
requirement
q.
Maintenance
mechanism
driving SD
Yearly
r.
Yearly
s.
Yearly
t.
Yearly
u.
SD
Yearly
Yearly
SD
Yearly
Yearly
v.
of
OLTC
31
w.
Yearly
x.
In case of
requirement
y.
In case of
requirement
z.
SD
SOS
*Water content, BDV, SP, Resistance, Tand, IFT. Total Acidity, 2-Furfuraldehyde etc.
**First time after one year from commissioning and then once in every three years.
+Di-electric Absorption Ratio
!To be measured as per the following combinations:
N/E, N/LV and LV/E.
Tasks assigned
A.
Operating Mechanism
Periodicity
Maintenance of
a.
SD
Yearly
b.
Stopper bolts
SD
Yearly
c.
Yearly
d.
Yearly
e.
Yearly
B.
MAIN CONTACTS
a.
SD
Yearly
32
b.
Alignment
SD
Yearly
c.
SD
2 Yearly
d.
SD
Yearly
e.
and SD
Yearly
C.
EARTH SWTICH
a.
Yearly
b.
Cleaning of contacts
SD
Yearly
c.
Contact resistance
SD
Yearly
d.
SD
Yearly
e.
Yearly
f.
Yearly
D.
MARSHALLING BOX
a.
SD
Yearly
b.
Yearly
c.
Checking
of
illumination
and WSD
Yearly
d.
WSD
Yearly
space
heaters
Periodicity
S. No.
Tasks assigned
a.
Yearly
b.
Testing of counters
SD
Yearly
c.
Cleaning of LA insulator
SD
Yearly
d.
SD
In case of
requirement
33
Chapter 4
MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES FOR SWITCHYARD EQUIPMENTS (CBs,
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS, SURGE ARRESTORS AND ISOLATORS)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This section briefly covers the maintenance practices / techniques being adopted
by the power utilities for switch gear equipments installed in EHV/HV stations. However,
in the present scenario competitive market utilities are under tremendous pressure to
bring down the maintenance costs. This has led to the adoption of condition based
monitoring rather than conventional based scheduled maintenance. The frequency of the
condition-based maintenance is fixed based on the type of equipment and its previous
history. Test or measurements are carried to determine the condition of the equipment. It
is general experience of practically all the utilities that most of the equipment dont show
any abnormality during scheduled maintenance and there is no guarantee that the
equipment shall not fail before the next schedule maintenance. Thus, the scheduled
maintenance efforts are in vain as well as costly in view of shut-down time and
manpower costs. Hence modern condition based techniques are being adopted which are
designed to continuously monitor the function parameters and also assess the components
deterioration before a mal-operation occurs.
2.0 MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES
The maintenance techniques to be adopted should meet the following criteria:
Field staff should be able to carry out such tests and interpret the test results
Testing procedure to be evolved after detailed discussions with the supplier of the
equipment and testing equipment
Return down procedure to be made available to the operating staff
34
Emptying and refilling of SF6 gas SF6 gas for the circuit breaker is to be
evacuated using the gas treatment equipment. SF6 gas contained in the electrical
equipments should not be allowed vent into the atmosphere. Before SF6 gas is
removed, the quality of the SF6 gas has to be checked. The gas after evacuation
has to be stored in a suitable vessel meeting the following criteria
- Material should be such so as to resist the corrosive effects of SF6
decomposition products.
- Oil free
- Gas tightness of the service device and connecting components
35
Oil free
Easily handling and mobility
Filling pressure which can be pre-set by pressure reducer. Before filling
the SF6 gas, the maintenance/over hauled breaker need to be evacuated by
a vacuum pump so that SF6 gas does not mix with ambient air and also
humidity and dust particles are removed from the breaker. With the help
of vacuum pump a final vacuum should reach (5m Bar).
36
Testing procedure
A typical arrangement for measurement of operating timings of circuit breaker is given in
Figure 1.
37
(Figure 1)
Make connections as per above figure. Ensure that R, Y and B phase marking
cables are connected with proper terminal with the CB (Circuit Breaker) analyzer
and maintained color Coates for all the three poles of CB.
Connection is to be made for measuring the operating timings of auxiliary
contacts
AC/DC supply to be extended to CB analyzer
Give closing command to closing coil of CB and note down the PIR and main
contact closing time. Obtain a print from a CB analyzer
Give tripping command to trip coil 1 of CB and note down the main contact
tripping time.
Repeat the same for tripping coil 2
Note the down the timings of various operations of CB viz. CO, OC, OCO by
giving appropriate command.
In the event of PIR opening time is required the same may be isolated from the
main break and treated as a separate contact using different channel of the
analyzer.
38
Variation in the operating timing of the order of 3 ms from the base values is generally
considered acceptable. However, if these are not within the limits the same is to be
corrected by:
It is also necessary to measure the timings of auxiliary contacts from the point of view of
variations with respect to main contact. If the difference in timings of the main or
auxiliary contact is maintained within limits this reveals that there is no problem with the
auxiliary contact assembly or with the operating mechanisms or with the operating levers
of the CB.
Contact resistance measurement
Purpose of measuring contact resistance measurement is to assess the condition of the
main contacts against erosion or misalignment of the main contacts. The value of the
contact resistance for a new circuit breaker should be around 50 micro-ohms per break.
Testing procedure
The ohmmeter is employed for measurement of pumping resistance. To measure the
value, connect the leads as per above figure and adjust the variac so that approximately
100 ampere current flow through the contacts. The value of the contact resistance is
directly displayed on the digital LED display screen. By using the 4 terminal method
effects of resistance of test lead is nullified is the input impedance of the measuring
device is very high.
If the value of the contact resistance exceeds the permissible limits given in Section 7.,
this could lead to over heating of contacts. Monitoring contact resistance values is very
good techniques for assessing the condition of main contacts. Resistance values of the
order of the 100-125 micro-ohms per breaker is considered to be alright for the CB in
service.
Dynamic contact resistance measurement
A typical arrangement for measurement of dynamic contact resistance of CB is given in
Figure 2.
39
(Figure 2 )
This another technique for measuring the contact resistance during dynamic conditions
i.e. during operations (close/trip) of CB. A DC current is injected through the CB and the
current and voltage drop are measured and the resistance is calculated. The graphs of
resistance vs. time data provide useful information on the condition of the main contact
of CB and is considered to be a modern diagnostic tool.
The variation in the measure resistance vs. time will be seen as finger print for the
breaker contacts and can be used as reference / base value for comparing future
measurement on the same breaker. If the DCRM values matches with the precommissioning /base value then the arcing contact are considered to be O.K. In case of
wide variation and also there is change in arcing contact insertion time this shows erosion
of arcing contacts. Such as situation may lead of transferring of current from arcing
contacts to main contacts and subsequent commutation failure.
Contact Travel Measurement
Transducers and fixtures are attached to operating rod or interrupting chamber for
measuring contact travel. When CB closes contact travel is recorded. Contact bouncing
and any other abnormality is also pointed out by contact travel measurement. If contact
travel is recorded with DCRM the length of the arcing contact shall also be monitored. It
is generally observed that after some time due to erosion of arcing contact the tip length
reduces and such condition may lead of commutation failure. This may lead to shifting to
arc to main contacts and results in faster damage of main contacts. If contact travel,
contact speed and contact restoration signature are compared with the original signature it
shall reveal problems related with the operating mechanism, operating levers, main /
arcing contacts, contact alignments etc.
Dew-point measurement of SF6 gas/air
40
6.4.3 Dew point is the temperature at which moisture content in SF6 gas/air starts
condensing. Measurement of dew point of SF6 gas/air is considered to be a adequate
parameter for monitoring of SF6 gas/air.
Dew-point measurement of SF6 gas in SF6 CB
6.4.4 Measurement of dew point of SF6 gas in a circuit breaker reveals the change in the
value of dielectric properties of SF6 gas. Dielectric properties of SF6 dew get changed
with time due to mixing of impurities like moisture, decomposition products of SF6 gas
viz. hydroflouride lower valence sulphur fluorides etc. The ingress of moisture in SF6 gas
after filling in CB and during O&M could be due to:
SOF2 + 2 HF
SO2 + 2 HF
H2SO3 + 4 HF
H2SO3 + 4 HF
Sulphur oxifulorides, hydrogen fluorides and H2SO3 formed during these reactions attack
the materials containing silicon-dioxide (SIO2) viz. glass / porcelain. Primary and
secondary decomposition in the presence of moisture forms corrosive electrolytes which
may cause damage and operation failure.
Testing procedure
A typical arrangement for dew point measurement is given below in Figure 3.
41
(Figure 3)
Make the connection to the kit from circuit breaker ensuring that regulating valve is fully
closed at the time of connection of the dew point kit. Regulate the flow rate of SF6 (0.20.5 L/minute) as per IEC 480, the value of the dew point is observed till it becomes
stable.
Note.: If the regulating valve is provided at the outlet of the dew point kit then dew point
value for rated pressure are to be monitored.
Frequency of Dew Point Measurement
The discharge of moisture from the organic insulating material is faster initially and the
rate of release becomes almost negligible after 4 to 5 year of commissioning, and
thereafter moisture entry in the CB is through permeation. Recommended frequency of
dew point measurement is as given below:
Dew point of SF6 gas varies with the pressure due to the fact that saturation vapor
pressure decreases with increase of SF6 pressure. Dew point of SF6 at higher pressure is
lower than the dew point at atmospheric pressure. Table given below give the value of
dew point at rated pressure and at atmospheric pressure for various makes of CBs.
42
43
Figure 4
Testing procedure
44
2. Deposit of surface moisture can have significant effect on the surface losses and
consequently on the results. With a view to minimizing the errors the dissipation
measurements may be made when the weather is clear and sunny and the relative
humidity is less than 80%.
3. Surface leakages Any leakage over the insulation surfaces of the specimen will
get added to the losses in the insulation and make a fake impression about the
condition of specimen. It is recommended that surfaces of insulation should be
cleaned and dry when taking a measurement.
4. Electrostatic interference In the energized switch yard, readings may get
affected by electrostatic interference current resulting from the capacity coupling
between energized line and the bus work to the specimen. To overcome this all
the jumpers connected need to be opened when taking a measurement. In the
modern automatic testing kits the effect of interference gets nullified due to
presence of interference suppression circuits.
Interpretation of test results
A large number of failures of electrical equipment have been reported due to deteriorated
condition of the insulation. The correct interpretation of test results requires knowledge
about the equipment construction and characteristics of particular type of insulation.
