Volume 4 Issue 3 IJAIEM - Repaired - PDF
Volume 4 Issue 3 IJAIEM - Repaired - PDF
Volume 4 Issue 3 IJAIEM - Repaired - PDF
Head of Department (Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering), YTIET, Bhivpuri [MH], India
Pursuing Master of Engineering in Electronics & Telecommunication, YTIET, Bhivpuri [MH], India
ABSTRACT
Denial-Of-Service (DOS) is one of the most important attacks that a hacker can make in a computer network and
exposes the vulnerability in the same. In Denial-Of-Service attack the attacker makes the resources unavailable to
the legitimate users in the computer network by making the resources busy. So, even after being a legitimate user in
the network, one cannot use that specific service which has been allotted to him by the network administrator. This
type of attack can be stopped by using a device or software application called as Intrusion Detection System
(IDS).IDS is a device that monitors network or system for malicious activities and produces reports to a
management system regarding the same.There are generally two categories of IDS: misuse detection and anomaly
detection.In this project we will be using a Genetic Algorithm (GA) based approach which will generate rules to
detect DOS attacks. The GA will be trained on KDD (Knowledge discovery and data mining) cup 99 dataset to
generate a rule set that can detect DOS attacks. The rule is applied on IDS system which has a function of data
encryption for protecting packets from intruders.
Keywords: Denial of Service, Intrusion Detection System, Genetic Algorithm, KDD.
1.INTRODUCTION
Internet is growing at a remarkable rate in recent years, not just in the terms of size, but also in the term of the services
provided. While we are benefiting from the ease that new technology has brought us, computer systems are exposed to
complex security threats. With the rapid expansion of Internet in recent years, computer systems are facing increased
number of security threats. Regardless of numerous technological innovations for computer security, it is nearly
impossible to have a completely secured system. Hence it has become necessary to use an Intrusion Detection System
(IDS) which monitors network traffic and identifies network intrusions such as anomalous network behaviors,
unauthorized network access and malicious attacks to computer systems. IDS is a tool that monitors events occurring in
a computer system or network and analyzes them for signs of security threats. Intruders can be divided into two groups,
external and internal. The external intruders are those who do not have any authorization for accessing the system and
who attack by using different attack techniques. The internal intruder refers to those who have access permissions and
wish to perform unauthorized activities. There are generally two categories of IDSs: misuse detection and anomaly
detection. The misuse detection system performs the detection of intrusions through a matching with known patterns,
and the anomaly detection system detects systems identify deviations from normal network behaviors and alert for
potential unknown attacks.
Page 1
founder. In 2009, Snort entered InfoWorld's Open Source Hall of Fame as one of the greatest open source software of
all time". Through protocol analysis, content searching, and various pre-processors, Snort detects thousands of worms,
vulnerability exploit attempts, port scans, and other suspicious behaviour.
iv)Bro: An open-source, Unix-based network intrusion detection system. Bro detects intrusions by first parsing network
traffic to extract its application-level semantics and then executing event-oriented analyzers that compare the activity
with patterns deemed troublesome.
v) Suricata: An open source-based intrusion detection system was developed by the Open Information Security
Foundation (OISF).
Page 2
iv)podDoS: Some systems will react in an unpredictable fashion when receiving oversized IP packets. Possible
reactions include crashing, freezing, and rebooting.
v)smurfDoS: In this attack, the perpetrator sends an IP ping (or "echo my message back to me") request to a
receiving site The ping packet specifies that it be broadcast to a number of hosts within the receiving site's local
network. The packet also indicates that the request is from another site, the target site that is to receive the denial
of service. (Sending a packet with someone else's return address in it is called spoofing the return address.) The
result will be lots of ping replies flooding back to the innocent, spoofed host. If the flood is great enough, the
spoofed host will no longer be able to receive or distinguish real traffic.
vi) teardropDoS:This type of denial of service attack exploits the way that the Internet Protocol (IP) requires a
packet that is too large for the next router to handle be divided into fragments. The fragment packet identifies an
offset to the beginning of the first packet that enables the entire packet to be reassembled by the receiving system.
In the teardrop attack, the attacker's IP puts a confusing offset value in the second or later fragment. If the
receiving operating system does not have a plan for this situation, it can cause the system to crash.
4.2 IN THE DATASET,THE ATTRIBUTE/VALUES ARE
Page 3
6. CONCLUSION
This paper mainly focuses on stopping DOS attack in a network using rules set created by Genetic algorithm on KDD
CUP 99 dataset. The rules set are then applied on IDS. If an intruder or hacker tries to enter the network ,the IDS
checks for the rule set created .And if the rule set gets matched the attack is detected.
REFERENCES
[1] Mostaque Md. Morshedur Hassan Network Intrusion Detection System Using Genetic Algorithm and Fuzzy
Logic, International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer and Communication Engineering September
2013
[2] KDD-CUP, Task Description, http://kdd.ics.uci.edu/databases/kddcup99/task.html, 1999.
[3] KDDCup, Tasks, http://www.kdd.org/kddcup/index.php?section=1999&method=task, 1999.
[4] KDD Cup, Data, http://www.kdd.org/kddcup/index.php?section=1999&method=data, 1999.
[5] AnupGoyal, Chetan Kumar, GA-NIDS: A Genetic Algorithm based Network Intrusion Detection System, 2008.
[6] Vivek K. Kshirsagar, Sonali M. Tidke& Swati Vishnu Intrusion Detection System using Genetic Algorithm and
Data Mining: An Overview, International Journal of Computer Science and Informatics
[7] Mohammad SazzadulHoque, Md. Abdul Mukit, Md. Abu NaserBikas AN IMPLEMENTATION OF INTRUSION
DETECTION SYSTEM USING GENETIC ALGORITHM, International Journal of Network Security & Its
Applications (IJNSA), Vol.4, No.2, March 2012
[8] SecTools.Org: Top 125 Network Security Tools; http://sectools.org/tag/ids/
[9] Snort (software); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snort_%28software%29
[10] Suricata (software); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suricata_(software)
[11] The Bro Network Security Monitor; http://bro-ids.org/
Page 4
Page 5
ABSTRACT
This study examines the timeliness of half-yearly financial reports published by companies listed on the Amman Stock
Exchange (ASE). In addition, this study determining the association between timeliness and attributes of companies (namely
size, profitability, growth, age, leverage, audit firm size, and market listing status). An analysis of 193 half-yearly financial
reports ended on 30 June 2013 reveals that all, except seven companies reported within an allowable reporting lag of one
month. However, a large number of companies were making the most of the time given to announce their half-yearly reports.
The study also provides evidence that there is a significant association between profitability, growth, age, and market listing
status and timeliness. No significant association was evidenced between size, leverage, and audit firm size and timeliness.
Plausible explanations for these findings are provided. The findings may provide some implications for research regarding the
timeliness of financial reporting in Jordan.
Keywords: Timeliness, reporting lag, interim financial reports, half-yearly financial reporting.
1.INTRODUCTION
The accounting disclosure is defined as efforts to provide accounting information, and this professional job is normally
performed by accountants. The accounting disclosure is very important for all stakeholders as it provides them with the
necessary information to reduce the uncertainty and helps them to make suitability economic and financial decisions.
Informed data of corporate report for example is vital for economic stability and the promotion of sustained levels of
high quality investment by corporation. This is achieved through the preparation of financial reports.
The annual financial reports published by companies are considered one of the most important sources of information
due to the diversity of information contained in these reports. Though, the financial reports are generally able to
provide important information, sometimes the data provided may not be useful enough to meet the needs of some
beneficiaries like investors and creditors who need continually updated information regarding activities of companies at
the appropriate time of the fiscal financial year.
As a result of various developments taking place within the economic activities, and the increasing importance of
relevance as being a major characteristic of accounting information, the demand for developing methods of preparing
and displaying financial reports that are relevant are on the rise (Turkey, 1993). Namely, the examples of these
methods are: segment financial reports, multi-purpose financial reports, interim financial reports, and employee
financial reports.
In order for financial statements to be relevant, they should have a number of characteristics. One of the most important
characteristics is timeliness. In a dynamic business environment, financial information must be available on a timely
basis so that sound and effective investment decisions can be made Error! Bookmark not defined.. The need for
timeliness in financial reporting is recognized by both the accounting profession and the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC) statement NO.4 of the Accounting Principles Board 1970 which specifies timeliness as one of the
objectives of accounting (Givoly & Palmon, 1982).
To satisfy the need for timely financial information, and to improve the timeliness of financial information, interim
financial reports (IFRs) are normally issued. Interim financial reports are prepared for periods less than a year: for
example this could be on a semi-annual (half-yearly), quarterly, or a monthly. In some countries like the United States
of America (USA), Canada, Brazil, Mexico, China, Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, and Saudi Arabia, companies prepare
interim financial reports quarterly. Meanwhile in countries like the UK, Japan, and Australia companies are required to
prepare interim financial reports half-yearly (Ku Ismail, 2003).
Disclosure of information from the interim financial reports (IFRs) has been mentioned briefly above is an important
source of information to investors and creditors. IFR provides them with updated information on the well-being of the
respective companies continuously. Therefore, evidently today, various stock exchanges around the world require
companies to prepare interim financial reports, with the objective to providing important stakeholders (employees,
shareholders, investors, the public, etc.) with timely and high quality financial information to help them in making
informed financing and investing decisions (Ku Ismail, 2003).
Since Oct 2004, companies listed on the Amman Stock Exchange (ASE) in Jordan are required to prepare interim
reports. However, the frequency of reporting is different between the listed companies on the First-market, and those on
Page 6
the Second-market. The First-market companies are required to prepare interim financial reports quarterly, and the
second-market companies are required to prepare interim financial reports semiannually, or half-yearly. This study will
examine interim reporting (half-yearly) of Jordanian companies listed on both markets.
3.LITERATURE REVIEW
One of the earliest studies in the US was undertaken by Zeghal (1984). The researcher conducted a study in the US to
determine the effect of timeliness on the informational content of interim and annual financial reports. The analysis
Page 7
was chiefly motivated by the characteristics of the two types of information and the differences in the regulations, and
the rules which govern their disclosure.
According to the study results, accounting reports with shorter delay have a higher informational content than those
with longer delay. At the time of release to the capital market, the effect of delay on the information content seems to be
more significant in the case of the interim rather than the annual financial reports. This may be explained by the major
characteristics which differentiate the information contained in the interim financial reports from that contained in the
annual financial reports, and the differences in their role in the investor's decision process.
Bowen, Johnson, Shevlin, and Shores (1992) documented that US firms with bad news announced earnings later than
expected while firms with good news announced earnings earlier than expected. They argued that managers have an
incentive to minimize the adverse reaction of stakeholders to bad news, thus delaying the announcement of bad news.
The 'unexpected' time lag was measured as the time lag of the same quarter of last year minus time lag of this year's
quarter. As far as the content is concerned, the news is considered bad when the unexpected return is negative and good
when the unexpected return is positive.
Butler et al. (2007) examined how the frequency of interim financial reporting affects earnings timeliness, the speed
with which accounting information is impounded into price based on a sample of 28,824 reporting-frequency
observations from 1950 to 1973.
They found little evidence of a difference in either intra period, or long-horizon timeliness, between firms reporting
quarterly and those reporting semiannually, even after controlling for self-selection. They found that the increase in
reporting frequency had no statistically significant effect on long-horizon timeliness for mandatory increases. Results
indicate that, after the switch, voluntary increasers tend to recognize bad news more quickly, but experience no change
in the timeliness of good-news recognition.
In the UK, Hussey and Woolfe (1998) compared various features of the interim financial reports of the companies
prepared between the years of 1992 and 1997. By examining the changes in the content and timing of issue of the
interim financial report, the study elicited that more companies in the UK were issuing their interim financial reports
within 90 days in 1997 than in 1992. The average time lag improved from 68.7 days in 1992 to 62.4 days in 1997. The
average financial reporting lags are however longer than that reported by the working committee of Coopers and
Lybrand (1992). The difference in results is due to the different samples used in the studies. However, the average
number of days reported by Hussey and Woolfe is close enough to the 60 days as recommended by the ASB guidelines
issued in 1997.
In Malaysia Ku Ismail and Chandler (2004) examined the timeliness of quarterly financial reports published by
companies listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE). This study also extended prior research by
determining the association between timeliness and each of the following company attributes size, profitability,
growth, and capital structure. An analysis of 117 quarterly financial reports ended on 30 September 2001 was run.
Of the 117 companies, they found only one company (0.9%) reported after the due date, and the financial reporting lag
being 64 days. This means that the overall compliance rate was very high (99.1%). Evidently, the financial reporting
lag of companies in this study was between 32 and 64 days with a mean and median of 55.7 days and 58 days,
respectively. This implies that, on average, companies reported about 5 days before the due date. The study also
provides evidence that there is a significant association between timeliness and each of the four company attributes, and
the association supported the hypothesis of the study.
Ibrahim, Ayoub, and Che Ahmad (2004) examined the issue of timeliness of interim financial reporting. The objectives
of this research are to examine the timeliness of interim financial reports and to analyze the level of compliance as
required by KLSE Listing Requirements. In addition, this research also investigated whether listed companies
voluntarily purchase audit services for the interim financial reports as they might add value to the information. Other
factors, such as, the industry and ownership structure are also examined. Finally, this study investigated the
enforcement actions by KLSE for late submission of quarterly financial reports and provides evidence on the practice of
interim financial reporting among listed companies in Malaysia.