Dissipation factor measurements indicate the following conditions in the insulation of
wide range of electrical equipments:
1. Chemical deterioration due to time and temperature, including certain cases of
acute deterioration caused by localized overheating;
2. Contamination by water, carbon deposits, bad oil, dirt and other chemicals;
3. Severe leakage through cracks and over surfaces;
4. Ionization.
Dialectic strength of insulation decreases with the increase in the moisture content. At
high temperature is pushed out of the paper insulation with oil. As insulation cooled
down water starts migrating from oil into paper. The time for temperature drop may be
faster as compared to water returning to cellulose material. Depending upon the condition
the dissipation factor also changes.
An increase in the value of tan delta indicates the deterioration of cellulose insulation
whereas increase in both tan delta and capacitance reveals entry of moisture in the
insulation.
Ambient temperature
At 20 degree C the value of tan delta should not be more than 0.007. In the present testing
kit available the software is available to give the test results at 20 degree C and also at
rated frequency irrespective of the measurement being made at some other temperature.
45
Vibration Measurement
Mechanical vibrations experienced during closing and tripping operations are recorded
with the help of accelerometer and data acquisition system. The same fingerprints are
compared with the reference signature, which have been recorded at the time of precommissioning. Any change in the recorded patterns could be attributed due to any
mechanical malfunctions, excessive contact wears, misalignments of contacts, problems
in damping systems. For a measurement of recording of vibration pattern 2 or 3
accelerometer are installed externally in each phase usually one on arching chamber, one
in operating mechanism and one somewhere in-between.
Other Condition Based Maintenance Techniques
Besides the above mentioned condition based techniques, the other techniques adopted
includes monitoring of trip / close coil current, coil current measurement, SF6 gas/air
leakage test rate and operating mechanism medium oil/air pressure. Friction in the
plunger movement gap between the plunger and the pin of the coil assembly are reflected
in the recorded current values / wave shapes. Leakage rate of SF6 gas indicates
healthiness of the ceiling system, O ring and strength of cementing joints. SF6 gas
leakage upto 1% per annum is considered to be within acceptable limits.
Operation Lockout Checks for CB
Following operation lockout checks are carried out:
a) SF6 gas pressure lockout:
Pump start/stop
CB auto re-close lockout
CB closing lockout
CB operation lockout
46
47
Figure 5
Connect the megger as shown in the figure. Connect the HV terminal to the primary
terminal of CT by using crocodile clip for firm grip. The measurements may be made as
per the procedure prescribed by the supplier of the kit. A test voltage as specified is
applied as per the above connections and successive readings are taken. Values of IR
should be recorded after 15, 60 and 600 seconds. Ambient temperature and weather
conditions are also to be noted. It is advisable to carry out measurement during sunny and
clear weather.
Evolution of test results
Variation from normal IR value indicate abnormal conditions such as presence of
moisture, dirt, dust, crack in insulation of CT and degradation of insulation.
48
Analysis of IR values
When a DC voltage is applied to insulation, there will be a flow of conduction current,
dialectic absorption current and charging currents. Dialectic absorption current and
charging currents becomes zero after some times and only conduction current only flows
through the insulation.
Conduction current
The steady straight value of the current after a DC voltage is applied to the capacitor is
known as conduction current. Conduction current is directly affected by temperature,
humidity, contaminants and voltage stress. In a solid insulating material which have
absorbed moisture, there will be a non linear larger increase of conduction current for
increase in the voltage stress.
Test is carried out at 5 kV DC voltage. Any variation with respect to base value indicate
problem in CT insulation.
Polarization index (IR60/IR15) and dialectic absorption ratio (IR600/IR60) are calculated
and these ratios should be more then 1.5 for good quality insulation. However, exact
values depend on the type of insulation and may vary for different type of equipment.
Secondary Winding Resistance (CTs)
Testing procedure
After ensuring, necessary precautions have been taken, connect leads of O meter between
different terminals of CT secondary course. Select the range of O meter as per precommissioning / factory test results. Following precautions are considered essential:
1. Test links should be open in the CT MB prior to measurement of secondary
resistance
2. It should be ensured that associated CTs are not in charged condition. For
example main and tie CTs for differential relays should not be in charged
condition.
3. Any earth provided in the secondary circuit of CT should be removed prior to
measurement.
Evolution of test results
Value of secondary winding resistance should be within the acceptable limits. Extreme
low value of resistance indicates turn-to-turn shorting, whereas, if the value is high it
indicates some loose connection which has to be identified and tightened before repeating
the measurement.
49
50
51
52
This method can readily be utilized for measurements in service. A potential problem is
the presence of harmonics in the voltage, which cause harmonic capacitive currents that
may interfere with the resistive component.
Capacitive compensation by combining the leakage current of the three phases
The method is based on the assumption that the capacitive currents are canceled if the
leakage currents of the arresters in the three phases are summed. The resulting current is
composed of the harmonics of the resistive currents from the three arresters, since the
fundamental components are also canceled as long as they are equal in magnitude. If
there is an increase in the resistive current of any of the arresters, the capacitive currents
remaining constant, the increase will appear in the summed current. A voltage reference
signal is not needed. For measurements in service, the main disadvantage with the
method is that the capacitive currents of the three phases are not generally equal. Another
concern is the influence of harmonics in the system voltage, which will cause harmonics
in the Summed current.
Third harmonic analysis
The method is based on the fact that harmonics are created in the leakage current by the
non-linear voltage-current characteristic of the arrester. No voltage reference is needed
since it is assumed that all harmonics arise from the non-linear resistive current. The
harmonic content depends on the magnitude of the resistive current and on the degree of
non-linearity of the voltage-current characteristics.
The third harmonic is the largest harmonic component of the resistive current, and it is
the most commonly used for diagnostic measurements. The conversion from harmonic to
resistive current level, if required, relies on information supplied by the arrester
manufacturer or from measurements in the laboratory.
The method can be readily used for measurements in service. The main problem is the
sensitivity to harmonics in the system voltage. The harmonics in the voltage may create
capacitive harmonic current that are comparable in size with the harmonic currents
generated by the non-linear resistance of the arrester. As a result, the error in the
measured harmonic current may be considerable. This is shown in Figure 6, where
leakage current is given as function of the third harmonic content in the system voltage.
The figure includes the effects of different voltage-current characteristics and
capacitances, as well as the influence of the phase angle of the third harmonic in the
voltage. It is seen that 1% third harmonic in voltage may give + 100% measuring error in
the current.
53
Figure 6
Third order harmonic analysis with compensation for harmonics in the voltage
The method is based on the same principle as mentioned above, but the sensitivity to
harmonics in the voltage is greatly reduced by the introduction of a compensating current
signal for the capacitive third harmonic current in the arrester. The compensating current
signal is derived from a "field probe"L positioned at the base of the arrester. After proper
scaling, the harmonic current induced in the probe by the electric field in subtracted from
the total harmonic current. The result is the harmonic current generated by the non-linear
resistive current of the arrester. The conversion from third harmonic to resistive current if
wanted requires additional information from the arrester manufacturer. The method is
suitable for measurements in service and is described in more detail below.
Direct determination of the power losses
The power loss is the integral of the product of the instantaneous values of the voltage
and leakage current divided by time. The power loss may be expressed in terms of the
product of the r.m.s. value of the resistive component of leakage current and the r.m.s.
value of the voltage across the arrester. The influence of the harmonics in the voltage is
greatly reduced by the multiplication and integration procedure. The main disadvantage is
54
the need for a voltage signal. The accuracy during measurements in the service may be
limited by phase shifts in voltages and currents, caused by the adjacent phases.
Monitoring System with Compensation of the Third Harmonic Current Generated
by the System Voltage
The use of modern diagnostic techniques means generally increased service reliability
and cost savings for the electric power industry. It is therefore desirable to check the
condition of surge arresters at regular time intervals, by measuring the resistive
component of the continuous leakage current in service without de-energizing the
arrester. Reliable measurements are achieved by introduction of a field probe as
illustrated in Figure -6, which allows a compensation for the harmonic currents
generated by the harmonics in the voltage.
Experience from measurements on arresters for system voltages from 66 kV to 765 kV
have prevented arrester failures and increased the operation reliability.
The leakage current monitor system is used for gap less metal oxide surge arresters and is
connected to the arrester as illustrated in Figure-6. It consists of three main parts:
55
3. Clamp On type CT should be placed above the surge monitor to pick up total
leakage current.
4. Carry out the measurement as per standard procedure supplied by the test kit
supplier.
5. Note down the system voltage and ambient temperature along with the test current
value.
6. Avoid measurement during monsoon.
56
b) Battery charger
S.No. Problem
1.
No DC output
2.
3.
4.
Possible cause
- Problem in control
cards
- Transformer supply
failure
- Fuse blown
- Loose connections in
transformer and
controller
DC voltage not - Rectifier fuse blown
building up or
dropped on load
- Current limit in
operation
- Problem in control
cards
Output ripple
- Filter fuse blown
high
- One SCR not
conducting
- Potentiometer setting
disturbed in Firing card
Output voltage - problem in control
Remedial measures
- Check the control cards as per details
given below
- Replace if found defective
- Replace
- Tight if found loose
5.
58
2. Portable test equipment for testing distance relays comprising supply unit,
control unit and fault impedance unit. Suitable for AC voltage from 380440 V, three phase, 3 wire system 20 Ampere (short time rated) with built
in safety devices.
Automatic test kits
1. It shall be suitable to test all types of distance, over current, ground relays,
synchronizing, transformer, reactor and busbar protection relays of major
manufacturers in automatic as well as manual mode.
2. It shall include all the accessories required for making the complete test
set up.
3. It shall have three phase current output range 0-30 amps. (rms) and three
phase voltage range 0-110 voltage (PH-G).
4. It shall work on single phase 240 V, 50 Hz + 10% SUPPLY
5. Shall include necessary software and hardware
i) To accept fault recording
available from fault data
recorder/numerical
relay/EMTP simulation and
relay these on the relay under
test.
ii) To draw the relay
characteristics
59
Chapter 5
All results must be entered in the proper format for comparison during future tests.
60
Check for operation of counter reading - This may be done on a regular basis so
as to see the functioning of the counter.
Check for defrost current indication and counter reading - This is being done to
ensure the water is being ejected from the breather. Check the same by pressing
the button. Also, check that 2 red neon lights are on and the ember neon light is
off.
61
Cooling System
2.7 Regular inspection may be carried out of the cooling surfaces and when required
clean same from the dirt, insects, and leaves or any other air borne dirt. This is important
as it affects the fan cooling. Cleaning is normally done by water flushing at high pressure.
As regards cleaning of internal cooling surfaces, no major are considered necessary so
long the oil is in good condition. In the event of setting of sludge formation of the oil the
sludge may get deposited from the horizontal surfaces in radiators and coolers. The same
may be flushed internally with clean oil in connection with oil exchange. In the event the
sludge doesn't gets loosed the flushing may be done first with petrol and then with oil.
However, this may be carried out in consultation with the supplier.
2.8 Regular inspection of the cooler banks may be made. The cooler can be cleaned by
taking out the tube packets and thereby making them assessable for cleaning. For any
increase in sound level of fan retighten all mounting supports.
Cooling System - Fans - Controls
2.9 Fan control are designed to operate both manually and automatically. The automatic
function is related to the load and energisation or both. The following controls are
required to be checked.
62
1. Manual Control - Fan operation should observed after turning the switch to ON
position for a brief period. Oil pump should be checked by observing the flow
through gauges. In case of any malfunctioning manufacturers may be consulted.
2. Temperature Control - Remove the temperature bulbs from its well on the side /
top of the transformer. Set the master controller to the automatic position. The
temperature of the bulb should be slowly raised by using a temperature control
calibration equipment for observe for proper calibration / operation.
3. Load Control - Check the secondary current of the controlling CT for proper
operation. Shot the secondary of CT (if the transformer is energized). Remove the
secondary lead from the control circuit and inject the current to the control circuit.
Vary the level of the current to observe the proper operation.
Cooling System - Fan - Visual Inspection
2.10 Following visual inspection checks may be carried out without taking a shut down
of the transformer to check that the fans are operating at a designed speed, airways are
not blocked and guards and blades are not damaged.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
63
Check that the fans of those coolers set to first stage are operating.
- Set the temperature indicator pointer to second stage cooling value (80 degree C).
Check that the fans of those coolers set to second stage are
working.
- Set the temperature indicator pointer to the alarm value (110 degree C).
Check with the control room that the alarm signal has been
received.
- Set the temperature indicator pointer to the trip value (125 degree C).
Check with the control room that the trip signal has been received.
64
Check the alarm and trip switch setting by rotating the pointer slowly to the set
temperatures. These settings will be indicated using a multi-meter. Record the values at
which the switches operated.
Once these checks are completed return the bulb to the pocked in the transformer cover.
Do not forget to bring the maximum level pointer to match the temperature indicator.
Secondary induction test
Ensure the cooler supply isolator is switched to the OFF Position.
Replace the winding temperature indicator bulb in the calibrated temperature controlled
bath and maintain a constant temperature of 50 degree C.
Inject the rated current into the appropriate terminals on the winding temperature
indication test panel then check and record the resultant gradient is the same as the
specified figure (26 degree 2 degree C).
Oil Temperature Indicator - Test
Remove the OTI bulb from the pocket on the transformer lid and insert them into the
calibrated temperature controlled oil bath.
Increase the temperature of the oil bath in 20 degree C steps from O degree C up to a
maximum temperature of 120 degree C. Check and record OTI readings against bath
temperatures up the range (tolerance 3 degree C).
Access the oil temperature indicator and rotate the pointer slowly to the alarm value (95
degree C) and the trip value (110 degree C) and check their operation. Using a resistance
meter, across the switches.
Gas and Oil Actuated Relay - Test
The use of gas operated relay as protection for oil-immersed transformers is based on the
fact that faults as flashover, short-circuit and local overheating normally result in gasgeneration. The gas-bubbles gathering in the gas-operated relay affect a flat-controlled
contact that gives an alarm signal.
Following tests may be carried out:
1.
2.
3.
4.
65
Before conducting above tests ensure that transformer and associated equipment is
deenergised, isolated and earthed.
Check the stability of the alarm and trip contacts of the buchholz relay during oil pump
start by both manual and automatic control to ensure spurious alarms and trips do not
result.
2.13 Bushsings
Regular cleaning of the bushing porcelain from dirt and dust should be carried out in the
areas where the air contains impurities such as salt, cement, smoke or chemical
substances, the frequency may be increased.
2.14 Connectors
To avoid prohibited temperature rise in the electrical connection of the transformer, all
screw joints should be checked and retightened. Use of thermo vision camera may be
made for any hot-spots in the joints.
2.15 Maintenance of Insulating Oil
One of the most important factor responsible for the performance of the transformer is the
quality of the oil. Normally insulating oil is subjected to dielectic and moisture contents
at site for monitoring the condition of the oil.
Test for dielectric strength (BDV)
Using a BDV test kit, adjust the electrodes (12.5 mm dia) sot that a gap of 2.5 mm is
between them. Carry out six tests on the oil, stirring the oil between each breakdown and
allowing it to settle. Take the average result and this should be used for acceptance
criteria (i.e. 60 kV)
Tests for moisture content (ppm)
Using an automatic moisture content test set and a suitable syringe that has been flushed,
inject a sample of the oil into the test set. Depending upon the make of the test set the
moisture figure may be indicated by mg H2O. if this is the case the figure may be divided
by weight of the sample injected in grams. This will give in parts per million (ppm).
Typically the moisture content should be less than 15 ppm for transformers in service.
The recommended values of insulating oil for new / unused oil before filling in the
equipment (as per IS: 335/1983) and after filling in the equipment (as per IS:1866/1983)
are given below in Table 1 & 2.
66
Table 1
S. No.
Chracteristics / Property
IS 355/1983
Appearance
Colour
27 cst
< 9 cst
0.04 N/m
140 C
- 6 C
a.
b.
Corrosive Sulphur
10
a.
30 kV, rms
b.
After filteration
60 kV, rms
11
12
a.
At 90 C, Min.
35*1012 -cm
b.
AT 27 C, Min.
1500*1012 -cm
13
Oxidation Stability
a.
b.
14
a.
i.
At 27 C, Min.
2.5*1012 -cm
ii.
At 90 C, Min.
0.2*1012 -cm
b.
DDF at 90 C, Max.
0.2
c.
0.05
0.03 mg KOH / g
NIL
Non-corrosive
0.002
0.40 mg KOH / gm
0.10% by weight
67
d.
0.05
15
16
Water content
a.
50 ppm
b.
After filtration
15 ppm
17
PCB content
<2 ppm
18
SK value
4 to 8%
19
Not applicable
Table 2
S.No. Characteristics / Property
IS 1866/1983
Appearance
0.5 mg KOH/g
0.1*1012 -cm
Prior to energisation of transformer, the oil sample shall be tested for properties and
acceptance norms as given in Table 3.
68
Table 3
S.No.
Particulars of test
Acceptable value
1.
60 kV (Min.)
2.
Moisture content
15 ppm (Max.)
3.
Tan delta at 90 C
0.05 (Max.)
4.
Resistivity at 90 C
5.
Interfacial tension
For auto-transformer
HV/LV+E
HV/E
HV/LV+TV+E
IV/HV+E
LV/HV+TV+E
LV/HV+LV+E
TV/HV+LV+E
HV/IV
HV+TV/LV+E
IV/LV
LV+TV/HV+E
HV/LV
HV+LV/TV+E
Correction factor
1.23
10
1.50
15
1.84
20
2.25
25
2.76
30
3.35
35
4.10
40
5.00
Minimum insulation values for one minute resistance measurements for transformers may
be determined by using the following empirical formula:
R = CE / / kVA
Where
70
R - Insulation resistance in MW
C - 1.5 for oil filled transformers at 20 C assuming that the oil is dry, acid free and
sludge free.
E - Voltage rating in V of one of the single face windings (phase to phase for delta
connected and phase to netural for wye connected transformers)
KVA - Rated capacity of the winding under test.
IR test results below this minimum value would indicate probable insulation breakdown.
i) The following IR values may be considered as the minimum satisfactory value at 30 C
at the time commissioning, unless otherwise recommended by the manufacturer.
Rated voltage class of
winding
Minimum desired IR
value at 1 minute (M )
11 kV
300
33 kV
400
66 kV & above
500
M
/kV of service
voltage
Desired min. IR
value at 20 C
Concentric
200
Shell
10
400
Type of
transformer
Even if the insulation is dry, IR values could be low due to poor resistivity of the oil. The
IR values increases with the duration of the application of the voltage. The increase in IR
value is an indication of dryness of the insulation. The ratio of 60 second IR value to 15
second IR value is called absorption proportion. For oil transformers with Class A
insulation with reasonably dried condition polarization index at 30 C will be more than
1.3. Polarisation index test is the ratio meteric test, insensitive to temperature variation
and may used to predict insulation system performance even if charging currents (i.e.
capacitive, absorption or leakage currents) have not be diminished to zero. Since leakage
current increases at a faster rate with the presence of moisture then does absorption
current, the megohm reading will not increase with time as fast with insulation in poor
condition as with insulation in good condition. The polarisation index is the ratio 10
minute to 1 minute megaohm readings. The values given below are guidelines for
evaluating transformer insulation:
Polarisation Index
Insulation condition
71
Less than 1
1.0 1.1
Dangerous
Poor
1.1. 1.25
Questionable
1.25 2.0
Fair
Above 2.0
Good
72
3. To avoid any damage to the test set, always set the capacitance multiplier dial to
the SHORT, the capacitance measuring dials to their respective 'O' position.
4. Set UST - GST switch to UST position.
5. Set interference suppressor switches in off position.
6. Connect the ground terminal of the test set to a low impedance earth ground (to
earth mat of the sub-station).
7. Connect the control unit to the high voltage unit using two 5 feet long shielded
cables. Screw the pluges down fully on the receptacles.
8. Connect the external interlock cable to the 'interlock' terminal of the test set.
9. Connect the high voltage cable with Black boot/sheath to the high voltage
terminal of the high voltage unit. Connect the pig-tail for the outer shield to the
black binding post (ground) on the high voltage unit. Screw down the plug shell
fully on the receptacle.
10. With the main breaker switched OFF plug the input power cord into the test set
power receptacle and into a 3 wire grounded power receptacle having the
appropriate voltage rating and current capacity.
11. Connect the crocodile clip of the HV cable to the top terminal of the bushing.
Unscrew the test tap cover, insert a pin in the hole of the central test tap stud by
pressing the surrounding contact plug in case of 245 kV OIP Bushing and remove
the earthing strip from the flange by unscrewing the screw (holding earth strip to
the flange body) in case of 420 kV OIP Bushing. Connect the LV cable to the test
tap (strip/central stud) to the C & Tan & Kit through a screened cable and earth
the flange body.
Evolution of Test Results
A large percentage of electrical equipment failure has been reported due to deteriorated
condition of the insulation. A large number of these failures can be anticipated in advance
by regular application of this test. Changes in the normal capacitance of insulation
indicates abnormal conditions such as presence of moisture, layer short circuits or open
circuit in the capacitance network.
The interpretation are based on observing the difference:
1. Between measurements on the same unit after successive intervals of time.
2. Between measurements on similar part of a unit, tested under the same conditions
around the same time e.g. several identical transformers or one winding of a
three-phase transformer tested separately.