The sample was selected from the KLSE main board companies with financial year end in 2002. Only companies with
four interim financial reports during the accounting period were included in the sample. An analysis of 217 interim
financial reports was run
The result of this research shows that majority of the companies comply with the two month requirement by KLSE.
Most of the companies submitted their interim financial reports within 54 to 57 days. However there are a small
number of companies (only 0.96%) which did not comply with this requirement. The results also show that there are
interim financial reports that have been audited even though it is not required and most of them are from quarter four
reports. The study shows that companies with Big Five auditors seem to be more efficient in term of timeliness of their
interim financial reports. Companies which have their interim financial reports audited are companies with Big Five
auditors and they also submit their interim financial report earlier. This shows that international reputable auditors
have a positive effect on the timeliness of interim financial reporting. Further, more comparisons between submission
lag and ethnic majority of companies' board of directors expose that there are difference between foreign controlled
Page 8
companies and local companies. Similarly, different industries may also affect the timeliness of interim financial
reporting. This could be due to the complex nature of certain industries over the others.
Boritz and Liu (2006) examined the determinants of the timeliness of quarterly financial reporting in Canada. They
hypothesized that interim financial statements were released more promptly by companies with a high transparency of
information environment than firms with a low transparency of information environment. They also hypothesized that
firms with significant agency problems were more likely to delay the disclosure of their interim financial statements
than firms with less agency problems.
The sample consisted of 400 randomly selected Canadian companies that publicly released their 2005 Q1 financial
statements on SEDAR. They then merged the original sample of 400 companies with the electronic database, Canadian
portion of Compustat North American, and generate the final sample of 266 companies after deleting companies which
have missing data in Compustat for the calculation of variables used in the analysis.
The study provided evidence that firms information environment and agency problems were related to the timeliness of
quarterly financial reporting. More interestingly, they found that firms that do not have their interim financial
statements reviewed by their auditors are less timely in releasing their interim financial statements than firms having
their interim financial statements reviewed. The findings suggest that firms may perceive the disclosure of no audit
review as a negative signal to market participants and thus intentionally delay that disclosure.
IKA and REGINA (2011) the researchers analyzed timeliness of financial reporting in Indonesia. In this study
timelines of financial reporting are measured by audit lag and reporting lag. This study utilized an unbalanced panel of
700 firm-years of companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange during the period 2007-2009. The mean of audit
lag is 74 days and the mean of reporting lag is 94 days. It is found that corporate governance and audit opinion
negatively affect both audit lag and reporting lag, whereas firm size positively affects audit lag and reporting lag. Debt
ratio only negatively affects reporting lag. Auditors firm, profitability, price earnings ratio and dividend payout ratio
do not significantly affect either audit lag or reporting lag. Inter-industry analysis of audit lag and reporting lag
reported that the financial industry has the shortest audit lag and reporting lag. The trade, service and investment
industries have the longest audit lag whereas the property, real estate and building construction industries have the
longest reporting lag.
Iyoha (2012) examined the impact of company attributes on the timeliness of financial reports in Nigeria based on a
sample of 61 companies annual reports for the years 1999-2008. The data were analyzed and results estimated using
Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression which was complimented with the panel data estimation technique. The
findings reveal that the age of company is the major company attribute that influences the overall quality of timeliness
of financial reports in Nigeria. It was also observed that there is a significant difference in the timeliness of financial
reporting among industrial sectors in Nigeria. The banking sector is found to be timelier in financial reporting. Though
the results suggest that regulations are not enough to ensure that the quality of financial reports are timely in Nigeria,
reporting lag may however be reduced by the existence and strict enforcement of rules and regulations of regulatory
bodies.
4.HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
This section discusses the association between timeliness and company attributes; size, profitability, growth, age,
leverage, audit firm size and market listing status.
Some of the researchers studied the relationship between timeliness of a financial report and specific attributes of a
company. The majority of studies concentrated on annual financial reports, and a few of them on interim financial
reports. By reviewing previous studies, the most frequently examined characteristics have been company size,
profitability, growth, capital structure, and age of company.
This study hypothesizes that timeliness is associated with size, profitability, growth, age, leverage, audit firm size, and
market listing status. Following is the discussion on each of the independent variables that are hypothesized to be
associated with the timeliness.
Size of Company
One of the characteristics that are often associated with the financial reporting lag of a financial report (annual or
interim report) is the size of a company. Ku Ismail & Chandler (2004, p.8) assert that:
Large companies are often argued to be early reporters for several reasons. First, large companies are often associated
with having more resources, more accounting staff, and more advanced accounting information systems compared to
their smaller counterparts. All of these attributes should aid companies in faster reporting. Secondly, larger companies
are more in the eyes of the public. Specifically, large companies are likely to be followed by a large number of analysts
who usually expect timely information to confirm and revise their expectations. Large companies are thus under greater
pressure to announce their reports on a timely basis to avoid speculative trading of their shares.
Size has been found to be, in most studies, a very significant variable, with an inverse relationship between size of
company and timeliness in annual financial reports (Al-Ajmi, 2008; Al Jabr, 2006; Davies & Whittred, 1980; Dogan,
Coskun, & elik, 2007; Dyer & McHugh, 1975; Iyoha, F.O 2012; IKA Merdekawati & Regina 2011; Karim, Ahmed, &
Page 9
Islam, 2006; Mahajan & Chander, 2008; Owusu-Ansah, 2000) and in interim financial reports (Ku Ismail & Chandler,
2004).
Based on the above findings, this study hypothesizes that:
H1: Larger companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports compared with smaller
companies.
Company Profitability
Profitability is expected to influence a companys timely reporting behavior. Companies with successful results will
report more quickly than those with failing operations or that has sustained losses. This is because profitability
measures a companys efficiency of operations (Owusu-Ansah, 2000). Therefore, the profitability of a company has
been hypothesized to be a significant associated with time lag.
Based on signaling theory, by delaying the bad news, management is giving its shareholders a silent signal and the
opportunity to divest themselves of the firms shares before the information reaches the market. Similarly, announcing
good news early will ensure that it is not pre-empted by other sources. The stakeholder theory also suggests that in the
absence of an opportunity to hide bad news because of mandatory disclosure requirements, managers have the incentive
to delay its release (Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004).
A majority of studies have shown a negative and significant association between profitability of company and financial
reporting lag in annual financial reports (Abdullah, 2006; Al-Ajmi, 2008; Al Jabr, 2006; Bowen et al., 1992; Conover,
Miller, & Szakmary; 2008; Dogan et al., 2007; Haw, Qi, & Wu, 2000; Iyoha, F.O 2012; Owusu-Ansah, 2000), and in
interim financial reports (Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004). On the other hand, only a few studies have documented
insignificant association between profitability of company and timeliness in annual financial reports. (e.g. Davies &
Whittred, 1980; Dyer & McHugh, 1975; IKA Merdekawati & Regina 2011; Mahajan & Chander, 2008).
Based on the above theoretical and empirical argument, this study hypothesizes that:
H2: Higher profitability companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial than lower profitability
companies.
Company Growth
Growth of company, like profitability is expected to influence a company's timely reporting behavior. In this case, the
theoretical arguments to suggest that company profitability is able to help companies publish their financial reports in a
timely manner are compatible here (see for example, Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004). Indeed, previous studies have
shown a significant relationship between growth of company and time lag in interim financial reports (Ku Ismail &
Chandler, 2004). Hence, this study offers the following hypothesis:
H3: Higher growth companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than lower growth
companies.
Age of Company
Owusu-Ansah (2000) proposed that promptness in financial reporting by a company is influenced by its age (i.e. its
development and growth). This proposition is based on the learning curve theory. The theory suggests that a reduction
in reporting time would occur as the number of annual financial reports produced is increased. As a company continues
and its accountants learn more, the 'teething problems' which would cause unusual delays are minimized. As a result,
an older, well-established company is likely to be more proficient in gathering, processing and releasing information
when needed because of learning experience gained over many years of existence. In short, older firms might have
improved their financial reporting practices over time. Consequently, Owusu-Ansah (2000) managed to document a
significant negative relationship between age of company and time lag (financial report lag).
However, a few other studies (e.g. Al Jabr, 2006; Mahajan & Chander, 2008) found no association between age of
company and timeliness in annual financial reports.
But despite some evidence that company age did not influence timeliness, the present study however argues that the
contrary is true, based on the theoretical arguments posed above. Hence, based on this argument the hypothesis is
formulated:
H4: Older companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than younger companies. Leverage
of Company
The leverage of a company is also expected to have an influence on timeliness as iterated by Ku Ismail and Chandler
(2004), who noted that:
there are two competing views in the literature concerning the association. One view suggests that highly leveraged
firms report faster than the lowly leveraged firms. Based on agency theory, this view contends that higher monitoring
costs would be incurred by firms that are highly leveraged. Because high-leveraged firms have the incentive to invest
sub-optimally, debt holders normally include clauses in debt contracts to constrain the activities of management (Jensen
and Meckling, 1976). Another view holds that highly leveraged firms report more slowly than the lowly leveraged
firms (p. 11).
The majority of previous studies have shown a negative and significant association relationship between leverage of
company and timeliness in annual financial reports (Al-Ajmi, 2008; Al Jabr, 2006), and in interim financial reports
(Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004). Abdullah (2006) found a positive association between timeliness of reporting and
Page 10
leverage, in annual financial reports. Mahajan and Chander (2008), however, found that leverage did not significantly
influence the financial reporting lag.
Based on the theoretical argument and the majority of previous research, this study hypothesizes that:
H5: Lower leverage companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than higher leverage
companies.
Audit Firm Size
In general, audit firm rotation is expected to reduce the timeliness of audit completion as the successive audit firms are
forced to build up client-specific knowledge from scratch. Therefore, those audit firms are bounded to incur significant
start-up time and costs to become adequately acquainted themselves with clients businesses and operations (Lai &
Cheuk, 2005).
Bamber, Bamber, & Schoderbek (1993) investigated the determinants of the length of time auditors require to complete
the audit or audit report lag (ARL). They found that regarding audit structure, the results showed that greater structure
generally led to longer audit report lags, but that accounting firms with greater structure also reacted more quickly to
unanticipated events. Some of studies (IKA Merdekawati & Regina 2011; Iyoha, F.O 2012; Mahajan and Chander
2008) found audit firm size to show negative and significant relationship to financial reporting lag in annual financial
reports. Being audited by big six audit firms, companies would take less time in releasing information. Turel, Asli
(2010) found a positive association between timeliness of reporting and leverage, in annual financial reports. On the
other hand, Al-Ajmi (2008) found no evidence to support the effect of accounting complexity or auditor type (Big Four
or non-Big Four) on timeliness.
Hence based on the above theoretical and empirical evidence, this study hypothesizes that:
H6: Larger audit firms take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than smaller audit firms. Market
Listing Status
As explain earlier, the Amman Stock Exchange has two separate tiers of stocks that are traded. They are the first
market and the second market. However, the frequency of financial reporting is different between companies listed on
the first-market, and those on the second-market. The first-market companies are required to prepare interim financial
reports quarterly and the second-market companies are required to prepare interim financial reports half-yearly.
Because first market firms are required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the reporting of a half-yearly financial
report is expected to be faster. This is because a lesser information is to be gathered since the preparation of the first
quarterly financial report. Further, since the first market is required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the
preparation of the interim financial reporting (quarterly or half-yearly) is a routine to them. Thus the first market
companies are expected to publish the reports faster.
Furthermore, since shares of the First Market firms are more likely to be actively traded than those of the Second
Market, it is expected that the first market firms will issue the interim financial reports faster. Based on ASE listed
requirements, first market companies are bigger in size, more profitable, and have a larger number of shareholders.
Hence, they are expected take a shorter time to issue the half-yearly financial reports.
As cited by Owusu-Ansah (2000) found a statistically significant difference in timely reporting between companies
listed on either the New York Stock Exchange or the Over-the-Counter market, and those listed on the American Stock
Exchange. Ashton, Willingham, and Elliott (1987) examined the association between audit delay and fourteen client
specific variables. They found that listing status is one of the variables that are significantly associated with audit report
lag.
Based on the above discussion and the findings of previous studies, this study hypothesized the following:
H7: First market companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than the second market
companies.
The Model
Based on the above discussion, the following model is developed to predict timeliness:
TIML = + 1 LNSIZE + 2 PROF + 3 GRO + 4 AGE + 5 LGLEVE + 6 AFSIZE + 7 MLS +
Where:
TIML =
timeliness, measured by financial reporting lag; the time interval between the end of the
reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued;
LNSIZE =
PROF =
company profitability, measured by return on equity (i.e. net income to owners' equity);
GRO =
AGE =
age of a company;
LGLEVE =
Page 11
AFSIZE =
audit firm size, classified as big firm (big 4 or local firms with international affiliations) and
small firms (local firms without international affiliations), where "1" big firm, "0" small firm;
MLS =
Market listing status, measured by company listed in the first market or second market, where
"1" first market, "0" second market;
and =
constant; and
disturbance term.
5.RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.1 Sampling of Quarterly Reports
The companies are divided in to three sectors: industrial, services, and financial sector. The number of listed companies
are 235 Companies where industrial sector companies comprise of 69 companies with the percentage of (29%), 124
services sector companies (including diversified financial services and real estate) which represent 53% from the entire
companies participated in the study,, and 42 companies represented the financial sector (banks and insurance
companies) with the percentage of 18%.