3. Between measurements made at different test voltages on one part of a unit; an
increase in slope (tip up) of DF vs Voltage curve at a given voltage in an
indication of ionization commencing at that voltage.
An increase of DF accompanied by a marked increase in capacitance usually indicates
presence of excessive moisture in the insulation. An increase of DF alone may be caused
to thermal deterioration or by contamination other than water. Surface of the insulator
73
petticoats must be cleaned otherwise any leakage over terminal surfaces may add to the
losses of the insulation itself and may if excessive, give a false indication of its condition.
Maximum value of tan delta of class insulation i.e. paper insulation, oil impregnated is
0.007. Rate of change of tan delta and capacitance is very important. Capacitance value
can be within + 10%, - 5% in capacitance value.
The temperature correction factor to be applied for temperature other than 20 C is given
in the following table which is based on IEEE 57 standard.
Ambient
temperature in
C
Temperature
correction factor
10
0.80
15
0.90
20
1.00
25
1.12
30
1.25
35
1.40
40
1.55
45
1.75
50
1.95
55
2.08
60
2.42
65
2.70
70
3.00
5. Keep the high voltage plugs free from moisture, dust during installation and
operation.
6. Adequate clearance (Min 1 foot i.e. 30 cms) are maintained between energized
conductor and ground to prevent any arc over.
7. It should be ensured that test specimen is de-energised and grounded before
making any further connection and no person may come in contact with HV
output terminal or any material energized by the output.
Testing Procedure
For the purpose of this test, the voltage rating of each winding under test must be
considered and test voltage selected accordingly. If neutral bushings are involved, there
voltage rating must also be considered in selecting the test voltage. Measurement should
be made between in each inter winding combination (or set of 3 phase winding in a 3
phase transformer) with all other windings grounded to tank or ground all the other
windings guarded. In the case of 2 winding transformer measurement should be made
between each winding and ground with the remaining winding grounded. For 3 winding
transformer measurement should be made between each winding and ground with 1
remaining winding guarded and second remaining winding grounded. Finally
measurement should be made between all winding connected together and grounded tank.
1. Ensure that test specimen is isolated from other equipments.
2. Position the test set at least 6 feet (180 cm) away from the test specimen to be
tested.
3. To prevent damage to the test set always set the capacitance multiplier dial to the
SHORT position, the capacitance measuring dials to their 'O' position.
4. Set UST - DST switch to UST position.
5. Set interference suppressor switches in off position.
6. Connect the ground terminal of the test set to a low impedance earth ground.
7. Connect control unit to the high voltage unit using two 5 feet long shielded
cables. Screw the plugs down fully on the receptacles.
8. Connect the low voltage cable with red boot/sheath to the 'CxL red terminal' of
the test set. Make sure the connector locks to the receptacle.
9. Connect the external interlock cable to the 'interlock terminal of the test set.
10. Connect the high voltage cable with Black boot/sheath to the high voltage
terminal of the high voltage unit. Connect the pit - tail for the outer shield to the
black binding post (ground) on the high voltage unit. Screw down the plug shell
fully on the receptacle.
11. With the main breaker switched OFF, plug the input power card into the test set
power receptacle and into a 3 wire grounded power receptacle having the
appropriate voltage rating and current capacity.
12. Connect the Crocodile clip of the HV cable to the HV terminal and LV cable to
the LV terminal of the test specimen.
13. For ICTS: Tan delta and capacitance measurement of windings should be done in
combination of HV+IV/LV+TANK+G; HV+IV+LV/TANK + G;
LV/HV+IV+TANK+V in GST Test mode.
75
14. For Reactors: Tan delta and capacitance measurement of windings should be done
in combination of HV/TANK+G in GST Test Mode.
Evolution of Test Results
The evolution of test results is similar to the one described in Clause 3.2
Measurement of Winding Resistance
The purpose of this test is to check for any abnormalities due to lose connection, broken
strands and high contact resistance in tap changers as a pre-commission checks and
compare the major values with the factory test values. The frequency of carrying out this
test is yearly. The measurement of the winding resistance has to be carried out with the
help of Kelvin Double bridge / transformer ohm meter. All safety instructions as per the
utility practice and isolation required is to be carried out before the commencement of
this test. Following precautions are needed to be taken:
Testing Procedure
Kelvin Double Bridge Method
Resistance shall be measured between the line and the netural terminal and
average of 3 sets of reading shall be taken as tested value for star connected
winding with neutral brought out.
The resistance of the HV side is measured between HV terminal and IV terminal
then between IV terminal and the neutral for star connected auto transformers.
For transformers provided with delta connected windings such as tertiary
windings of auto transformers, measurement shall be made between pairs of line
terminals and resistance per windings shall be calculated per formula given
below:
76
Check the up and down and operation of tab changer for the full range before
attempting electrical operation.
Ensure the handle that handle interlock shall not allow electrical operation when
the handle is inserted.
Check for any discontinuity during tab changing operation by connecting an
annlogue multimeter at cross HV and LV bushing and change the tab position
from maximum to minimum.
In the event of single phase tab changer check their tab position agree and are
reach simultaneously at motor drive unit head
Check the maintaining circuit for correct sequence by hand winding unit half way
through a tab and then remove handle. Engergise the drive motor and check that
the motor continues to drive the tab changer in the same direction.
Check the direction of rotation and measure the start and running currents in both
rise and lower mode operation with the tab changer in mid position. Record their
values. Set the motor overload to the ten percent above running current
Check that the tab changer moves one at a time by pushing raise or lower push
button
77
Move one tab changer in the 3 phase bank to the position which is out of step with
the other two. Check the tab changer faulty alarm is activated. Similarly repeat for
other two phases.
Check the satisfactory operation of local/remote switch
Check the operation of tab changer in complete alarm including the flag relay by
winding the unit by hand half way through a tab change and monitoring their
correct operation and time to operate.
Check the tab changer operation counter for correct operation and record reading.
Check the remote indication and control facility provided to the outgoing
terminals of the marshalling kiosk
Check the tripping function of the relay. Open the cover and press button trip and
check that all circuit breakers of the transformer operate correctly. Press push
button 'reset', close the cover and tighten it.
78
Following items may be checked and manufacturer's engineer consulted for details of
maintenance.
a. Function of control switches
b. OLTC stopping on position
c. Fastener tightness
d. Signs of moisture such as rusting, oxidation or free standing water
e. Mechanical clearances as specified by manufacturer's instruction
booklet
f. Operation and condition of tap selector, changeover selector and arcing
transfer switches
g. Drive mechanism operation
h. Counter operation
i. Position indicator operation and its co-ordination with mechanism and
tap selector position
j. Limit switch operation
k. Mechanical block integrity
l. Proper operation of hand-crank and its interlock switch
m. Physical condition of tap selector
n. Freedom of movement of external shaft assembly
o. Extent of arc erosion on stationary and movable arching contacts
p. Inspect barrier board for tracking and cracking
q. After fitting with oil, manually crank throughout entire range
r. Oil BDV and moisture content (PPM) to be measured and recorded
Finally, the tap selector compartment should be flushed with clean transformer oil
carbonization which may have been deposited should be removed. Min BDV should be
50 kV and moisture content should be less than 20 PPM.
3.4 Vibration Measurements (Shunt - Reactors)
The movement of the core coil assembly and ciling structure produced by the time
varying magnetic forces results in the vibration of the shunt reactor bank and the ancillary
equipment. For measuring the vibration the testing conditions shall be as under.
79
Evolution of results
The average amplitude of all local maximum points shall not exceed 60 m (2.36 mils)
peak to peak. The maximum amplitude within any rectangular area shall not exceed 200
m (7.87 mils) peak to peak.
3.5 Maintenance Tests on Neutral Governing Reactors
Following tests should be conducted
Quality check
Ratio test
Excitation test
Insulation resistance test
80
the Buchholz relay when the quantity is more. However, these gases dissolved in the oil
if the quantity is less. The composition and the quantity of gases generated is dependent
on the severity of the fault. As such regular monitoring of these gases gives useful
information about the healthiness of the transformers / reactors and prior information
about the type of fault can be had by observing the trend of the various gas content. The
gases which are of interest are hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethylene, accetelene, carbon
mono-oxide, carbon di-oxide, nitrogen and oxygen. The equipment used for determining
the content of these gases in oil is vacuum gas extraction apparatus and Gas
Chromatograph. All the dissolved gases are first extracted from oil by string it under
vacuum and total gas content in percentage is measured. These gases are then introduced
in Gas Chromatograph for measurement of each component. Tables given below show
the relationship of the evolved gas with temperature and type of fault.
Relationship with Temperature
Methane (CH4) > 300 C
Ethane (C2H6) > 400 C
Ethylene (C2H4) > 600 C
Acetylene (C2H2) > 800 C
Associated faults with different gases
Oil Overheating: C2H4, C2H6 , CH4
Traces of acetylene with smaller quantity of Hydrogen may be evolved
Overheated Cellulose: CO
Large quantity of Carbon-Di-Oxide (CO2) and Carbon Monoxide (CO) are evolved
from overheated cellulose. Hydrocarbon gases such as Methane and Ethylene will be
formed if the fault involves an oil-impregnated structure. However principal gas shall
be CO.
Partial discharge in oil: H2, CH4
Ionisation of high stressed area where gas / vapour filled voids are present or wet
spot produces Hydrogen and methane and small quantity of other hydrocarbons.
Arcing in Oil: C2H2, H2
Large amount of Hydrogen and acetylene are produced with minor quantities of
methane and ethylene in case of arching between the leads, lead to coil and high
stressed area.
Interpretation of DGA is not only a science but also an art. There is no precise
interpretation methods available which can tell the exact location and type of fault. The
various interepretation method available provide only guidelines. Besides DGA results,
other considerations such as past history of the transformer, parameters, loading pattern
are also taken into account. Some of the methods used for DGAR ratio analysis as per
IEC 559, IEEE standard C 57.104-1991, Doernenberg Ratio method, Rogers ratio
method, ANSI standard. It may be mentioned that DGA results may give misleading
results unless certain precautions are taken during sampling procedures, type of sampling
81
bottles, cleanliness of bottles, duration of storage, method of gas extraction, good testing
equipment and skilled manpower. Annexures A, A1, A2, A3 give the oil sampling
procedures required to be followed, information to be furnished along with the samples,
and other additional data inputs required for DGA.
Continuous Monitoring
4.2 DGA is carried out at pre-set interval and any fault developed within that interval
can't be ascertained till the transformer has actually failed. It is generally seen that some
type of fault may take less than 1 year to progress from onset to failure whereas some
others may remain in a stable stage for much longer period but have a potential of rapid
increase. One of the latest technique widely used online gas monitor system has a
membrane which allows preferably lighter molecules to pass through and be detected in
gas reaction cell (HYDRAN). Recently some companies developed Fourer transform
Infra Red (FTIR) detectors which will detect most of the gases which are of interest and
also quantify their amount. However, these are quite expensive as compared to cost of
DGA.
Furfurladehyde Analysis (FFA)
4.3 Overheating of transformers can lead to cellulose decomposition and generation of
carbon-monoxide and carbon-dioxide. These gases are also produced during the
decomposition of the oil. Therefore, the analysis of the gases and the measurement of
carbon-monoxide and carbon-dioxide will give a unambiguous indication0 of paper degradation. It is also well known that aging process of paper reduces several oil soluble
by-products most notably furanic compounds (FFA). Monitoring of furanic compounds
by annual sampling of the oil and its analysis using High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC) has been used for condition monitoring on a routine basis for
some years.
4.4 FFAs are extracted from oil either by solvent extraction or solid phase extraction and
measured by HPLC by uv detectors. The major FFA present in the oil is 2-Furfural and
other are present in a very low or un-dected levels. 2-Furfural can be measured
colormertically by using spectro-photometer. This method is quite accurate and is very
rapid. FFA may be used as a complimentary techniques to DGA for condition
monitoring.
Frequency Response Analysis
4.5 Condition monitoring techniques like DGA, FFA or PD measurement can to some
extent give an idea about the condition of the transformer. However, FFA is generally
employed to find any movement in the winding. This being a new technique and is still to
be adopted by the power utilities. However, Central Transmission Utility (POWERGRID
CORPORATION) is employing this technique.
Recovery Voltage Measurement
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4.6 Recently recovery measurement are gaining momentum for monitoring for solid
insulation in transformers. During this measurement humidity content in the transformers
is determined. A pre-defined DC voltage in the range of 2 kV is applied to the winding
under test keeping the other 2 winding shorted. The voltage is applied for a given time
(tc) and discharged by short-circuiting for a given time again (td) and then by opening the
shor-circuit and the voltage is allowed to build up. The peak voltage (Vr) attained is
measured. The above procedure is repeated several times for different values of (tc) and
(td) by keeping (tc) and (td) constant. A series of curve is obtained for various levels of
humidity in winding.
Partial Discharge Measurement (PD)
4.7 This is very accurate method for determining the health of a transformer. However, as
on today no equipment on commercial basis is available for measurement of PD.
Presently, this method is not being used by any utility. However, as and when the testing
equipment is available this technique would provide precise information and the location
of the fault in the transformer.
5.0 DE-GASSING OF TRANSFORMER OIL
5.1 Transformers and reactors in operation are always subjected to thermal electrical
stresses which result in de-gradation of both oil and paper insulation. The de-gradation
produces moisture. Besides moisture may also enter the transformer from atmosphere due
to improper breathing, exposure of oil and winding during maintenance etc. Moisture in
association with oxygen present in air it breaths and damages the oil. All these results in
the deterioration of electrical, chemical and physical properties of the oil. Similarly
combustible gases produced/generated due to abnormal thermal electrical stresses in the
transformers results in the breakdown of oil and cellulose-insulating material. Most of the
gases gets dissolved in oil. When the quantity of these gases dissolved in the oil exceeds
a certain percentage then oil gets saturated. At this stage, it is recommended to degass the
equipment since further gas generation will lead to operation of buckle relay and any air
bubble inside the transformer will damage the solid insulation.
5.2 The filtration and degassing is recommended when the moisture present in oil or
percentage gas content in the transformers exceed the violating norms. The capacity of
the high vacuum oil filtration plant is dependent on the quantity of oil and the
recommended quantity is given below:
Oil capacity
Up TO 20 KL
2 KLPH
20 KL to 50 KL
4 KLPH
More than 50 KL
6 KLPH
83
Don't use rubber hose since sulphur in rubber hose may react with oil
In the event of transformer provided with air cell in the conservator, the
conservator should be isolated.
Don't allow the oil temperature to go above 60 degree C.
Don't mix the OLTC oil with main tank oil while filtering the oil.
Care to be taken to ensure no mixing of parafinic or naphthenic oil. In case the
machine has been used for other type of oil it is recommended that the machine
need to be flushed with the 50-100 L of the same oil for which the machine is to
be used.
Read the maintenance manuals of transformers and filtration plant and all
precautions stipulated by the manufacturer have to be followed.
Procedure:
Before starting the operation ensure the following
Ensure that the vacuum plant of adequate capacity and in good working condition
is chosen.
Check the plant for proper earthing.
Ensure that all switches in the control panel are in off condition
Check the quality and quantity of the oil in vacuum compartment
Check the direction and rotation of all pumps
Connect the cooling water supply
Connect the inlet and outlet hoses to the respective inlet and outlet walls of the
transformers and the plants
Before commencing the oil processing ensure plant has been evacuated for evacuation of
the plant manufacturers instruction may be followed.
For filtration and degassing of the transformer, first the inlet to the machine is taken from
the bottom of the transformer tank and the outage is connected to the top of the tank. This
connection is changed at an interval of 12 hours for effective filtration.
Ensure that all hose connections are air tight and cool water is circulated through the
condenser for effective removal of water.
The inlet and outlet valves of the transformers to the plant are open after evacuating the
system for some time.
Oil first enters the preliminary filter which is provided with a magnetic strainer and a
perforated coarse filter. The magnetic particles as well the coarse particles are filtered
here.
Then the inlet gear pump allows the oil to flow through the heaters of 200 KW capacity.
The heaters are provided on different stages and it has to be ensured that the temperature
of the oil at the outlet never exceeds 60 C. Thermostat is set accordingly.
84
Note: The temperature during oil circulation should never exceeds beyond 70 C other
this may cause oxidation of oil.
The oil passes through the filter press and cartridge filter. It is recommended to use the
filter press during the initial operation when the moisture content is very high. After the
moisture content in oil is reduced it is better to switch over the cartridge filter.
Continuous use of filter press is not desirable, as the same is not meant for heavy-duty
operations.
After the filter oil passes through the degassing chamber where oil is subjected to very
high vacuum and water and gas are separated. A coil type vapour condenser in the
vacuum pipeline may be used to cool water is circulated for better condensation. In case
oil is contaminated too much with water and gas it will form more foam in the degassing
chamber and if the same is not controlled it will cause flood and will result in flowing of
oil towards the vacuum pump. To overcome this problem following actions are
suggested.
Open the flow control wall partially and control the oil flow
In case the foam is still excessive, open the airing wall slightly for a short time so
that foaming will decrease immediately due to increased pressure.
This operation needs to be done for some time till the foaming reduces sufficiently.
The oil is tested for break-down voltage once in 12 hours of operation and BDV and
moisture content are checking before closing down the filter operation. After desired
values are obtained the process may be stopped.
Closing Down Operation
After the filtering process is over following operation is carried out
After completing oil filtration / degassing operation following standing time should be
given for all the trapped air to come out.
85
Transformer HV rated
Voltage (in kV)
Application of Vacuum
before oil filling
(in Hours)
Upto and inc. 72.5 kV
12 Hours
12 Hours
48 Hours
120 Hours
After expiry of this time, air release operation to be carried out in Buchholz relays and
other release points given by the manufacturers before charging.
Test Result:
The oil sample is taken at an interval of 12 hours and tested. The oil will be circulated
through vacuum filtration machine till the parameters are attained as per table below:
BDV in kV
(Min.)
Moisture
Content in ppm
(Max.)
Resistivity at 90
C in - cm
(Min.)
Tan at 90 C
(Max.)
Up to 72.5 kV
40
25
1* 1012
0.05
72.5 to 145 kV
50
20
1* 1012
0.05
145 kV and
above
60
15
1* 1012
0.05
When the BDV is above 60 kV and moisture content is less than 10 ppm for 400 kV
transformers, the oil is considered to be dry. If the BDV and moisture content is as per
the above table, then oil sample is O.K., otherwise carryout filtration for 2 more passes.
For Effective filtration at least three passes of the entire oil through the filter machine is
recommended.
The above process cycle is for a max. exposure of 12 hours. If the exposure is excess of
12 hours, repeat hearing and vacuum cycle, if required. In any case exposure should not
exceed 36 hours.
6. DRYING OUT PROCEDURE FOR TRANSFORMERS / REACTORS
6.1 Solid cellulose insulation used in transformers / reactors is hydroscopic in nature and
contains about 8-10 % of moisture by weight. The cellulose material when deteriorates
the long chains will break into small thereby resulting in producing water. Similarly the
equipment is exposed to the atmosphare during erection / maintenance etc. atmospheric
moisture is absorbed by the solid insulation. The presence of moisture in the paper
86
reduces the dielectic strength and againg will be much faster. When the equipment is
opened and the winding is exposed to atmosphere with the draining of oil it is necessary
that it should be dired out.
6.2 Whenever, the transformer / reactor is taken out for internal inspection or for carrying
out any repair work by lowering the oil, dry out operation needs to be carried out.
Following precautions needs to be taken during drying out procedure.
Don't use rubber hose since sulphur in rubber hose may react with oil
In the event of transformer provided with air cell in the conservator, the
conservator should be isolated.
Don't allow the oil temperature to go above 60 degree C.
Don't mix the OLTC oil with main tank oil while filtring the oil.
Care to be taken to ensure no mixing of parafinic or naphthenic oil. In case the
machine has been used for other type of oil it is recommended that the machine
need to be flused with the 50-100 L of the same oil for which the machine is to be
used.
Read the maintenance manuals of transformers and filtration plant and all
precautions stipulated by the manufacturer have to be followed.
Drying out a transformer is done by employing oil filtration plant which is considered to
be the most practical method at site as compared to all other methods. In this method
drying out is achieved by circulating hot oil through a stream line filter.
Connect the inlet of the filter machine to the bottom of the transformer / reactor tank.
Connect outlet to the top.
Connect one vaccum pump to the top of the tank after lowering the oil slightly to just
above the winding. Run the oil filtration plant as well as the vaccum pump so as to reach
a vaccum of 5 torr.
87
The heaters in the oil filtration plant are switched on so that oil at any point doesn't go
beyond 60 degree C.
Now the main tank oil is circulated through the filtration plant and also getting heated up.
The insulation resistance of winding is measured at an interval, and the same is noted
down against the oil temperature in the transformer tank. Also the inlet oil temperature as
well outlet oil temperature are also recorded at an regular interval of time.
It is generally observed that initially when the temperature starts shooting up the IR
values starts dropping down. This shows that the moisture droops getting distributed in
the winding and oil in the form of vapour. After several circulation of oil through the
machine the IR value becomes steady. On further continuation the IR values starts rising.