This study will be applied on these two of sectors, namely, the industrial and services sectors. Together, these two
sectors make 82% of the Jordan listed companies which represent the largest share in the financial investment, and
achieve the largest contribution to the economic development. In addition to, the financial sector has special
regulations.
5.2 Measuring Timeliness
There are two aspects of timeliness where interim financial reporting is concerned: the frequency of the reports and the
financial reporting lag (time lag). In this study, timeliness was measured by the financial reporting lag, that is the time
interval between the end of the reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued. This study determined
the actual number of days a company takes to announce the half-yearly financial report; relatively, the higher the
number of days a company takes to make the announcement, the lower the quality of reporting is deemed to be. The
announcement date for each company's half-yearly financial report is available from the half-yearly financial reports or
on the JSC website.
5.3 Data Analysis
5.3.1 The Timeliness in the Half-Yearly Financial Reports
In this study, timeliness of a half-yearly report refers to the reporting lag; the time interval between the end of the
reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued. The maximum allowable reporting lag for companies
in Jordan is one month. This study determines whether companies adhered to the reporting lag requirement. Out of the
193 companies, twenty companies (10.4 percent) reported after the due date. This means that the compliance rate was
high, where 89.6 percent of the companies complied with the regulation. Where, the financial year end on 31/12, the
half-yearly period ends on 30/6 for all companies.
The reporting lags of companies in this study lie between 17 and 120 days with a mean and median of 30 days and 29
days respectively. This implies that on average companies reported about one day before the due date. The distribution
of the reporting lags of companies can be observed in Table 1.
Table 1: Distribution of reporting lags
Frequency
percentage
2.6
22 28 days
74
38.3
29 - 30 days
62
32.1
32
16.6
20
10.4
Total
193
100
Although most companies reported by the due date, quite a large number of companies took as long as they are allowed
to submit their reports. Whether these companies could have published the reports earlier but tend to delay them, or
they really need such time interval to issue the reports is unknown. As shown in Table 1, 32 companies (16.6 percent)
Page 12
reported exactly on the due date (31 July 2013) where the other 20 (10.4 percent) had a reporting lag more than one
month. Majority of the companies (73 percent) reported within last ten days of the due date. Only about 2.6 percent of
the companies reported within first 3 weeks of allowable period. Comparing the mean reporting lag of half-yearly
reporting in this study (30 days or 4 weeks) to others such as in UK, same maximum allowable period reporting lag is
one month (62.4 days) (Hussey & Weiss 1998), it is concluded that the lag is better for companies in Jordan.
5.3.2 Association between Timeliness and the Independent Variables
The findings on the association between timeliness and company attributes; size, profitability, growth, age, leverage of
a company, audit firm size and market listing status.
In this study, timeliness is measured by the reporting lag that is the time interval between the end of the reporting
period and the date the financial statements are issued. This study determines the actual number of days a company
takes to announce the half-yearly report (used ordinary least squares regression analysis).
5.3.3 Ordinary Least Squares Regression Analysis
Results of the ordinary least squares regression analysis, using the ENTER method are depicted in Table 2. The
adjusted R of 0.376 and F value of 15.929 (Sig. = 0.000) shows that the model describes 37.6 percent of the variation
in timeliness and it is significant at the 1 percent level. There is not sufficient evidence to support the hypotheses that
the timeliness is directly related to size, leverage and audit firm size. Thus, the alternative hypotheses (H1, H5 and H6)
are rejected at a 5 percent significance level and at a 10 percent significance level.
Company age, profitability, growth and market listing status are the variables that are significantly associated with
timeliness of half-yearly financial reporting. The and p values suggest that the relationships between company age
and growth are positive, and are significant at the 5 percent level and 10 percent level respectively. The and p values
suggest that the relationships between profitability and market listing status are negative and are significant at the 5
percent level and 10 percent level respectively.
Results were consistent with previous studies; (Al Jabr, 2006; Bowen et al., 1992; Conover, Miller, & Szakmary; 2008;
Dogan et al., 2007; Haw, Qi, & Wu, 2000; Iyoha, F.O 2012; Owusu-Ansah, 2000) found a significant association
relationship between profitability of company and timeliness in annual reports, and in interim financial reports (Ku
Ismail, 2003; Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004) found that. (Iyoha, 2012; Owusu-Ansah, 2000) showed a significant
association relationship between age of company and time lag. (Ku Ismail & Chandler, 2004) found a significant
association relationship between growth of company and timeliness in interim financial reports. (Owusu-Ansah, 2000)
found a statistically significant difference in timely reporting between companies listed on either the New York Stock
Exchange or the Over-the-Counter market, and those listed on the American Stock Exchange. (Ashton, Willingham,
and Elliott, 1987) found that listing status is one of the variables that are significantly associated with audit report lag.
This implies that companies with higher company profitability and first market companies take shorter time to publish
their half-yearly financial reports. The findings support the hypotheses that the amount of timeliness of interim
financial report is directly related to the higher company profitability higher company profitability and first market
companies. The alternative hypotheses (H2) the higher profitability companies take shorter times to publish their halfyearly financial reports (H7) First market companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports than
the second market companies are accepted at a 5 percent significance level. As discussed before, the companies with
successful results will report more quickly than those with failing operations or that has sustained losses. This is
because profitability measures a companys efficiency of operations (Owusu-Ansah, 2000). Therefore, the profitability
of a company has been hypothesized to be a significant associated with time lag.
Listing status is one of the variables that are significantly associated with audit report lag. Because in Jordan, first
market firms are required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the reporting of a half-yearly financial report is
expected to be faster. This is because a lesser information is to be gathered since the preparation of the first quarterly
financial report. Further, since the first market is required to prepare quarterly financial reporting, the preparation of
the interim financial reporting (quarterly or half-yearly) is a routine to them. Thus the first market companies are
expected to publish the reports faster.
Also, about company age and growth found appositive relationship between company age and growth of company and
time lag in interim financial reports, results were inconsistent with Ku Ismail & Chandler (2004) and Owusu-Ansah
(2000), they found a significant negative relationship between growth of company and time lag. However, a few other
studies (e.g. Al Jabr, 2006; Mahajan & Chander, 2008) found no association between age of company and timeliness in
annual financial reports.
This implies that companies with higher company growth and older companies take longer time to publish their halfyearly financial reports. The findings provide evidence that there is a significant association between timeliness and
company growth and age, and the association is not in the hypothesized direction. The alternative hypotheses (H3) the
higher company growth take longer times to publish their half-yearly financial reports (H4) the older companies take
longer times to publish their half-yearly financial reports are accepted at a 5 percent significance level.
Page 13
Constant
SIZE
PROF
GRO
AGE
LEVE
AFSIZE
MLS
* Significant at 0.05
** Significant at 0.10
Where:
TIML =
p-value
0.000
0.889
0.000
0.026
0.046
0.522
0.447
0.057
THE TIMELINESS, MEASURED BY REPORTING LAG; THE ACTUAL NUMBER OF DAYS A COMPANY TAKES TO
ANNOUNCE THE HALF-YEARLY REPORT .
SIZE =
PROF =
COMPANY PROFITABILITY, MEASURED BY PROFIT MARGIN (I.E. NET PROFIT TO NET SALES);
GRO =
AGE =
AGE OF A COMPANY;
LEVE =
AFSIZE =
AUDIT
MLS =
6.CONCLUSION
In this study, timeliness of a half-yearly financial report refers to the financial reporting lag, that is the time interval
between the end of the reporting period and the date the financial statements are issued. The maximum allowable
financial reporting lag for companies in Jordan is one month. Out of the 193 companies, 20 companies (10.4%)
reported after the due date. This means that the compliance rate was high, where 89.6 percent of the companies
complied with the regulation. The financial reporting lags of companies in this study lie between 17 and 120 days with
a mean and median of 30.95 days and 29 days, respectively. This implies that on average companies reported about one
day before the due date.
Although most companies reported by the due date, quite a large number of companies took as long as they are allowed
to submit their reports. Whether these companies could have published the reports earlier but tend to delay them, or
they really need such time interval to issue the reports is unknown. A majority of the companies (87%) reported within
the last ten days of the due date.
Consistent with the literature, based on the results of ordinary least squares regression analysis, this study provides
evidence that profitability of a company, growth of a company, age of a company, and market listing status of company
influence the timeliness of interim financial reporting. Companies with higher company profitability and the first
market companies take shorter time to publish their half-yearly financial reports. Companies with higher company
Page 14
growth and older companies take longer time to publish their half-yearly financial reports. However, there appears to be
no evidence that timeliness is influenced by size of company, leverage of company and audit firm size.
REFERENCES
[1] Abdullah, Shamsul-Nahar. (2006). Board Composition, Audit committee and Timeliness of Corporate Financial
Reports in Malaysia. Corporate Ownership & Control, 4(2), 33-45.
[2] Al Jabr, Y. A. (2006). The timeliness of Saudi financial reports and firm characteristics. Riyadh: Institute of Public
Administration.
[3] Al-Ajmi, J. (2008). Audit and reporting delays: Evidence from an emerging market. Advances in Accounting,
24(2), 217-226.
[4] Ashton, R., Willingham, J., & Elliott, R. (1987). An empirical analysis of audit delay. Journal of Accounting
Research, 25(2), 275-292.
[5] Bamber, E., Bamber, L., & Schoderbek, M. (1993). Audit structure and other determinants of audit report lag: An
empirical analysis. Auditing, 12, 1-23.
[6] Barako, D., Hancock, P., & Izan, H. (2006). Factors influencing voluntary corporate disclosure by Kenyan
companies. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 14(2), 107-125.
[7] Boritz, J., & Liu, G. (2006). Determinants of the timeliness of quarterly reporting: Evidence from Canadian firms.
Working Paper Series. Social Science Research Network, References 17.
[8] Bowen, R., Johnson, M., Shevlin, T., & Shores, D. (1992). Determinants of the timing of quarterly earnings
announcements. Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, 7(4), 395-422.
[9] Butler, M., Kraft, A., & Weiss, I. (2007). The effect of reporting frequency on the timeliness of earnings: The cases
of voluntary and mandatory interim reports. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 43(2-3), 181-217.
[10] Conover, C. M., Miller, R. E., & Szakmary, A. (2008). The timeliness of accounting disclosures in international
security markets. International Review of Financial Analysis, 17(5), 849-869.
[11] Davies, B., & Whittred, G. P. (1980). The Association between selected corporate attributes and timeliness in
corporate reporting: Further analysis. Abacus, 16(1), 48-60.
[12] Dogan, M., Coskun, E., & elik, O. (2007). Is timing of financial reporting related to firm performance? An
examination on ISE listed companies. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 12, 220-233.
[13] Dyer, J., & McHugh, A. (1975). The timeliness of the Australian annual report. Journal of Accounting Research,
13(3), 204-219.
[14] Givoly, D., & Palmon, D. (1982). Timeliness of annual earnings announcements: Some empirical evidence.
Accounting Review, 57(3), 486-508.
[15] Haniffa, R., & Cooke, T. (2002). Culture, corporate governance and disclosure in Malaysian corporations. Abacus,
38(3), 317-349.
[16] Haw, I., Qi, D., & Wu, W. (2000). Timeliness of annual report releases and market reaction to earnings
announcements in an emerging capital market: The case of China. Journal of International Financial Management
and Accounting, 11(2), 108-131.
[17] Hussey, R., & Woolfe, S. (1998).The auditors' review report. Managerial Auditing Journal, 13(8), 448-544.
[18] Ibrahim, I., Ayoub, H., & Ahmad, A. C. (2004). Survey on Timeliness of Quarterly Reports by Malaysian Listed
Companies. International Conference on Corporate Governance of Reporting, Kuala Lumpur.
[19] Ika Merdekawati, Regina J. Arsjah., (2011). Timeliness of Financial Reporting: An Empirical Study in Indonesia
Stock Exchange. IJAR, 14(3).
[20] Iyoha, F.O., (2012). Company Attributes and the Timeliness of Financial Reporting in Nigeria. Business
Intelligence Journal, 5(1), 41-49.
[21] Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency cost and ownership
structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305-360.
[22] Jeter, D. C., & Chaney, P. K. (2004). Advanced accounting (2nd ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
[23] Karim, W., Ahmed, K., & Islam, A. (2006). The effect of regulation on timeliness of corporate financial reporting:
Evidence from Bangladesh. JOAAG, 1(1), 15-35.
[24] Ku Ismail, K. (2003). The usefulness of quarterly financial reporting in Malaysia. Unpublished doctoral thesis,
Cardiff University, Wales.
[25] Ku Ismail, K., & Chandler, R. (2004). The timeliness of quarterly financial reports of companies in Malaysia.
Asian Review of Accounting, 12(1), 1-18.
[26] Lai, K., & Cheuk, L. (2005). Audit report lag, audit partner rotation and audit firm rotation: Evidence from
Australia. Social Science Research Network, Citations 1, 1-32.
[27] Mahajan, P., & Chander, S. (2008). Determinants of timeliness of corporate disclosure of selected companies in
India. Journal of Accounting Research, 7(4), 28-63.
Page 15
[28] Owusu-Ansah, S. (2000). Timeliness of corporate financial reporting in emerging capital markets: Empirical
evidence from the Zimbabwe stock exchange. Accounting & Business Research, 30(3), 241-254.
[29] Turel, Asli. (2010). Timeliness of financial reporting in emerging capital markets: Evidence from Turkey. Istanbul
University Journal of the School of Business Administration, 39 (2), 227-240.