This shows that the moisture is being expelled from the winding and oil (the graph is
shown in the figure given below).
The completion of drying out of transformer is decided based on the following results:
Nitrogen Circulation
The transformer oil is evacuated and kept on vacuum. After this the vacuum is broken
with the dry nitrogen and dew point of the inlet of nitrogen is measured which be order of
-45 degree C or below. When the nitrogen comes to the positive pressure of 0.1 cc it is
stopped and kept for 12 hours. The nitrogen pressure is released and the outlet nitrogen
dew point is measured. If the dew point is above -20 degree C or below the transformer is
considered to be dried out if not the transformer is again taken for vacuum treatment and
nitrogen is admitted as mentioned above and tested.
Method to Accelerate Drying Process
Drying of transformer / reactor is a long and time consuming process and it is necessary
to resort to all the methods mentioned below to speed up the process. Otherwise a good
hot oil circulation for a period of time will yield a good result.
The transformer tank should be covered using a thermal insulating material as far
as possible. A good cover will speed up the process by reducing the heat loss.
External electric heater to be provided around the tank specially during the winter
and rainy season.
The drying out process to be carried out without any interruptions
Oil to be lowered just above the winding and a vacuum pump is connected at top
or tank with a vacuum gauge.
88
The transformer is considered to be dry with the help of the graph given above as well as
the parameters of the oil and nitrogen given below:
1. Oil BDV > 60 kV
2. Moisture content < 10 ppm
3. Nitrogen outlet < -20 dew point
Annexure - A
OIL SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Scope:
This procedure describes the techniques for sampling oil from oil filled equipment such
as power transformer and reactors using stainless steel sampling bottles fitted with valves
on both sides.
Apparatus:
i) Stainless steel sampling bottle of volume one litre as per IS 9434 - 1992
ii) Oil proof transparent plastic or transparent PCV tubing
iii) A drilled flange in case sampling valve is not suitable for fixing a tube
Sampling Procedure:
Remove the blank flange or cover of the sampling valve and clean the outlet with a lint
free cloth to remove all visible dirt. Rise the sampling bottle thoroughly and fill in such
away that no bubble entrapped and also no free air remain in the bottle.
89
Precautions:
1. When sampling oil, precaution should be taken to deal with any sudden release of
oil
2. Sample should normally be drawn from the bottom-sampling valve.
3. Proper closing of the bottle should be ensured immediately after the collection of
sample.
4. Due care should be taken to avoid exposure of oil to air while sampling.
5. Sampling should be done preferably in a dry weather condition.
6. Sample should be taken when the equipment is in its normal operating condition.
7. Care should be taken to hold the bottle in place inside the container when
transporting.
8. Testing should be carried out as early as possible.
Annexure I
Labling of the Oil Sample Bottle
a. Bottle Number.................. :
b. Company Name.................:
c. Substation Name...............:
d. Equipment Name or ID No... :
e. Sampling date...................:
Annexure - II
Details to be Furnished along with the Samples
1. Bottle Number....................................................................:
2. Name of Substation.............................................................:
3. Equipment Name/Identification No..........................................:
4. Date of sampling.................................................................:
5. Oil temperature...................................................................:
6. Winding Temperature...........................................................:
7. Load (in case of transformer) or Voltage (in case of reactor).......:
8. Date of last filtration............................................................:
9. Oil top up (if any)................................................................:
10. Manufacturer's serial number................................................:
11. Weather condition..............................................................:
In Case of New transformer/reactor following additional informations to be furnished
90
Annexure - III
ADDITIONAL DATA INPUT FORMAT FOR CRITICAL EQUIPMENTS
1. Voltage profile for last Six months indicating maximum and minimum values and % of
time voltage more than rate voltage.
2. Loading pattern (Monthwise) of the transformer for last six months
Min. Load
Max. Load
Normal Load
Current (A)
Current (A)
Current (A)
MW.......
MW.......
MW.......
MVAR.....
MVAR.....
MVAR.....
Yes/No
Yes/No
Yes/No
91
Chapter 6
c
UNDERGROUND CABLES
By, Er. L. Ravi B.E. MIE, C.Eng.
Deputy General Manager (Ele.),
BESCOM.
INTRODUCTION:
Over a hundred years ago, Gautapercha was used as an insulating material
for cables, which worked satisfactorily for telegraphic lines. However with the
development of power current, changes in cable insulation became essential.
While carrying power currents, cables became hot and heat sensitive.
Gauttapercha was, therefore, found unsuitable for insulated power conductor.
To suit the new requirements, a superior insulation system using a fibrous
material, which was dried, impregnated under vacuum and enclosed in a
seamless lead sheath. They were the fore runners of paper insulated lead
sheathed cables which came to existence by around 1890, and has been in
use since then.
1.1 CLASSIFICATION:
The Power cables are classified by the voltage rating & the type of insulation.
1.1.1
Voltage Classification:
Internationally the cables are being designated as Uo/U, where Uo is the power
frequency voltage between conductor and earth and U is the power frequency
voltage between conductors, Uo & U being the r.m.s Values.
In addition to the above, depending upon the system requirements, the cables are
also used as an unearthed system. This methodology off unearthed system is
adopted to gain additional degree of service continuity and to reduce outage to any
load.
DC system voltages, by which is meant dc Voltages with not more than 3% ripple,
are designated by the positive and negative value of the voltage above and below
earth potential. The symbol Uo is used for the rated AC voltage between conductor
and the earthed core screen.
Insulation:
All the materials for the Insulation of modern power cables can be broadly divided
as follows:
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At present, there are many synthetic or polymeric insulants used in power cables
manufacturing, of which the following four dielectrics are the most common.
1.
2.
3.
4.
With the above said points extruded cables has found its place in power cables
applications. In spite of its excellent electrical properties, the use of polyethylene
as a cable insulation material has been limited by a lower operational
temperature of about 70 deg. C, due to its thermoplasticity. The requirements to
improve the heat resistance characteristics of LDPE were therefore met by
modifying the polymer structure through formation of chemical bonds between
the polymer chains, resulting in improved mechanical and chemical properties,
whilst maintaining the superior electrical properties. The XLPE has very low
dielectric losses and has hence used for cables up to 500 kV, High Dielectric
Strength & good through resistance. In addition it has low thermal resistivity
which increases the ampacity of a cable & it has a very high volume resistivity.
93
The most important property being its permittivity & dielectric loss is flat from
room temperature to the operating temperature of 90 deg. C.
MANUFACTURING OF CABLES
The manufacturing of power cables starts from the wire drawing of conductor and
conductor stranding. After these two steps the process are different depending
on the type of cable insulator. A block diagram of manufacturing PLIC and XLPE
power cables shown below.
94
1. Conductor Copper
2. Extruded Semi- conducting XLPE
3. XLPE Insulation
4. Semi-conducting XLPE
5. Semi-conducting water swellable tape
6. Extruded seamless lead alloy E Sheath
7. Semi Conducting Bedding Tape
8. Copper Wire Screen
9. Counter Helix Copper Tape
10. Extruded Black PVC with a Graphite Coat
Conductor
Circular conductors are stranded from copper or Aluminium wires. They
are compacted to keep dimensions as small as possible. Large sized
conductors (over 1000 mm2) are of segmental construction (Milliken type)
to reduce skin and proximity effects. On request from the user is possible
to get all conductor constructions water tight in longitudinal direction.
Conforming to IEC 60228 or IS :8130-84
Conductor Screen
The conductor screen consists of a layer of smooth black extruded semiconducting XLPE compound firmly bonded with the Insulation. This
eliminates electrical discharges at the interface between conductor and
Insulation.
Insulation
The insulation of cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) is applied together with
the conductive layer of conductor screen and insulation screen in a
continuous triple extrusion and dry curing process.
The layers of extruded conductive compound, which are applied onto the
conductor surface and onto the XLPE insulation, respectively, tare firmly
bonded to the insulation. The material used is suitable for the maximum
permissible operating conductor temperature of the cable. They are
compatible with the XLPE insulation. The Insulation thickness conforms to
IS: 7098 (part 3) or a per the user requirement.
95
Insulation Screen
The screen consists of smooth black semi conducting XLPE compound
firmly bonded with a smooth interface with the Insulation .The conductor
screen, Insulation and Insulation screen are extruded simultaneously in
Dry-Cure Process.
Moisture Barrier
To make the cable longitudinally watertight a semi-conducting tape is
applied over the core, to prevent water penetration in the cable. The tape
is of non-woven material, which has non-biodegradable characteristics.
Seamless Lead Sheath
Extruded Seamless Lead Alloy E Sheath having high fatigue endurance
limit is provided. This is the most popular metallic sheath used Worldwide.
Features:
Hermetically sealed Corrosion resistant
Mechanical protection
Serves as an earthed metallic screen- to carry earth fault current
Low sheath losses and higher current rating
Copper Wire screen
Copper wires are applied over the Lead Sheath to carry the necessary earth
fault current along with the Lead Sheath. This is particularly applicable
where the requirement of earth fault current is high. This also helps in
reducing the weight of the cable by avoiding excess lead thickness. A counter
open hellx copper tape s provided over the copper wires.
Note: Semi-conducting tape(s) is generally provided between the Lead and
Copper Wire Screen.
Jacketing
The Jacket material consists of Extruded Black PVC (ST2) or high Density
Polyethylene (HDPE). A graphite coat is provided over the outer surface of
the sheath.
96
help of cable manufacturers may be taken for selecting proper cable and the
installation guidelines.
Length of the Cable Route
While measuring the actual route length, possible diversions due to unforeseen
conditions and extra cable length that may be required at terminations should be
considered.
Soil Conditions
The knowledge of the soil and environmental conditions helps in selecting type of
finish of protective covering of the cable and the route of laying. The knowledge of
type of micro-biological organization and termites existing in the soil where the
cables are to be stored or installed may also be useful.
Nature of Soil
The current carrying capacity of a cable is dependent on thermal resistivity of soil and
ground temperatures for directly buried cables For general applications, the basic
values adopted in IS : 3961 ( Part 1 ) 1967* and IS : 3961 ( Part 2) 1967+ are
sufficient and are applicable to the conditions prevailing in most parts of India.
Chemical Action
The soil may contain such chemicals which are detrimental to the life of the cable. It
is, therefore, advisable that the pH value and the chemical composition of the soil be
determined.
Electrolytic Corrosion
Where the possibility of electrolytic corrosion exists, for example, adjacent to dc
traction system, the potential gradient along the pipe-line and the cable sheath should
be specified.
Operating Conditions
System voltage The rated voltage, maximum operating voltage, whether dc or ac,
number of phases and frequency. The permissible operating voltages are given in
Table 1.