[30] Turkey, M. I. (1993). Financial Statement Analysis. Riyadh: Deanship of Library Affairs, King Saud University
AUTHOR
Saqer Al-Tahat received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in Accounting from Al al-Bayt University- Jordan
in 1999 and 2005, respectively. He obtained his PhD in Financial Accounting from University Utara
Malaysia Malaysia in 2010. He got twelve years of work experience out of which; seven years he
worked an Auditor at Jordanian Audit Bureau, and five years an Assistance .Prof in Fahad Bin Sultan
University and Jerash University.
Page 16
ABSTRACT
Robot is the main part of flexible manufacturing system. Robotics is the vast field in which we can easily calculate the joint
angles and position vectors of robot up to 3 degree of freedom. But in case of 6-arm robot to find joint angles and position
vectors we need robotics toolbox in matlab. In this paper we find the position vectors of robot by forward kinematics and joint
angles by inverse kinematics in matlab with the help of robotic toolbox.
1. INTRODUCTION
Robotics tool box is developed by Peter I. Corke CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology Pullenvale,
AUSTRALIA, 4069 in year 2002. Robotics toolbox released in mat lab 7.1 provides many functions which are useful in
robotics including kinematics, dynamics, and trajectory generation etc [7]. The Toolbox is useful for simulation as well
as for analysing the results of experiments with real robots. The Toolbox is representing the kinematics and dynamics
of robot manipulators [14]. Robot objects can be created by the user for any robot manipulator and a number of
examples are provided for learning like Puma 560 and Stanford arm. The Toolbox also provides homogeneous
transformations and unit-quaternions which are necessary to represent 3-dimensional positions and orientation of robot.
With the help of robotics toolbox in matlab we can find out our data in which we have given the different angels and
for which we get the different position vectors [19].
The inverse kinematics (IK) problem for a robot manipulator is to nd the values of the joint angles given in the
position and orientation of the end-effector relative to the base. There are many solutions to solve the inverse
kinematics problem, such as geometric, algebraic, and numerical hit and trial, iterative, FABRIC methods [20]. The
inverse kinematics solution is a major problem in robotic research area.
Page 17
Srinivasan Alavandar, M.J. Nigam gives Nero fuzzy based approach for inverse kinematics solution of industrial robot
manipulator Inverse kinematics solution for robot manipulator based on neural network joint subspace given by Y
Feng, W.Yao-Nan & Y. Yi-min in 2012. Artificial neural network solution for planer parallel manipulator passing
through the similar configuration given by Ammar H Elsheikh, Ezzat A Shoaib and Elwahed M Asar in 2013.
The process of calculating the position and orientation of the end effectors with given joint angles is called Forward
Kinematics analysis. Forward Kinematics equations are generated from the Transformation matrixes and the forward
kinematics solution of the arm is the product of these six matrices identified as 0T6 with respect to base as shown in
equation no.1. The first three columns in the matrices represent the orientation of the end effectors, whereas the last
column represents the position of the end effectors normal orientation and approach matrix [7, 15].
Page 18
(1)
Compare the normal orientation and approach matrix with homogenous transformation matrix. The manual solution of
this matrix is difficult and the chances of increment of error is high. Same method is used on matlab in the term of
programming with the help of robotics tool box, which is developed by Peter I. Corke CSIRO Manufacturing Science
and Technology Pullenvale, AUSTRALIA, 4069 in year 2002 [7].
3.FORWARD AND INVERSE KINEMATICS OF SIX ARM ROBOT WITH THE HELP OF
ROBOTICS TOOLBOX IN MATLAB
Forward and inverse of robot can be done with the help of robotics tool box which has been made by Peter I. Corke
CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology Pullenvale, AUSTRALIA, 4069 in year 2002. First write start up_rvc
on the screen of matlab toolbox and start the robotics toolbox [7,17]. Make a program according to your motion and DH parameter showing above table no.1.The Toolbox provides functions for manipulating and converting the data types
such as in Table no. 2. Given below the ten joint angle matrix and their corresponding ten position vectors for each
input are shown [1].
Table 2: Input Joint Angles
Joint angle of any robot shows the current position of a robot at any certain position according to the DH parameter and
every robot joint have fixed joint limits. We can change the joint angle and corresponding output will change according
to the given input. If your given input crosses the limit forward kinematics is possible but inverse kinematics is not
possible. It means the output is not real. Some positions of robot are shown in Fig. 3 according to given angle.
Page 19
Page 20
Similarly if we use position vectors as input then similar joint angles can be obtained as output in inverse kinematics
and we get again same joint angle show in table no. 4.
Table 4: Output or position vectors of the robot corresponding to ten joint angles
5. FUTURE SCOPE
Robotics tool box in mat lab is not only limited to forward and inverse kinematics of robot by which we can make
controller of robot, can calculate link length and link weight, link momentum, link velocity, maximum limits of robot
etc the data come from robotics tool box you can validate in different tools of mat lab like artificial neural network
(ANN), articulated neuro fuzzy interference system(ANFIS) etc.
REFERENCES
[1] Serdar Kucuk and Zafer Bingul Forward and Inverse Kinematics December 2006.
[2] Joan Q Gan, Eimei Oyama, Eric M Rosales & Huoheng hu a complete analytical solution to the inverse kinematics
of the pioneer 2r robotic am Cambridge journals 7 may 2004.
[3] LORENZO SCIAVICCO & BRUNO SCILIANO a solution algorithm to the inverse kinematics problem for
redundant manipulator IEEE Journal of Robotics and Automation,Vol. 4 no.4 august 1998.
[4] Li Chun Tommy Wang & Chi Cheng Chen a combined optimization method for solving the inverse kinematics
problem for mechanical manipulator IEEE Transaction on Robotics and Automation Vol. 7 No. 4 august 1991.
[5] Kesheng Wang Efficient inverse position transformation for TR400S robot manipulator Modeling identification
and Control,1989,Vol.10 No. 2 101-113 9 feb. 1989.
[6] Ziauddin ahmad & Allon Guez On the solution of inverse kinematics problem IEEE 1990.
[7] http://www.petercorke.com/robot Robotics toolbox for Mat lab Release 9.0
[8] Jianxin XU, Wei Wang & Yuanguang SUN two optimization algorithms for solving inverse kinematics with
redundancy South China University of Technology and Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, CAS and
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010.
[9] B Purmus, H. Temurtas & A. Gan An inverse kinematics solution using practical swarm optimization 6th
International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS11), 16-18 May 2011, Elaz, Turkey.
[10] Ali T hasan & M.A.A.Al Assadi Performance prediction network for serial manipulator inverse kinematics
solution passing through singular configuration Advanced Robotics System International 2010.
[11] Adrew A. Goldenberg, B. Benhabib, & Robert G. Fenton a Complete Generalized Solution to the Inverse
Kinematics of Robots IEEE JOURNAL OF ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION, VOL. RA-1, NO. 1, march 1985.
[12] Himanshu Chaudhary and Rajendra Prasad Intelegent Inverse kinematics control of scorbot- ER plus robot
manipulator International Journal of Advances in Engineering & Technology, Nov 2011.
[13] Mustafa Jabbar Hayawi analytical inverse kinematics algorithm Of A 5-DOF robot arm Journal of education of
college no.4 vol.1 march./2011.
Page 21
[14] S. V. Shah ,S.K Saha, J.K Dutt Denavit-Hartenberg Parameterization of Euler Angles Journal of Computational
and Nonlinear Dynamics 2012.
[15] Harvey Lipkin a note on D-H notation on robotics ASME 2005.
[16] Dr. Anurg Verma1, Mehul Gor2 forward and inverse kinematics of 6DOF arc welding robot International Journal
of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 2(9), 2010, 4682-4686.
[17] Tadeusz szkodny Forward and inverse kinematics of IRb-6 manipulator Pergamon 1995.
[18] Federico Thomas solved problem of robot kinematics by using robotics toolbox Barcelona, April 2nd, 2012.
[19] www.robotshop.ca www.robotshop.us history of robotics.
[20] Andeas Aristidou & joan Lasenby FABRIC :- A fast iterative solver for the inverse kinematic problem ELSEVIER
9 may 2011.
AUTHOR
Er. Harpreet Singh received the B.Tech degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from SBBSIET,
Jalandhar and pursuing M.Tech degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from RIET, Phagwara.
Page 22
1.
2.
ABSTRACT
A simple and inexpensive spray pyrolysis technique (SPT) was employed to deposit Nickel Oxide (NiO) thin films from Nickel
nitrate salt solution on preheated glass substrates(Ts =400)c, at thickness (250nm), Effect of copper doping on the structural
and optical properties in NiO thin films has been done using X-ray diffraction , Scanning Electron Microscope and UV-visible
spectroscopy.The structural propertie of Nio and Nio:cu films showed polycrystalline nature with cubic structure,the variations
of the microstructural parameters such as crystallite size , dislocation density ,strain with doping rate were investigated .The
optical transmittance and band gap values of films decreased with increasing cu concentrations.
Key words: Nickel oxide films , spray pyrolysis, Cu doped, structural and optical properties
1.INTRODUCTION
Nickel oxide(NiO)has attached considerable attention for applications, such as catalysts, electrochromic film, gas
sensors,fuel cell, anode of organic light-emitting diodes, magnetic materials and thermoelectric materials[1], owing to
its p-type conductivity,wide band gap ranging from3.6eV to 4.0 eV[2] .Most attracting features of NiO are: (1)
excellent durability and electrochemical stability, (2) low material cost, (3) promising ion storage material in terms of
cyclic stability, (4) large span optical density, and (5) possibility of manufacturing by variety of techniques[3-7]. Nickel
oxide thin films have been prepared by various techniques that involve: vacuum evaporation, electron beam evaporation
, rf-magnetron sputtering , anodic oxidation ,chemical deposition, atomic layer epitaxy, solgel and spray pyrolysis
technique (SPT) [8-11]. Although SPT has been employed in the past to deposit NiO films through acetylacetonate and
nitrate routes, their characterization have sparsely been carried out. Aqueous solutions are commonly used in SP
system to deposit thin films due to ease of handling, safety, low cost and availability of a wide range of water-soluble
metal salts[12]. The solute must have high solubility to increase the yield of the process, Metal chlorides have highest
water solubility relative to other metal salts and are used for the industrial production of several oxides and ferrites.
Other metal salts such as nitrates, acetates and sulfates can also introduce impurities, which may adversely affect
subsequent processing or properties and phase development[13].
This paper introduces a simple, fast and versatile method to synthesize NiO:cu thin films. The effects of the cu doping
concentration on the structural and optical properties Nio:cu films were examined.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
Material preparation and deposition of films:
Chemical techniques for the preparation of thin films have been studied extensively because such processes facilitate
the designing of materials on a molecular level. Spray pyrolysis one of the chemical techniques applied to form a
variety of thin films, results in good productivity from a simple apparatus. In the current research, Nickel oxide thin
films are deposited on glass substrates employing locally made spray pyrolysis deposition chamber whose main
components set up is illustrated in the schematic diagram of fig. (1).
Page 23
Nickel oxide thin films have been deposited from 0.04 M aqueous solution of solute quantity of Ni(No3)2 in distilled
water (the solvent).A magnetic stirrer is incorporated for this purpose for about (1015) minutes to facilitate the
complete dissolution of the solute in the solvent. A microscopic glass substrates were chemically and ultrasonically
cleaned are employing , during the film deposition the substrate temperature was kept constant at 400 C. This
temperature was found to be optimum to obtain good adherent NiO films. The spray rate was maintained at2.3 ml/min
due to the (N2) pressure of gas. and distance between top of nozzle and the substrate was kept 30 cm. The overall
reaction process can be expressed as heat decomposition of Nickel nitrate to clusters of Nickel oxide in the presence of
water and air. The following chemical reaction took place on heated substrates[14].
Table (1): Optimum thermal spray pyrolysis deposition conditions for the preparation of NiO thin films.
For copper doping(Cu(NO3)2 ) was dissolved in precursor solution of Ni(No3)2 with different weight percentage and
sprayed onto preheated glass substrate. The Cu doped films were prepared for 1%, 3%, 5%,and7% of copper
concentrations with the same deposition temperature and spray rate.
Page 24
(Scherrer's equation)
where D is the crystalline size
: the peak FWHM.
: the diffraction peak position, it means Bragg`s angle
XRD pattern of NiO thin film prepared by spray pyrolysis technique at substrate temperature of (400oC) have been
shown in Figure (2 (a) ).The presence of diffraction peaks indicates that the Nio film is polycrystalline with a cubic type
crystal structure as compared with standard (ASTM) NiO card . Generally the peaks of the Nio and NiO:Cu thin films
were observed at diffraction angles in the range at (37and 43),the results show amajor diffraction peak along
(111)plane at 2=37.3for pure Nio and different copper concentrations.besides this other low intensity peak was
observed along (200)plane. No diffraction peak related to other secondary phases was observed ,the crystalline size
shows a variation in different copper doping as listed in table (2).
Fig.(2): X-ray diffraction patterns of (a) NiO (b) Nio:cu1% (c)Nio:cu3% (d)Nio:cu 5% (f)Nio:cu 7%
Table (2): Structural properties of pure Nio and Nio:cu at different concentration
Page 25
Fig.(3): Transmittance spectra of pure NiO , Nio:cu 1%,Nio :cu 3%,Nio :cu 5% and Nio:cu 7% thin films.
)2
vs. photon energy ( h ) for pure Nio, Nio:cu 1%,Nio :cu 3%,
Nio:cu 7% thin films
Fig (5): Absorption Coefficient versus photon energy of NiO and Nio:cu 1%, Nio :cu 3%,Nio :cu 5% and Nio:cu 7%
thin films
Page 26
Fig. (6) SEM micrographs Nio:Cu thin at different doping rates at two magnification.
4.CONCLUSION
We have found that good adherent and smooth films of copper doped NiO having different percentage of copper
concentration canbe obtained by using low cost spray pyrolysis technique. From the X-ray diffraction investigation, the
crystalline structure of thin films was
a polycrystalline with a cubic structure , the increasing of cu doping
concentration increased the grain size, The SEM results reveal that the grain size increases with the increase in copper
Page 27
concentration and then decreased and this affects the physical properties of the films The value of The transmittance
and the optical energy gap (Eg)were found decrease with increase cu doping concentration. Value addition to this
study is the observation of higher absorption in the visible region,thereby a tendency towards tunability for applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Wu SY, Ch WF, Fe YF. The electrochromic properties of nickel oxide by chemical deposition and oxidization.
Mater Lett60:7905 2006.
[2] Bo JA,Ij,DM,IV PG,Er RW,Lee SH,etal.Polarized neutron diffractionstudiesofexchange-coupledFe3O4/NiO
superlattices.
[3] H.M. Al-doon, Phys. Stat. Solidi (a) (1988).
[4] S. Ma, A. Akl, H. Kamal and K. Ab-Hady, Physica, (2002) 366375.
[5] LiuZG,ZuYG,FuYJ,ZhangYL,LiangHL.Growthoftheoxidizednickel nanoparticles
onaDNAtemplateinaqueoussolution.MaterLett2008;62: 23152307.
[6] Cast-HurtadoI,HerranJ,PerezN,OlaizolaSM,MandayoGG,CastanoE. Toxic
gasesdetectionbyNiOsputteredthinfilms.SensLett2011;9:6468.
[7] DuY,WangWN,LiXW,ZhaoJ,MaJM,LiuYP,etal.PreparationofNiO nanoparticles
inmicroemulsionanditsgassensingperformance.MaterLett 2012;68:168170.
[8] LiY,XieYS,GongJH,ChenYF,ZhangZT.PreparationofNi/YSZmaterialsfor SOFC anodesbybuffersolutionmethod.MaterSciEng,2001;86:119122.
[9] BorchersJA,IjiriY,LindDM,IvanovPG,ErwinRW,LeeSH,etal.Polarized
neutron
diffractionstudiesofexchangecoupledFe3O4/NiO superlattices. J ApplPhys1999;85:58835885.
[10] HuY,Qian HS,MeiT,Guo J,WhiteT.Facile synthesis of magnetic metal(Mn, Co, Fe,and
Ni)oxidenanosheets.MaterLett2010;64:10951098.
[11] BijuV.Antiferromagneticresonanceinnanocrystallinenickeloxidestudied using
fouriertransforminfraredspectroscopy.MaterLett2008;62:29042906.
[12] Gandhi AC,Huang CY,Yang CC,ChanTS,ChengCL,MaYR,etal.Growth mechanism and magnonexcitation in NiO
nanowalls.Nanoscale Res Lett 2011.
[13] ShinW,MurayamaN.High performancep-type thermo electric oxide based on NiO.MaterLett2000;45:302306.
[14] Bogoroditsky N.P., V.V. Pasnkov & B.M. Tareev, Electrical Engineering Materials, (1979 ).
[15] B.D.Cullity, "Elements of X-ray diffraction",(USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.) 1956.
[16] Mishra RL, Mishra SK, Prakash SG Optical and gas sensing characteristics of tin oxide nano-crystalline thin film.
J Ovonic Res(2009) 5(4):7785.
AUTHOR
Raania R. kadhim
Page 28
Tanu Verma,
1
2.
Dr R. K. Srivastava
2.Associate Professor & Head, Department of Computer Science, Bareilly College Bareilly, U.P.,INDIA
ABSTRACT
Predictive algorithm based on neural networks are available and it proves superior to empirical methods of clinical staying.
The aim of this research is to apply artificial neural network to heart disease prediction research. Neural Network has played
an important role in intelligent medical diagnosis. The Artificial Neural Network have been trained and tested on different
input variables describing the patients history. A network trained with a moderately high artificial mortality rate can improve
the sensitivity of the model. Artificial Neural Network are currently a hot research area in medical diagnosis and it is
believed that it receive extensive application to biomedical system in future. The ANN has been trained to exposing if to sets of
existing data where the history of heart or patient is known.
1. INTRODUCTION
ANN based models for medical parameters such as mortality and morbidity and created and effect of heart disease into
total males and females mortality indicators are studied. The aim of this research is to apply ANN and their
associated analysis techniques to heart care, specifically to the management of hypertensive, diabetic and heart patient.
The problem has been posed by the medical researcher and heart specialist that represents classical cases where the
solution to the medical problem appears to lie in the information technology. The ANN has been trained by exposing it
to sets of existing data where the desired i.e. output following history of heart patients in known ANN have varying
complexity
an
d types which is used in research diagnosis of heart disease. ANN have been shown to be more accurate in predicting
heart disease and results obtained from neural network from one diagnosis center to another diagnosis centre, the
project should lead to an better standard of treatment for heart disease. Patients will be benefited by getting the right
treatment. An Improved Constructive Neural Network Ensemble Approach to Medical Diagnoses, introduced by
Zhenyu Wang,Xin Yao of School of Computer Science, the University of Birmingham U.K. presents the study about
role of Neural Network in intelligent medical diagnoses. Usually Medical diagnosis system is used to prevent and
diagnose the disease. Different types of disease have their physical symptoms. These symptoms vary according to the
disease we have used a Neural Network technique of soft computing as feed forward part of back propagation
algorithm. In this paper we apply ANN and analyze their ability to simulate complex processes. Some ANN based data
for heart disease and its parameters such as blood pressure, sugar, breathing rate etc were used and influence of
different heart patients (male & female) was studied.
Page 29
crossover and selection continue until meet the stopping criterion (minimal of an error function or given number of
epoch.
2.2 ANN structure: Artificial neural networks provide a robust approach to approximate real-valued, discrete valued
and vector-valued target functions from some very complex (input, output) data pairs. Many attributes valued pairs
represent input data.
The most common neural network architecture is a fully connected node web. Every edge on the web has a weight
associated with it. Each input node accepts an input data X={X1,X2,XN}. All other nodes on hidden layers and output
layer compute the linear combinations of the inputs from their immediate backward layers apply a threshold on the
result and send the outputs to their immediate forward layers. Often the threshold is a sigmoid function.
2.3 Computation of ANN forecasted value: Data sets are two parts training and testing. In our testing data there are
43 input sets and one output of 5 patients .Considering the patient pathological and other test reports related to heart
disease as input x(k) and particular S. No. of patient data set to be predicted as desired output d(k) after applying the
BPA, the calculated output is treated as predicted value of cor. Angiogram. The steps adapted for calculation of
predicted cor. Angiogram value i.e. output through BPA is as follows:
Step 1: Data set of patient S. No. 1 to 39 as input set and Coronary Angiogram value of patient S. No. 39 as desired
output.
Step 2: Data set of patient S. No. 1 to 40 as input set and Coronary Angiogram value of patient S. No. 40 as desired
output.
Step 3: Data set of patient S. No. 1 to 41 as input set and Coronary Angiogram value of patient S. No. 41 as desired
output.
Step 4: Data set of patient S. No. 1 to 42 as input set and Coronary Angiogram value of patient S. No. 42 as desired
output.
Step 5: Data set of patient S. No. 1 to 43 as input set and Coronary Angiogram value of patient S. No. 43 as desired
output.
The algorithm has been implemented through C programming language, considering two hidden layers and
computations have been made by an optimized ANN with 43 hidden nodes and after 500and 1000 epochs. Out of these,
the best suitable forecasted values have been obtained by model with 1000 epochs. The result so obtained has been
illustrated in Table 1 as follows:
Table-1
Page 30
Page 31
REFERENCES
[1] Chou-An Chen[2007], Neuro Fuzzy Technology as a Predictor of Parathyroid Harmonse Level in Hemodialysis
Patients,Tohku J,Exp.Med.,211,81-87
[2] Ferdous Ahemad Sohel, A new Neural Network with Fuzzy Technique, Disease diagnosis, A Case study,Dept. of
Computer Science & Engg.,International Islamic University-Dhaka
[3] Holmstr,M. L. Koinstinen P, [1992],using Additive Noise in Backpropagation Training,IEEE Transaction on
Neural Networks,pp 24-38,vol 3No. 1
[4] K.K.Shukla,Raghunath,[1999],An Efficient Global Algorithm for Supervised Training of Neural
Networks,International Journal of Computers and EE,PERGAMON Press,25,pp 195-218
[5] R. Brause, F Friedrich[2000],A Neuro Fuzzy Approach as Medical Diagnostic Interface,pp 201-206
[6] S Moein,a Monadjemi[2006],A Novel Fuzzy-Neural Based Medical Diagnosis System,volume 1, Number 3
[7] V.S. Kodogiannis,MBoulougoura[2007], An Adaptive NeuroFuzzy Approach for the Diagnosis in Wireless
Capsule endoscopy Imaging,International Journal of Information Technology,Vol. 13 No. 1
[8] Werbos Paul J. [1990], Back propagation through time: what it does and how to do
it,Proceeding of the
IEEE,78,1550-1559.
[9] Yang CC[1998],The use of back propagation neural network for the sim. & analysis of time series data
,Transcations of the ASAE,41,1181-1187
Page 32
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we proposed a new architecture of multiplier-and-accumulator (MAC) for high-speed arithmetic. By combining
multiplication with accumulation and devising a hybrid type of ripple carry adder (RCA), the performance was improved. Since
the accumulator that has the largest delay in MAC was merged into RCA, the overall performance was elevated. Radix 4
modified Booth algorithms can be utilized for reduction of the partial products. The parallel multiplier like radix 4 modified
booth multiplier accomplishes the computations utilizing fewer adders and less iterative steps. Based on the simplification of
addition operation and power reduction property in ripple carry adder (RCA),a low power radix 4 modified booth multiplier is
proposed, compared with the radix 4 modified booth multiplier using carry look ahead adder(CLA),the experimental result
shows that our propose design has reduce the Delay of circuit to 6.21 % using RCA, Area has estimated as 947 which was 1141
when designed with CLA Adder.
Keywords: Booth multiplier, Low power, Modified Booth Multiplier, Multiplication, Partial Product Generation
(PPG), RCA, VHDL.
1. INTRODUCTION
With the recent rapid advances in multimedia and communication systems, real-time signal processing like audio
signal processing, video/image processing, or large-capacity data processing are increasingly being demanded. The
multiplier and multiplier-and-accumulator (MAC) [1] are the essential elements of the digital signal processing such as
filtering, convolution, and inner products. The energy efficient digital signal processing (DSP) modules are becoming
increasingly important in wireless sensor networks, where from tens to thousands of battery-operated micro sensor
nodes are deployed remotely and used to relay sensing data to the end-user in these application/systems, a multiplier is
a fundamental arithmetic unit and widely used in circuits. The speed of multiply operation is of great importance in
digital signal processing as well as in the general purpose processors today, especially since the media processing took
off. In the past multiplication was generally implemented via a sequence of addition, subtraction, and shift operations.
Multiplication can be considered as a series of repeated additions. The number to be added is the multiplicand, the
number of times that it is added is the multiplier, and the result is the product. Each step of addition generates a partial
product. In most computers, the operand usually contains the same number of bits. When the operands are interpreted
as integers, the product is generally twice the length of operands in order to preserve the information content. This
repeated addition method that is suggested by the arithmetic definition is slow that it is almost always replaced by an
algorithm that makes use of positional representation. It is possible to decompose multipliers into two parts. The first
part is dedicated to the generation of partial products, and the second one collects and adds them. Booth multiplication
is used greatly to increase the speed of the multiplier by encoding the numbers that are multiplied.
This is a standard technique used in chip design and provides significant improvements over the long multiplication
technique. In the conventional multiplier, the number of partial products to be added are determined by the number of
bits the multiplier or multiplicand being used. The bigger the number of bits the multiplicand or the multiplier contain,
the longer time it takes to produce the product. The delay of multiplier is determined largely by the number of partial
products to be added. One of the most popular algorithms used to reduce the number of partial products is Booth
Encoding multiplier. Booth Encoding multiplication is able to reduce the number of partial products being encoded to
increase the speed of the binary multiplications. Radix-4 Booth Encoding multiplier reduces the number of partial
products by half, N/2. [2] This is able to increase the time of compression and contribute to an increase in speed. [3] It
was then taken a step further in this analysis by designing and synthesizing Radix-8 Booth Encoding multiplier, Radix16 Booth Encoding multiplier and Radix-32 Booth Encoding multiplier to determine if the speed reduces or the area
increases as the higher the radix-based multiplier designs are. The number of partial products reduces as the Radixbased Booth Encoding multipliers increase higher. Radix-8 Booth Encoding multiplier will encounter a reduction of
Page 33
N/3 in the partial products while Radix-16 Booth Encoding multiplier reduces its number of partial product by N/4.
Radix-32 Booth Encoding multiplier reduces the number of partial products even more by a reduction of N/5. The
algorithm to produce the partial products gets a lot more complicated as the higher the Radix-based Booth Encoding
multiplier.