97
TABLE 1
PERMISSIBLE OPERATING VOLTAGE
Max.
permissible
Max. Permissible
continuous
Rated voltage of cable
continuous Single-phase
3-phase
system voltage
system
voltage
Both Cores One core
Uo
U
Insulated
earthed
KV
KV
KV
KV
KV
0.65
1.1
1.21
1.4
0.7
1.9
3.3
3.63
4.2
2.1
3.3
3.3
3.63
4.2
4.2
3.8
6.6
7.26
8.1
4.0
6.6
6.6
7.26
8.1
8.1
6.35
11
12.1
14
7
11
11
12.1
14
14
12.7
22
24.2
28
14
19
33
36.3
42
21
Max.
Permissible
DC voltage
KV
1.8
-
*Recommended current ratings for cables: Part 1 Paper insulated lead sheathed
cables.
+Recommended current ratings for cables: Part 2 PVC-insulated and PVC-sheathed
heavy-duty cables.
Earthing Conditions
In 3-phase system, it is necessary to know whether the neutral point is effectively
earthed, or earthed through resistance, inductance or earthing transformer or if
system is totally unearthed. For the purpose of this standard, a system may be
considered earthed if:
a) The neutral point is earthed in such a manner that during a line-to-earth fault
the highest rms voltage to earth of a sound phase(s) expressed as a percentage
of the highest line-to-line voltage, does not exceed 80 percent, irrespective of
the fault location, or
b) The neutral point is not earthed but a device is installed which automatically
and instantly cuts out any part of the system which becomes accidentally
earthed, or
c) In case of ac systems only, the neutral point is earthed through an arc
suppression coil with arrangement for isolation within one hour for the nonradial field cables and within 8 hours for radial field cables, of occurrence of
98
the cable fault provided that the total of such periods in a year does not exceed
125 hours.
Load Conditions
The precise information regarding actual load conditions helps in choosing correct
cross-section of conductors for the cable. Broadly speaking, load conditions are as
follows:
a) Normal continuous load By normal continuous load, it is meant that the
given load current will be flowing continuously through cables. The current
ratings given in relevant Indian standard specifications are always continuous
current ratings and can be related directly to continuous load currents.
However, the current ratings given in these specifications are based on the
normal conditions of installation. If the actual conditions are not the same as
the normal conditions, the values for the normal current ratings should be
multiplied by relevant rating factors given in the same Indian standard
specification.
b) Intermittent load If the cable is switched on and off periodically, so that
the time between switching off and then on is not sufficient to cool the
conductor to the ambient temperature during the rest period, then such load is
called intermittent load. A proper cross-section of cable conductors for such
load conditions may be decided in consultation with the cable manufacturers.
c) Short time load Under these load conditions, the conductor is allowed to
cool down to ambient temperature after the load period. Here again, the
conductor cross-section may be decided in consultation with the cable
manufacturers.
d) Cyclic load If the load is cyclic, the maximum permissible current may be
increased by an amount depending on the shape of the load curve, type of
cable, its heat capacity and method of installation.
Permissible Voltage Drop
This factor also decides the minimum conductor size, particularly in case of long
feeders so as to maintain voltage drop within statutory limits. Guidance about
voltage drop, in volts per kilometer per ampere, at the operating temperature of the
cable. This is also an important consideration for cables feeding motors as starting
torque of motor depends on square of voltage available at motor terminals.
Short-circuit Data
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
99
The maximum sustained rms fault current and its duration will depend upon
system parameters and protective devices. It is desirable that the same be
correlated to short-circuit rating of the cables.
Installation Condition
Method of laying, installation details, such as, thermal resistivity, soil temperature,
dimensions of trench, number, type, cross-sectional area and the load of all power
cables already in trench or duct or likely to be installed, difficulties expected during
installation, likely mechanical stress, vibrations, railway or road or river crossing if
any, grouping and spacing of cables, are to be considered.
Economic Considerations
While technical considerations decide the minimum conductor cross-section,
economics governs the optimum size which would give the minimum running costs.
For this purpose, the minimum size along with two or three higher sizes are
considered, and annual running costs for each size are worked out by calculating loss
(in terms of money) and interest/depreciation of the cable cost. The total of these two
gives running cost. The size which gives the minimum running cost should be
chosen.
Besides this, other factors such as standardization of cable sizes, future expansion,
standardization of accessories, etc, should also be considered especially for large
distribution systems.
Cable Joints and Terminations
Cable Joints
1. Type of joints;
2. Soil Conditions such as type of soil, sub-soil water level, chances of soil
subsidence and vibration; and
3. Type and size of existing cables.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
End terminations
Number of end terminations/sealing ends,
Outdoor or indoor type,
Pollution level and Humidity,
Desired type, and
Space available.
100
FAULT LOCATORS
101
102
a) Measure insulation resistance between each core and earth with the far end of the
cable open and free from earth:
b) Measure insulation resistance between cores with the far end of the cable as given
in (a): and
c) Measure conductor resistance of each pair of conductors with all conductors
connected together and free from earth at far end of line, and compare with the
calculated resistance.
The measured conductor resistance should agree closely with the calculated value,
but if a considerably higher value is obtained on any pair it is probable that one or
both of the conductors are severed at the fault. If an unbroken loop can be found in
the cable, it is possible to test each conductor against one of the continuous
conductors and thus ascertain which conductors are broken and which are
continuous, but if no loop can be found, the conductors should be earthed at the far
end and a test to earth made on each conductor in turn to determine if an unbroken
conductor remains. In the case of power cable, the conductor resistance test may
indicate that the conductors have burned through and fused together. In such a
case, core-to-earth tests (with all cores earthed at the far end) should be made.
It will, in general, be found that the insulation resistance of a cable with a wet
fault due to moisture entering through damaged sheathing or at joints will gradually
increase if a positive potential be applied to the faulty core, while the application of
a negative potential will cause it to decrease. When the amount of moisture is very
small, the above remarks still apply if the voltage is low but if a potential of several
hundreds of volts is applied, the fault tends to dry out and the insulation resistance
rises considerably.
The nature of fault having been determined, it becomes necessary to decide upon
the most suitable location method to adopt. It is a good practice to choose a test,
which can be applied with the fault conditions as found. Having obtained the
location with one method, the fault conditions may be changed, if necessary, by
fault burning to suit an alternative method.
Fault burning method
For obtaining continuous good results in locating cable faults, it is essential that
test conditions are suitable for the methods employed. After initial tests are
completed, the fault conditions can be converted to suit a particular test by fault
burning. This process consists of a judicious application of voltage, which has the
effect of lowering the fault resistance by burning it down. Large ac test sets or in
case of higher voltages, rectifiers have been used for fault burning. But for large
currents required for burning down the faults, the size of test equipment becomes
very bulky. Also, in case of high breakdown voltage, the application of dc does not
always result in permanent low resistance fault. The resonance fault burning
instrument, which obtain high voltage from an oscillating circuit has been
103
developed to overcome the same. Its dimensions and weight in relation to output
are very small.
Since the greater portion of the cable in this country is laid direct in the ground, the
suggested tests are intended to apply particularly to cables installed in this manner.
Meggar
i.
To find the insulation resistance
ii.
500 V to 2.5 KV Meggar to be used depending upon the
rating of cable under test.
2.
voltage
Surge Generator
104
a)
3.
Fault pre-locator
It is used to pre determine the fault distance from the testing end.
4.
Seismophone/Acoustic detector
It is used to pin point the exact cable fault location.
Power Cable Conductor Fault
UG Cable
Rating
Applied Voltage
HVDC
VOLTAGE
between
11 KV
14 KV
Phase to earth
5 min
33 KV
28 KV
Phase to earth
5 min
110
KV
80 KV
(PILC)
Phase to earth
5 min
applied Duration
C. While applying HVDC as mentioned above, if any core fails, then that
particular cable is declared faulty.
105
A high voltage surge is applied between the healthy core and earth /
armour of the cable under test. The surge applied to the cable travel to the
cable return to the Surge Generator, which will be captured by the Pre
fault locator connected to the testing circuit in the form of a wave.
Adjust the velocity of cable in the fault Pre-locator to the actual length of the
cable under test as per actual (as per drawing). The adjusted velocity should be
used for testing the faulty core.
Apply high voltage surge to the faulty core and record the waveform for analysis.
The distance to the fault is determined from the time between successive
reflection of the breakdown pulse caused by the flash over and the velocity of
propagation of electromagnetic waves for the particular cable dielectric.
106
The current leakage at the fault location sets up pools of potential. The
receiver and probes utilize these to enable the fault to be pin pointed.
1000 V MEGGAR
The Meggar is used to find out the insulation resistance of individual core
to armour/earth and between cores.
2.
Continuity Tester
The continuity tester is used to ensure full length of the cable by
continuity between cores and also with specified loop resistance
depending upon the length of the cable.
3.
getting
value
The cores which do not satisfy the above two steps of testing, the surge
generator, fault pre locator and Seismo phone will be used to pre
determine the fault distance and pin point the fault as discussed in the
Method of fault location for Power Cable.
MAINTENANCE
Inspection
Whenever the cables or joints are accessible as in manholes, ducts, distribution
pillars, etc, periodical inspection should be made so that timely repairs can be
made before the cables of joints actually cause by interruption to service. The
frequency of inspection should be determined by each electric supply
undertaking from its own experience. Important heavily loaded lines will
require more frequent attention than less important lines.
Cables laid direct in the ground are not accessible for routine inspection, but
such cables are often exposed when the ground is excavated by other public
utilities for installing or repairing their own properties. Preventive maintenance
107
108
Maintenance Instructions
Route Maintenance:
Periodical Inspection of the route and observation of the cable system are
necessary to avoid injury to the cable and to keep the system in good condition.
Patrolling the Cable Route
The cable screens have been terminated in the link boxes. The conditions of the
link boxes are to be checked visually and their physical conditions monitored.
The line patrolman should check whether the link boxes are closed and also for
any water entry during the time of heavy rain/floods.
Frequently patrol of the cable route is advisable, at least daily patrol is
recommended to avoid unexpected cable damage. It is necessary to ensure that
no excavation is carried out by any utility for laying their cables on the cable
route without informing the power utility, the concerned Corporations while
granting permission for Road cutting should inform the utilities the presence of
power cables in the route and to contact the power utilities for guidances before
laying of their cables. or by any other service agency, on the cable route without
proper supervision by Transmission Company Staff.
In case of any excavation noticed on the cable route, a staff is to be posted on
the location and suitable instruction may be issued to protect the cable against
any damage. Also it is necessary to supervise the work until back filling is
completed.