In booth multiplier the number of summands is reduced by recording the multiplier bit into groups that select multiplies
of multiplicand. From the basics of Booth Multiplication it can be proved that the addition/subtraction operation can be
skipped if the successive bits in the multiplicand are same. To achieve high performance, the modified Booth encoding
which reduces the number of partial products by a factor of two through performing the multiplier recoding has been
widely adopted in parallel multipliers. The multiplication operations have the fixed-width property. That is, their input
data and output results have the same bit width. For example, the (2W - 1)-bit product obtained from W-bit
multiplicand and W-bit multiplier is quantized to W-bits by eliminating the (W - 1 ) least-significant bits (LSBs). In
typical fixed-width multipliers, the adder cells required for the computation of the (W - 1) LSBs are omitted and
appropriate biases are introduced to the retained adder cells. The hardware complexity reduction and power saving can
be achieved by directly removing the adder cells of standard multiplier. Due to this a huge truncation error will be
introduced. To effectively reduce the truncation error, various error compensation methods, which add estimated
compensation value to the carry inputs of the reserved adder cells. The error compensation value can be produced by
the constant scheme or the adaptive scheme. The adaptive error compensation approaches are developed only for fixedwidth array multipliers and cannot be applied to significantly reduce the truncation error of fixed-width modified Booth
multipliers directly. To overcome this problem, several error compensation approaches have been proposed to
effectively reduce the truncation error of fixed-width modified Booth multipliers. To obtain better error performance
with a simple error compensation circuit, Booth encoded outputs are utilized to generate the error compensation value.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Young-Ho Seo and Dong-Wook Kim has designed proposed a new architecture of multiplier-and-accumulator (MAC)
for high-speed arithmetic. By combining multiplication with accumulation and devising a hybrid type of carry save
adder (CSA), the performance was improved. Since the accumulator that has the largest delay in MAC was merged into
CSA, the overall performance was elevated.
Now, this paper, a new architecture for a high-speed MAC is proposed. In this MAC, the computations of
multiplication and accumulation are combined and a hybrid-type CSA structure is proposed to reduce the critical path
and improve the output rate. It uses MBA algorithm based on 1s complement number system. A modified array
structure for the sign bits is used to increase the density of the operands. A carry look-ahead adder (CLA) is inserted in
the CSA tree to reduce the number of bits in the final adder. In addition, in order to increase the output rate by
optimizing the pipeline efficiency, intermediate calculation results are accumulated in the form of sum and carry
instead of the final adder outputs. Zn = -2* Bn+1 + Bn + Bn-1, PPG is the combination circuit of the product generator
and the 5 to 1 MUX circuit. Product generator is designed to produce the product by multiplying the multiplicand A by
0, 1, - 1, 2 or -2. A 5 to 1 MUX is designed to determine which product is chosen depending on the M, 2M, 3M control
signal which is generated from the MBE. Now, for product generator, multiply by zero means the multiplicand is
multiplied by 0.Multiply by 1 means the product still remains the same as the multiplicand value. Multiply by -1
means that the product is the two's complement form of the number. Multiply by -2 is to be shifted left one bit the
two's complement of the multiplicand value and multiply by 2 means just shift left the multiplicand by only one
place. In this paper, a new MAC architecture to execute the multiplication- accumulation operation, which is the key
operation, for digital signal processing and multimedia information processing efficiently, was proposed. By removing
the independent accumulation process that has the largest delay and merging it to the compression process of the
partial products, the overall MAC performance has been improved almost twice as much as in the previous work.
Shaikh Kalisha Baba and D.Rajaramesh has design and implementation of Advanced Modified Booth Encoding
(AMBE) multiplier for both signed and unsigned 32 - bit numbers multiplication. The already existed Modified Booth
Encoding multiplier and the Baugh-Wooley multiplier perform multiplication operation on signed numbers only.
Whereas the array multiplier and Braun array multipliers perform multiplication operation on unsigned numbers only.
Thus, the requirement of the modern computer system is a dedicated and very high speed unique multiplier unit for
signed and unsigned numbers. Therefore, this paper presents the design and implementation of AMBE multiplier. The
modified Booth Encoder circuit generates half the partial products in parallel. By extending sign bit of the operands
and generating an additional partial product the AMBE multiplier is obtained. The Carry Save Adder (CSA) tree and
the final Carry Look ahead (CLA) adder used to speed up the multiplier operation. Since signed and unsigned
multiplication operation is performed by the same multiplier unit the required hardware and the chip area reduces and
this in turn reduces power dissipation and cost of a system. The high speed Booth multipliers and pipelined Booth
multipliers are used for digital signal processing (DSP) applications such as for multimedia and communication
systems. High speed DSP computation applications such as Fast Fourier transform (FFT) require additions and
multiplications. The conventional modified Booth encoding (MBE) generates an irregular partial product array because
of the extra partial product bit at the least significant bit position of each partial product row. The requirement of the
Page 34
modern computer system is a dedicated and very high speed multiplier unit that can perform multiplication operation
on signed as well as unsigned numbers. In this paper they designed and implemented a dedicated multiplier unit that
can perform multiplication operation on both signed and unsigned numbers, and this multiplier is called as AMBE
multiplier. The main goal of this paper is to design and implement 3232 multiplier for signed and unsigned numbers
using MBE technique. Using the MBE logic and considering other conditions the Boolean expression for one bit partial
product generator. The SUMBE multiplier does not separately consider the encoder and the decoder logic, but instead
implemented as a single unit called partial product generator. The negative partial products are converted into 2 s
complement by adding a negate (Ni) bit. The required signed extension to convert 2s complement signed multiplier
into both signed-unsigned multipliers.
In this paper, they present a 32-bit32-bit advanced multiplier capable of carrying out both signed and unsigned
operations. The proposed novel unified signed/unsigned multiplier was optimized in terms of speed, power
consumption and silicon area by exploiting more regular partial product array, developing more efficient compression
methods and combining several types of fast adders.
3. METHODOLOGY
Multipliers are important operands and utilize in high-speed low-power systems where a large amount of information is
to be calculated. The modified Booth algorithm reduces the number of partial products by half. The modified Booth
encoding (MBE) scheme is known as the most efficient Booth encoding and decoding scheme. To multiply,
multiplicand X by multiplier Y using the modified Booth algorithm. First group the multiplier bits Y by three
bits and encoding into one of {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2}. Prior to convert the multiplier, a zero is appended into the Least
Significant Bit (LSB) of the multiplier. Table I shows the rules to generate the encoded signals by MBE scheme and
Fig. 1 shows the corresponding logic diagram. The Booth decoder generates the partial products using the encoded
signals as shown in Fig. 2.
In an n-bit modified Booth multiplier, the number of Booth encoders is n/2 and the number of partial product generator
(PPG) circuits is approximately n2, hence power consumption and die area in the Booth section is dominated by PPG.
So, integration of PPG (Booth Decoder) section is more important than Booth encoder (BE) block. The conventionally
used modified Booth selector computes the partial product of jth bit and ith row by using the equation1.
PPij = (Xj. X1_2+Xj-1.X1_1) XOR Neg
(1)
Where Xj and Xj-1 are the multiplicand inputs of weight 2j and 2j-1 respectively, X1_2 and X1_1 determine whether
the multiplicand should be doubled or not and Neg is a digit which determines if the multiplicand should be inverted or
not. Booth recoding is fully parallel and carry free. It can be applied to design a tree and array multiplier, where all the
multiples are needed at once. Radix-4 Booth recoding system works perfectly for both signed and unsigned operations.
Page 35
Proposed Methodology:
As it has been found that, Booth Wallace multiplier is most efficient among all, giving optimum delay, with lesser
power and small chip area for multiplication. Therefore the proposed design for low power high speed Booth multiplier
and its implementation on reconfigurable hardware will utilize the carry ripple adder along with the booth s
algorithm to accomplish the goal.
4. RESULT
Xilinx 13.1i ISE Simulator has been used to simulate the proposed methodology of multiplication of two 8 bit numbers
using Radix-4 modified Booths algorithm. The device used by the simulator is XC3S50 of Spartan3 family with the
speed of -5 which is shown in Fig. 4
The comparison of the synthesis report of the former results from radix 2 booth multiplier using carry look ahead adder
(CLA) and the proposed delay radix 4 booth multiplier using on chip ripple carry adder (RCA) are summarized in the
table below:
Page 36
The multiplication operation is performed in many fragments of a digital system or digital computer. Radix_4 modified
Booth algorithm can be utilized for reduction of the partial products. The parallel multiplier like radix 4 modified booth
multiplier accomplishes the computations utilizing fewer adders and less iterative steps.
Based on the simplification of addition operation and power reduction property in ripple carry adder(RCA),a minimum
delay radix 4 modified booth multiplier is proposed, compared with the radix 4 modified booth multiplier using carry
look ahead adder(CLA),the experimental result shows that our propose design has reduce the delay to 6.21 % using
RCA, Area has estimated as 947 which was 1141 when designed with CLA Adder.
Page 37
Figure below shows the RTL schematic of the multiplier using the on chip ripple carry adder for the radix 4 booth
multiplier.
5. CONCLUSION
The radix 4 modified booth multipliers using RCA is realized in the VHDL. The analysis shows that time delay
proposed by modified Booths multipliers using RCA is 6.21 ns as compared to the radix 2 Booths multiplier using
CLA which is 28.6 ns. The power occurred is also less as compared to the conventional Booths multiplier.
Table 4.Comparision of CLA & RCA properties
Page 38
REFERENCES
[1] J.J.F. Cavanagh, Digital Computer Arithmetic. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.
[2] Behrooz Parhami, Computer Arithmetic: Algorithms and Hardware Designs, Oxford New York, Oxford
University Press, New York, 2000.
[3] C. N.Marimuthu, P. Thangaraj, Anna University, India, Low Power High Performance Multiplier, ICGSTPDCS International Conference on Computer Science and Engineering, 2008.
[4] William J. Dally and Steve Lac, "VLSI Architecture: Past, Present, and Future", 20th International Conference on
VLSI Design, IEEE, 2005.
[5] Power Simulation and Estimation in VLSI Circuits .University of Southern California Department of EE Systems
Los Angeles CA.
[6] Dhireesha Kudithipudi and Eugene John, "Implementation of Low Power Digital Multipliers Using 10 Transistor
Adder Blocks", IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits, Volume 32 , no 12, November 1997.
[7] Poornimam, Shivrajkumar Patil, Shivukumar, Shridhar K. P., Sanjay H., "Implementation of Multiplier using
Vedic Algorithm" IJITEE, volume 2 ,issue 6,may 2013.
[8] Kripa Mathew, S. Asha Latha, T. Ravi, E. Logashanmugam, "Design and Analysis of an Array Multiplier Using
an Area Efficient Full Adder Cell in 32nm CMOS Technology", The International Journal Of Engineering And
Science (Ijes), Volume2, Issue 3,Pages 8-16,2013.
[9] Mr.M.V. Sathish, Mrs. Sailaja, "Vlsi architecture of parallel multiplier accumulator based on radix-2 modified
booth algorithm", International Conference on Field Programmable Logic and Application, 2005.
[10] S. Kiruthika1, R.Nirmal Kumar, Dr S.Valarmathy," Comparative Analysis of 4-Bit Multipliers Using Low Power
8-Transistor Full Adder Cells", International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering ,
Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013.
[11] Ankit Jairath, Puneet Namdeo ,"Low Power VLSI Techniques Using Booth Algorithm for Digital Filter for
Hearing aid Applications" International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT) Volume 1,
Issue 2, February 2011 .
[12] Vasudev G. and Rajendra Hegadi," Design and Development of 8-Bits Fast Multiplier for LowPower
Applications", Member, IACSITIACSIT International Journal of Engineering and Technology, Vol. 4, No. 6,
December 2012.
[13] Lakhvinder Kaur, Parminder Singh Jassal," Synthesis And Simulation Of 8x8-Bit Modified Booth s Multiplier",
International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) Vol. 1 Issue 8, October - 2012.
[14] Young-Ho Seo, Dong-Wook Kim, A New VLSI Architecture of Parallel MultiplierAccumulator Based on Radix2 Modified Booth Algorithm IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI)
SYSTEMS, VOL. 18, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2010.
[15] Shaik.Kalisha Baba, D.Rajaramesh , "Design and Implementation of Advanced Modified Booth Encoding
Multiplier", International Journal of Engineering Science Invention Volume 2 Issue 8 ,August. 2013 , PP.60-68.
[16] Kavita , Jasbir Kaur, "Design and Implementation of an Efficient Modified Booth Multiplier using VHDL",
Special Issue: Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Management,
ICETEM 2013.
AUTHOR
Gaurav Pohane received the B.E. degrees in Electrical and Tele Communication Engineering From
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University in 2006, respectively. Pursuing M.Tech in VLSI.
Page 39
Wind Energy Department/ Renewable Energy Directorate/ Ministry of Science and Technology, Iraq
2.
Wind Energy Department/ Renewable Energy Directorate/ Ministry of Science and Technology, Iraq
3.
Wind Energy Department/ Renewable Energy Directorate/ Ministry of Science and Technology, Iraq
ABSTRACT
The development and sitting of wind energy conversion systems for electrical power generation and other applications
in any site demands proper wind resource assessment of the project sites. This paper presents an assessment of wind resource
for wind energy utilization in Al-Shehabi location. The wind data were obtained from weather station installed atthe location.
Then, Mathematical equationisused to get logarithmic profile at different heights. A contour map is drawn in 3D shape mode to
get deep insite and general thought about the topographic shape surface. Weibull probability distribution function is
calculated and plotted in order to assess mean wind speed, annual energy and Weibull parameters. Also,wind rose, speed rose
and energy rose are included in this calculations.Finally, a wind resource map of 1km x 1km for interested areais drawn
atGamesa G114wind turbine with hub heights of 120m and114m rotor diameter is chosen determine the output energy.Wind
data analysis is performed for the proposed site using WAsP software, for data recorded at 10m height. The results show that
the mean power density about 168 W/m2, as a class-3 and satisfactory wind resource.
1. INTRODUCTION
The most important factor in wind energy project is a wind turbine site and predicting the economic success ofthe
project. Understanding the wind resource is especially critical as the energy available in the wind varies as the cube of
the wind speed. The wind is highly variable, both geographically and locally. Wind resource assessment is the most
important step in planning a community wind project because it is the basis for determining initial feasibility and cash
flow projections, and is ultimately vital for acquiring financing. Initial assessment of the site is fairly simple in most
states with publicly available high resolution wind resource data. Recent advances in computer modeling and the
internet have made public wind data sources easily accessible.
Wind Atlas Analysis and Application (WAsP) is the most-commonly used modeling software for predicting wind
climates and power productions from wind turbines. This model based on the wind atlas methodology; it calculates a
wind atlas or regional wind climate based on measured wind data. The regional wind climate represents the raw
wind data as a wind climate over an ideal terrain (perfectly flat with uniform surface roughness) to remove local
terraineffects.This process can be reversed to determine the wind climate at anothersite usingthe wind atlas[1]. Wind
assessment software packages use statistical methods to represent the wind speed and direction, as a Weibull
distribution and wind rose, respectively[2].
Ten minutes interval records for one year had been studied at different heights (10,25,50,100,200). The WAsP has been
used to determine the Weibull Parameters, which are estimating the wind speed and wind potential. The wind power
(P) is proportional to the third power of the wind speed (U), or[3]-[4]:
(1)
where is the air density, Ar is the swept area. Then, it is necessary to determine the value of the wind speed for power
density calculations. Weibull distribution functions where used to simulate the frequency wind speed which is
represented by the equation below[5]:
(2)
Page 40
Where, A, is the scale parameter has the same wind speed unit and K is the dimensionless shape parameter. These
parameters are estimated by different mathematical approaches. One of the simplest techniques needs to know U and ,
where U , is the mean value of wind speed, and is the standard deviation, then K and A parameter can be represented
by the following equation as[6]-[7]:
2. AREA OF STUDY
The feasibility and applicability of wind energy development depends on the physical characteristics of the study area
and the wind resource. The region is located in the area between Maysan and Wasit. It is 112 km from Maysan, 85
km from Wasit, and about 220 km from Baghdad at position 32.77N 46.70 E; Figure. 1 shows the location of
chosen site in eastern region near the border between Iraq and Iran.
3.METHODOLOGY
For any wind resource assessment, the wind speed and direction must be measured, andthis often involves erecting a
metrological mast (met mast) at a desired location, with instruments located at least one year for continuous wind
measurements at the site. Datawas obtained by cup anemometer at (10m) height throughout the year 2013. The first
step in analyzing a site with WAsP is to create an observed wind climate file (OWC). A separate tool, the OWC
Wizard, can create a statistical summary to a sites wind climate based on a time-series of wind measurements. Using
description of the topography and surface roughnesswhichround the place measurement siteto convert the OWC into a
wind atlas. This data is site-independent in a limited region surrounding the observation site.The wind atlas data set
can be usedthen to deduce the wind climate at a specific site, using the descriptions of the terrain at the new site. The
respective topography/roughness map was inserted, as well as a new wind atlas.The OWC then added to this wind
atlas. After calculations, it was then possible to export a wind atlas. With the wind atlases and maps created, it was
then possible to start the WAsP wind speedpredictions. The wind turbine selected for this study was a GamesaG114
with 2MW of installed power with rotor diameter of 114 m, cut-in wind speed of 3 m/s, and cut-out wind speed of 25
m/s and swept area 10.207 m2. The methodology of this research is summarized in the diagram that has been shown in
figure2.
Page 41
Figure4Weibull distribution
Page 42
Figure 5 shows the frequency rosefor the measured wind speed data,velocity rose and energy rose.
Figure 5Represent frequency rose (left), velocity rose (middle), energy rose (right)
The mean wind speed estimation for the studied area at 120 m hub height can be shown in figure 6, for the 12 sector,
which is varies between 7.83 to 8.00m/s.
Figure 7 presents the power density P (W/m2) of the wind for all 12 sector and it is vary between 633 to 592 W/m2 and
the mean value U is 614 W/m2 at 120 m hub height.Scale parameter A is 9 m/s and shape parameter K is 1.90. The
Annual Energy Production (AEP) was calculated and present in figure 8,which varies between 9.890 to 9.715GWh
with the mean value 9.805GWh.
Figure7Power density
Figure8AEP
Sector-wise Weibull distributions for roughness length 0.03 mare calculated at five heights (10,25,50,100,200) m for
each sector.
Table1: Present the statistics for each sector included mean wind speed (U), power density (P), Scale parameter (A)
and shape parameter (K) at five heights and 0.03 surface roughness
Page 43
5.CONCLUSION
The data presently available from ongoing measurements in Al-Shehabi stationhave been analyzed and evaluation
made with the wind resourceestimation program WAsP. Wind speed is the most critical variable in determining the
plant output, but no single wind speed can adequately represent the wind conditions for the entire wind plant.
Measurements of a station have been used for the evaluation. It was found that the output power from Al-Shehabi site is
considered as satisfactory -class 3. Thus, this location could be ideal for generating wind power because of reliable
speed of the wind. At the hub height of120 m, the estimated average wind speed is determinedto be 7.96 m/s, and the
maximum amount of wind power density iscalculated to be 624 W/m2.
REFERENCES
[1] Mortensen NG, Heathfield DN, Myllerup L, Landberg L, Rathmann (2004). Wind AtlasAnalysis and Application
Program: Getting Started with WAsP. Ris National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark.
[2] Saleh M. Ali, Auday H. Shaban, Ali K. Resen(2014), Wind Power Estimation for Al-Hay (Iraq), Iraqi journal of
Science, Vol 55, No4B, pp1997.
[3] E. Hau and H. von Renouard(2013).Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics:
Springer.
[4] A. D. Sahin, Ed.(2006).Renewable Energies (Lecture Notes of the International Advanced Course on Renewable
Energies, Istanbul, Turkey.
[5] R. O. Fagbenle, et al., "Assessment of wind energy potential of two sites in North-East, Nigeria," Renewable
Energy, vol. 36, pp. 1277-1283, 2011.
[6] K. Sukkiramathi, et al.(2014). "A Study of Weibull Distribution to Analyze the Wind Speed at Jogimatti in India,"
vol. 1.
[7] S. A. Akda and A. Dinler (2009). "A new method to estimate Weibull parameters for wind energy applications,"
Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 50, pp. 1761-1766.
AUTHORS
ALI. K. Resen received the B.Sc. degree in Science of Physics from Al-Mustansriyah University in
2002 and M.Sc. degree in Physics (Remote Sensing and Image Processing) in 2014 from Baghdad
University. During 2003-2015, he stayed in Ministry of Science and Technology , Iraq, to study GIS,
Remote Sensing, Renewable Energy ( Wind and Solar Energy) .
Dr. Firas Abdulrazzaq Hadi received the B.Sc. in Science of Physics and M.Sc. in Astronomy
(Image Processing ), then Ph.D. in Physics from Al-Nahrain University in 2015. During 2003-2015,
he stayed in Ministry of Science and Technology , Iraq, to study GIS, Remote Sensing, also Wind
energy.
Khalid Sami Heni received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Science of Physics from Baghdad University in
1999 and 2002 respectively. During 2002-2015, he stayed in Ministry of Science and Technology ,
Iraq, to study Renewable Energy , Wind energy.
Page 44
ABSTRACT
Teaching Learning process is the heart of the education system. Quality education is an absolute necessity at every level of
society. Teaching methodology is an important aspect for the growth of any technical institute. Quality teaching plays an
important role in achieving Academic Excellence and provides a competitive edge so that the students can qualify for jobs in
the best Companies of the World. It is very challenging and complex task to evaluate the factors affecting the quality of
teaching in Technical Institutes. This paper provides a frame work and a system to the educational policy makers and
performance monitoring committee for designing a standard multiple performance measurement tool for evaluating an
comparing the quality of teaching in Technical Institute. In this paper Analytical hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied to develop
the relationship among performance measurement criteria, driving their respective weights and rank with respect to prescribed
criteria. We focus on four technical institutes, were subjected to five criterions and fifteen sub criterions.
Keywords: Analytical hierarchy Process (AHP), Decision making, Technical education, Performance measurement
criteria.
1.INTRODUCTION
Technical Education plays a vital role in human resource development of the country by creating skilled manpower,
enhancing industrial productivity and improving the quality of life of its people. Education is recognized to be
primarily a process of getting student to absorb new ideas and ways of thinking to prepare an individual for life. Due to
globalization we need more and more technical man power of high quality in industries research centers and
institutions, the number of technical institutions are increasing exponentionally under the govt. efforts of liberalization
and reform of higher technical education to make India the largest English speaking technical man power of the world.
Industry is becoming more competitive locally as well as globally and for that we need higher number of technical man
power at all levels. For this improvement, the quality of teaching in technical institutes is must and is a need of hour.
In this article, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is being studied as simple and useful managerial tool for multicriteria decision-making. In a way it is better than other multi-criteria techniques, as it is designed to incorporate
tangible as well as non-tangible factors especially where the subjective judgments of different individuals constitute an
important part of decision making (Saaty, 1980). Apart from other facts, this is rooted in the special structure of the
AHP, which follows the intuitive way in which managers solve problems, and in its easy handling compared with other
multi criteria decision-making procedures.
AHP uses a five-step process to solve decision problems. They are
Create a decision hierarchy by breaking down the problem into a hierarchy of decision elements.
Collect input by a pair wise comparison of decision elements.
Determine whether the input data satisfies a consistency test. If it does not, go back to Step 2 and redo the pair wise
comparisons.
Calculate the relative weights of the decision elements.
Aggregate the relative weights to obtain scores and hence rankings for the decision alternatives.
Evaluation Framework
Unprecedented growth in engineering education Institutes in India in the last decade led to the complex issues. The
main issues were that of maintaining the Teaching provided by these institutes. Many reasons are pointed out as the
cause of this situation. Education is a service industry, and are placing greater emphasis on meeting the expectation and
need of their participating customer, that is ,students. The Quality of Teaching in any Institute is likely to be influenced
by many factors out of which five were selected, some of are selected by according to AICTE and NBA norms
i) Faculty
ii) Teaching Methodology
iii) Laboratories/Practical Skills
iv) Teaching Resources
v) Supplementary Process
These five criterions are further divided into 15 sub criterion which is investigated further.
Page 45
Faculty
The most important component that goes into making a good institution is a good faculty, its qualifications. How many
are Ph.ds. How many are having M.tech. The better the faculty better should be the research output. Doing research
keeps a teacher up-to-date on the area, and makes his/her understanding of the subject better. This can help the quality
of teaching. And Its knowledge benefits to the students. Experience and well qualified faculty play an important role in
development of students and research activities which lead to the development of Technical Institutes.
Teaching Methodology
It includes:
i).Interactive method of teaching (IMT)/ presentation method of teaching (PMT) through Questions and answers,
Discussions, Exchange of thoughts. Teaching through- telling, explaining, describing, numerating, narrating,
showing, demonstrating, dramatizing
ii) Guided Project & Case Study: Introducing Practical Design Experience and Real Life Scenarios into the
classrooms
iii) Co-operative Learning/ Tutorial: It is instruction that involves students working in teams to accomplish an
assigned task and produce a final product (e.g., a problem solution, critical analysis, laboratory report, product
design)
Laboratories/ Practical skills
An important challenge of technical education is to integrate the acquisition of domain specific knowledge and skills
and further to encourage student top apply their knowledge to solve problem and to tackle problems at higher levels
So the qualification and skills of supporting staff help the students to improve the practical knowledge.
Engineering student must have a knowledge of nature that goes beyond mere theory knowledge that is traditionally
gained in educational laboratories so Good institute must have well equipped laboratories with modern facilities and
also to update/maintain equipment in laboratories.
Teaching Resources
An Institution must have Library, Digital library, Journals, well equipped laboratories and workshop, availabilities of
teaching aids like LCD projector, OHP, seminar halls conference room and last but not least advance computing
Facilities. These facilities are initial prerequisite for any technical institution which must be present to ensure proper
functioning of Technical Institution. Journal gives you a space to generate teaching ideas, work out pedagogical
problems, reflect on your successes and struggles in the classroom, and put your past insights to work in planning
future courses. Consequently,
Students rarely get a chance to generate their own meanings as they read and compose from their own thoughts as they
write. Reading journals help the students to discover their own paper topics in the connections that keep appearing in
the right-hand section of these notebooks.
Supplementary Process
Seminars offer you an interactive environment where you can learn from experts, practice with peers, and receive
employer tips. Seminars and workshops provide real learning value for students. The seminar helps you start building
your career plan. Because there is such a wide range of possible jobs, companies and industries to work in, this seminar
helps you search for your own career path.
Industry visits sensitize students to the practical challenges that organizations face in the business world. Industrial
visits also give greater clarity about various management concepts for students as they can practically see how these
concepts are put into action as well as useful information related to the practical aspects of the educational course
which cannot be visualized in lectures.