Checking Anti-Corrosive Sheath
Most cable faults are due to external damage. Even a minor damage in the
sheath will cause the corrosion on metal screen and finally failure of the cable
109
110
Chapter 8
SAFETY ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES
Most of the equipment in a sub station is provided with sufficient insulation from
breaking down, yet others like bus bars, terminations of high voltage equipment, the
equipment connected to take-of structures etc; are bare unlike in gas insulated
substations. There is a need for assurance that the breakdown or flashover will not
occur to the operating personnel and some safe distance is to be maintained. As per
the studies and experience gained over a period various bodies like CEA in India and
elsewhere are issuing guide lines from time to time to maintain certain minimum
safety clearances depending upon the voltage class from bare conductors and parts of
various equipments exposed to atmosphere. The provisions are mandatory and all the
concerned like utilities and consumers have to maintain these minimum safety
clearances. They are necessary from the safety of the operating personnel and safety
of the equipment. Clearances to be maintained are given in under rule 64. These
clearances are for substations and should not be confused with the clearances in
public places. Clearances are broadly categorized as below
a) Phase to earth clearance
b) Phase to phase clearance
c) Section clearance
d) Ground clearance.
Clearances depend on voltage class and are governed by
(b) Basic impulse insulation level (BIL)
(c) Allowance in tolerance in dimensions of structural work
(d) Safety margins for unforeseen errors.
(e) Electric field in the substation at a height of 1.8 mtr.
(f) Minimum approach required by the operating personnel
The various clearances are explained in the following paragraphs. The
B.I.L. and electric field strength are explained at the end.
1.1.1 Phase to earth clearance
It is spoken in the context of equipment earth. The equipment insulation
has to take care of B.I.L. Its clearance depends on the type of insulation material used.
While the equipment bushings take care of external clearances, the insulating material
inside the equipment like oil, SF6, and vacuum take care of earth clearance internally.
1.1.2
111
1.1.3
Ground clearance
The ground clearance is a distance between ground level and bottom of any
insulator in an outdoor sub-station. This ensures that any person working in the area
cannot touch or damage the insulators accidentally. This clearance is kept as 2.5Mts for
all voltage levels in India. However, in cases where the vehicles and cranes are allowed
inside a charged substation, the ground clearance for the equipment falling on both sides
of the road are enhanced as the vehicles /crane are enhanced to 3.5Mts height.
1.1.4
Section clearance
This clearance is required from point of safety to operating personnel. Section
clearance is the distance between two sections of a substation which enables a
person to work on one section of a substation, in a safe manner, while the other
section is charged. Section clearance is chosen in such a manner, that the phase
to earth clearance is maintained between the live point and the approach of the
working personnel with sufficient margin. Section clearance is one of the
factors that influence substation layout.
112
Voltage (KV)
33
66
110
220
400
BIL (KVp)
170
325
550
1050
1425
Ph-E
clearance
(cm)
Ph-Ph
clearance
(cm)
Ph-G
clearance
Section
clearance(mtr)
32
63
115
240
350
40
75
135
210
410
3.7
4.0
4.6
5.5
8.0
2.8
3.0
3.5
4.3
6.5
The clearances indicated are only minimum and one can decide for higher
clearances if the situation so demands.
1.2.0
113
Chapter 9
Objectives of earthing :1) To ensure that no part of equipments, other than live parts, should assume a potential
which is dangerously different from that of surroundings.
2) To allow sufficient current to flow safely for proper operation of protective devices.
3) To suppress dangerous potential gradients on the earth surface which may cause
incorrect operation of control and protective devices and also may cause shock or
injury to personnel.
114
4) It plays a very important part in increasing the reliability of the supply service and it
helps to provide stability of voltage conditions, preventing excessive voltage peaks
during disturbances and also in providing protection against lightning surges.
Types of Earthing :Earthing can be divided into neutral earthing and equipment earthing. Neutral
earthing deals with the earthing of system neutral to ensure system security and
protection ,where as equipment earthing deals with earthing of non- current carrying parts
of equipment to ensure safety to personnel and protection against lightning.
Depending on the type of installation i.e, generating station, H.V. substation,
transformer centre, pole/tower and consumer installations, suitable earthing system has to
be designed duly taking into consideration, the various requirements such as
fault
current, limiting of earth potential rise, safety of nearby communication circuits and safe
body currents etc.
For a H.V. station earthing the two important factors to be considered are Earth
potential rise and safe touch and step potentials.
It is to be noted that limiting the step and touch potentials to safe value is more
important than attaining a low value of the resistance. However the earth resistance of the
sub-station has to be brought down to the lowest possible level. The safe value of earth
resistance for any sub-station depends upon not only the level of fault current and the
resistance but also on the vicinity to communication stations.
Soil resistivity.
2.
115
3.
Fault current.
Earthing system of a H.V. Sub-station plays a major role in the maintenance of
the equipments of the sub-station. A good design of the earthing system not only helps in
the proper operation of the protective equipment and also provides safety to equipments
and personnel. To achieve the above objectives, the earthing system is designed to
discharge the fault current safely into the earth and also to limit the touch and step
potentials within the area of the sub-station.
Definitions:a)
b)
Earth current : The current dissipated by earth electrode into the ground.
c)
Resistance of earth electrode: - is the resistance offered by the earth electrode to the
flow of current into the ground. This resistance is not the ohmic resistance of the
electrode but represents the resistance of the mass of earth surrounding the earth
electrode. Numerically it is equal to the ratio of the potential of earth electrode with
respect to a remote point, to the current dissipated by it.
d)
Step potential: The potential difference shunted by a human body between two
accessible points on the ground separated by a distance of one pace assumed to be
equal to one meter.
e)
Touch potential:- The potential difference between a point on the ground and a
point on an object likely to carry fault current (e.g., frame of equipment) which can
be touched by a person. .
f)
Mesh potential: The maximum touch potential within a mesh of the grid.
g)
Design of earthmat
116
Before designing earthmat, it is necessary to determine the soil resistivity of the area
in which H.V. sub-station is to be located. The resistivity of the earth varies considerably
from 10 to 10,000 mtr. depending upon the types of soil.
Further, the resistivity may also vary at different depth depending upon the type
of soil, moisture content and temperature etc., at various depths which affects the flow of
current due to the fact that the earth fault current is likely to take its path through various
layers.
Typical values of resistivity for various types of soils are as follows :Table No 1
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Nature of soil
Red loamy soil
Red sandy soil
Laterite soil
Shallow black soil
Medium black soil
Deep black soil
Mixed red & black soil
Coastal alluvium
Laterite gravelly
Range of Resistivity
40-200 -m
200-2000 -m
300-2600 -m
20-100 -m
50-300 -m
50-250 -m
50-250 -m
300-1300 -m
200-1000 -m
S2+4e2
2S
4S2 +4e2
117
Sl. No.
1
2.
3.
Season of
measurement
Summer
Winter
Rainy
Multiplication factor
1
1.15
1.3
Resistivity for design purpose is arrived by comparing the apparent soil resistivity
with the range of the resistivity of the soils as given in Table No. 1
If the apparent soil resistivity is more than the minimum of the range of the
resistivity of the soil, the apparent soil resistivity is taken for design if not the minimum
of the range of the resistivity of the soil is taken for design purpose.
m.A. Currents in the range of 1-6 m.A are known as let go current because these
currents, though unpleasant, do not impair the ability of a person, holding an
energised object to release it. Currents in the 9-25 mA range may be painful and
impair the ability to release energised object. Still higher currents make breathing
difficult. However, if the current is less than about 60 mA, the effects are not
118
Fault current to be handled: As the earthing system has to carry the earth currents, the maximum earth fault
current likely to flow in the system which is generally S.L.G fault is considered for
designing the earthing .A good earthing system for H.V. station can be designed using an
earthmat which is formed by a grid of horizontally burried conductors which serves to
dissipate the earth fault currents to earth, also as an equipotential bonding conductor
system, along with the required number of vertical earth electrodes which are connected
to the points of earthing of various equipments and structures and also interconnected
with the horizontal earthmat.
119
Where
c) If <25 mtr
Where a = 0.106 mt
hs= Height of surface layer i.e., thickness of the crushed stone layer which is
normally 0.1 mt.
Where s = The resistivity of surface layer = 3000 mtr if crushed stone is used,
otherwise s= = Soil resistivity of the area
120
Determination of spacing between parallel conductors of the earthmat:The minimum length of the total earthmat conductor required to keep the mesh
voltages within safe limits is obtained by equating actual Emesh to tolerable Etouch. The
result is
Lm
K m K i I g t c
Km Ki Ig
L
where
Km = Spacing factor for mesh voltage
= 1
D2
ln
16*h*d
(D+2h)2
8*D*d
+ Kii
4 *d
ln
Kh
8
(2n-1)
= 1/(2n)2/n for grids with no ground rods or grids with only a few
ground rods in the grid corners, as well as both along the perimeter and through out the
grid area.
Where n = (n a * n b)
121
contribute to reduction in the earth resistance because of the fact that they connect layers
of the earth up to the depth to which they are driven. These electrodes can be of different
materials, size and shapes. For H.V. Sub-stations, it is found that CI pipes of 2.75 mts
long 13 mm thick 100 mm dia are very much suited. The equipment earth points are
connected to the electrode using MS flat of the size of the earth mat conductor by
welding.
Split clamp arrangement required for connection of the equipment earth point
123
Test
Currents in
Insulation
Total current
in the body of
the insulation
is the sum of
three
components
Absorption Current
Leakage or Conduction Current
124
125
DC Test Voltage
50 to 100VDC
100 to 250VDC
250 to 500VDC
500 to 1000VDC
1000 to 2500VDC
126
1000 to 5000VDC
It is always advisable to contact the original equipment
manufacturer to get their recommendation for the proper
voltage to use when testing their equipment.
Advantages of DC Testing
Transformer Testing
Transformers are tested at or above the rated voltage to be certain there are no excessive leakage
paths to ground or between windings. These are conducted with the transformer completely
disconnected from the line and load. However, the case ground should not be removed.
Single-Phase Transformer
The following 5 tests and corresponding wiring diagrams will completely test a single-phase
transformer. Allow at least 1 minute for each test or until the reading stabilizes.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Three-Phase Transformer The following 5 tests and corresponding wiring diagrams will completely
test a three-phase transformer.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
127
128
Cable
Testing
Transformer
s are tested
at or above
the rated
voltage to
be certain
there are no
excessive
leakage
paths to
ground or
between
windings.
These are
conducted
with the
transformer completely disconnected from the line and load.
However, the case ground should not be removed.
Single Conductor
Connect as shown in the diagram
a.
Multi-Conductor
a.
Single conductor
b.
c.
d.
129