Research and Development (R&D) is a key element of any organizations. R & D helps building product indigenously
and progressively grows to build an ecosystem and institutional framework for innovation, technology development,
skills, delivery plans, and market orientation in a number of niche areas of national importance and market relevance.
The other importance of R&D is to generate quality manpower and develop skilled professionals
Analytic Hierarchy Process
AHP is a mathematical technique used for multi-criteria decision-making. In a way it is better than other multi-criteria
techniques, as it is designed to incorporate tangible as well as non-tangible factors especially where the subjective
judgments of different individuals constitute an important part of decision making (Saaty, 1980). Apart from other
facts, this is rooted in the special structure of the AHP, which follows the intuitive way in which managers solve
problems, and in its easy handling compared with other multi criteria decision-making procedures. Hence the
intuitively solved decision problems can now be solved as procedure-orientated using AHP. The use of AHP leads to
both, more transparency of the quality of management decisions and an increase in the importance of AHP (Ossadnik
W& Lange O, 1999). The stages of AHP are described below:
A.Structuring the decision hierarchy
Firstly, the decision points are determined. Then, the factors influencing a decision are described. The number of
decision points is shown with m and the factors affecting
the decision points are presented with n.
Page 46
Page 47
So the decision team has been formed which consist of authors of paper 05 pass out students, 05 Assistant professor and
02 Director of different Institutes. Our study investigates 15 Evaluation Criterion under the 05 main sections and then
makes a semi fictitious chart. In this firstly, available data are collected from websites of different considered Institute
and unavailable data are making fictitious with the help of Faculty and student of considered Institute. Then with the
help of decision team marked Evaluation criterions out of 10 as shown in Table 2.Now the role of AHP arises the
decision team firstly structured the decision hierarchy and compared the decision criteria with each other using Table 1.
In the comparisons, every factor was compared with the others independently. If the predominance was used in favor of
the base factor, the integer was given. If the predominance was employed in favor of the compared factors, the fraction
was given.
Page 48
Page 49
CR: 0,3402
: 22,5243
The first step would be to define a set in which we list the elements of the selection the set of alternatives from which
we wish to choose the best one for ourselves. Then we define the criteria we will use to compare those alternatives. It is
clear that you, as the decision maker, determine all of this. That fact alone guarantees that the decision will be based on
your preferences. For the explanation of the following steps we will use mathematical language. If n is the number of
criteria or alternatives whose weight (priority, importance) wi should be defined based on the assessment of the values
of their ratios aij = wi/wj. If we form a matrix A from the ratio of their elevant importance aij, in case of consistent
assessments equaling to aij= aik*akj, it will correspond to the equation Aw=nw Matrix A has special characteristics (all
her rows are proportional to the first row, all are positive and aij=1/aji is accurate resulting in only one of its eigen
values being different from 0 and equal to n. If A matrix has inconsistent changes (in praxis that is always the case) the
importance vector w can be calculated by solving the equation (A- I)w=0 The condition: SUM Awi=1 is true, where
max is the biggest eigenvalue of A matrix. Due to the characteristics of the matrix max n, and the subtraction max n
is used in the measuring of the assessment consistency. With a consistency index CI = (max n)/(n-1) we calculate the
consistency ratio CR=CI/RI where RI is a random index (consistency index for the n row matrixes of randomly
generated comparisons in pairs a table with calculated values applies
Value of the random index RI
If CR 0,1000 is true for matrix A the assessments of the relative importance of the criteria ( alternative priorities) are
considered as acceptable. To the contrary, the reasons why the assessment inconsistency is acceptably high must be
investigated.
It will often happen that the consistency ratio exceeds 0,1000. That should only be taken into account as an indicator of
the inconsistency level of your selection. Despite the inconsistency, you will get a suggestion of the best alternative.
Page 50
That is the value of this method. You can always revise the chosen importance intensities and check which alternative
is the best and to what extent compared to the following one.
CI: 0,0386
CR: 0,0433
: 4,1157
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
CI: 0,0246
CR: 0,0276
: 4,0738
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
Page 51
CR: 0,0273
: 4,0729
CI: 0,0148
CR: 0,0166
: 4,0443
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
CI: 0,0245
CR: 0,0276
: 4,0736
CI: 0,0144
CR: 0,0162
: 4,0432
CI: 0,0440
CR: 0,0495
: 4,1321
Page 52
CR: 0,0275
: 4,0735
CI: 0,0245
CR: 0,0275
: 4,0735
CI: 0,0144
CR: 0,0162
: 4,0432
CI: 0,0146
CR: 0,0164
: 4,0437
Table : Results
Page 53
CONCLUSION
The Research effort of this paper is to integrate AHP and factors affecting quality of teaching into the institute driven
course design process. In this paper we have briefly examined the various factors which affect the quality of teaching in
technical education and have categorized them into fifteen sub criteria. A mathematical model has been evolved for the
assessing the effectiveness in terms of these factors. The proposed model can be used to quantify the effectiveness of a
technical institution with very good accuracy. A pair wise comparison method was used to calculate the importance for
each criterion based on semi factious data gather from four technical institutes. Now the experimental results show that
the evaluation for teaching quality based on AHP has excellent results.
REFERENCES
[1] Saaty, T. L., Analytic Hierarchy Process, McGraw Hill, New York, (1980).
[2] Saaty, T. L., Multi-criteria Decision Making: Analytic Hierarchy Process, RWS Publications, Pittsburgh, (1990).
[3] Armacost, R.L., Identification of Determinant Attributes Using The Analytic Hierarchy Process, Journal of
Academy of Marketing Science, 22: 383 (1994).
[4] Namish Mehta Evaluating performance of technical institute using analytic hierarchy process, International
Journal on Emerging Technologies 1(2): 91-99(2010)
[5] Li Qing-jiang Evaluation for Teaching Quality of University Based on AHP 2012 International Conference on
Convergence Information Technology Lecture Notes in Information Technology, Vol.19
[6] http://www.123ahp.com/Medjurezultat.aspx
Page 54
Research Scholar, Dept of Computer Science & Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha University, Thandalam,Chennai 602105, India.
2
Professor & Head, Dept of Computer Science & Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha University,Thandalam,Chennai 602105,India.
ABSTRACT
Bitter gourd plant is affected by various diseases at different stages of growth. The aim of this paper is to detect the disease
early by analyzing the color Image of leaves. The images of bitter gourd leaves are taken using high resolution digital
camera.RGB, HSI and HSV values are separated from healthy and disease leaves and stored in database. These stored values
are compared with the values of test leaves .The analysis of these values will help to detect the disease early at that stage.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bittergourd often known as Morodica Charantia is a vegetable fruit used as food and medicine.It is considered as the
most bitter among all fruits and vegetables.The plant thrives in tropical and subtropical regions.Bitter gourd has
different varieties.Out of all we are using the priyanka variety for our study as it is widely grown in Southern
India.These crops can be grown in areas of low temperature as well as areas with high rainfall.The diseases commonly
affecting bittergourd are Alternaria Blight ,Anthracnose, collor rot, powdery mildew, fusarium wilt, Dowmey mildew
and mosaic[1,3]. Alternaria Blight is widely seen in South India, this study includes its early detection in flowering
stage. In this disease,the leaves developed brown spot over its surface[4]. Figures 1and 2 shows the image of healthy
and diseased leafs. As the disease progress the size, shape and color of the leaf changes continuously, causing decreased
production of bitter gourd in flowering stage. Basic diagnosis of the disease still depends on human expertise, but for
accurate and consistent measurement of disease image processing is needed.This study focuses on early detection of
disease in flowering stage using the images in various stages, thus helping to increase the production of bitter gourd.
2. MATERIALS
AND METHODS
Page 55
(2)
Z=z/X+Y+Z
(3)
From these equation x+y+z =1 The color composition as a function of x(red),y(green)and z(blue).
Z=1-(x+y)
(4)
Y=1-(x+z)
(5)
X=1-(y+z)
(6)
(1)
360 if B G
R G R B
2
cos
R G 2 ( R B )(G B )
1
2
(2)
3
min( R, G, B)
( R G B)
(3)
(4)
(2)
Page 56
max R
max min
(3)
G1
max G
max min
(4)
B1
max B
max min
(5)
If saturation, S,is O (zero) then has is undefined (ie the color has no has therefore it is monochrome) other wise
then, If R = max and G =min
H= 5+B
(6)
H = 1-G
(7)
(8)
(9)
H=3+G
(10)
else if R=max
otherwise
H=5-R
(11)
Hue, H, is then converted to degrees by multiplying by 60 giving HSV with S and V between 0 and 1 and H between 0
and 360.
Page 57
4. RESULT
In Normal Leafs RGB color model, the minimum value for R component obtained is 47pixel and the maximum value
is 255 pixel. The minimum value for G component obtained is 51 pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel. The
minimum value for B component obtained is 16 pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel.The minimum value for V
component obtained is 0.26 pixel and the maximum value is 1 pixel.The minimum value for I component obtained is
0.15 pixel and the maximum value is 1 pixel.In Diseased Leave RGB color model, the minimum value for R
component obtained is 26pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel. The minimum value for G component obtained is
30 pixel and the maximum value is 255 pixel. The minimum value for B component obtained is 11 pixel and the
maximum value is 255 pixel. The minimum value for V component obtained is 0.20 pixel and the maximum value is 1
pixel. The minimum value for I component obtained is 0.11 pixel and the maximum value is 1 pixel. The values are as
shown in Table 1.
Flowering stage leaves are identified and 15 leaves are randomly selected.The images are extracted using MATLAB as
shown in fig 4 and fig 5. The values of image are extracted as shown in the table2.The values were compared and it
was found that 2 leaves were not affected and remaining all other leaves were affected. The percentage of disease
affected is shown in the diagram 1.
Table 1. The minimum and maximum value of Healthy and Diseased leafs
Page 58
5. LIMITATIONS
The presence of raindrops over leaves can hamper the quality of images also if the atmosphere is cloudy the image
quality differs.A constant image background is needed for quality image.Leaves may acquire different shapes like
wrinkling causing difficulty in straightening and this affects the quality of image.
Page 59
6. CONCLUSION
This result shows that the leaves are gradually affected by disease. The percentage of disease affected is different in
each leaf. Five leaves are affected below 50 percentage diseases and nine leaves are above50 percentage.So remedial
measure can be taken at the appropriate time. This system helps the farmer to detect the disease early.
REFERENCE
[1] P.V.Balachandran, chief Editor,Package of Practices Recommendations, Kerala Agricultural University Press,
Mannuthy,pp. 173-174,2011.
[2] Rafael C.Gonazalez, Richard E.Woods,2011,Digital Image Processing,Third Edition,India,pp. 403-411.
[3] SamAbraham,Dr.T.SBalaubramanian,Dr.Dhanasekaran,Literature review for the detection of disease in bitter
gourd leaves,Interntional Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering and Management 3(11),2014,50-53.
[4] Production Technologies and Marketing Strategies og vegetable crops of central India,jnkw-vegsoft.com,20082009.
AUTHOR
Sam Abraham received the MTech degrees in Software Engineering from SRM University in 2012.
During 2012-2013, I was working as Assistant Professor in Computer Science and Engineering in
Gnanamani College of Technology, Tamil Nadu. At present, I am doing full time PhD in Computer
Science and Engineering in Saveetha University.
Page 60
Shraddha Mungekar
Dhanashree Toradmalle Assistant Professor, Shah and Anchor Kutchhi Engineering College
ABSTRACT
Software testing is an ongoing activity in a Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). Depending on the SDLC method, testing
will be implemented at any stage. Traditional testing requires dedicated infrastructure and resources which will be used
periodically. Cloud computing is the next stage of internet, leads an opportunity in offering cloud-testing for SaaS application.
This paper provides a comprehensive study on objectives of cloud-testing, traditional testing techniques being adapted for
cloud-testing and advantages of cloud-testing.
1. INTRODUCTION
Software testing is one of the significant activities in SDLC. It is performed to validate the functionality of software
package according to the expectation of user/ customer. In general, software testing is performed within the
organization using an internal infrastructure.
Due to the growing complexity of business applications, it is harder to build and maintain in-house testing facilities
that mimic real-time environment [1]. Creation of new test environment for every single project becomes timeconsuming and delay-prone. Another restriction in traditional test environment is, for some application domains, that
extensive resources are required for testing it. Let us consider some realistic scenario. For eg. In online result checking
process, system accepts millions of requests within a short time interval. Creating such test scenarios requires large test
harness with millions of users. Similarly mobile application providers have to deal with various combinations of
platforms. To ensure reliable service, providers have to test their services on all platforms.
Cloud computing has gained significant attention in last few years. Cloud computing is a set of hardware, network,
storage services and interfaces, which combine to deliver aspects of computing as a service. Cloud computing not only
brings new business opportunities but also causes some major impacts on software testing and maintenance. A major
impact is known as Cloud Testing [2]
2. CLOUD TESTING
Cloud testing is a software testing using cloud computing. According to Wikipedia, "cloud testing is a form of software
testing in which Web applications that leverage Cloud computing environments ("cloud") seek to simulate real-world
user traffic as a means of load testing and stress testing web sites. The ability and costs to simulate Web traffic for
software testing purposes has been an inhibitor to overall Web reliability."[3] Cloud testing is a combination of cloud
and Software as a Service (SaaS). It is an application which provides Testing as a Service(TaaS) through the cloud. The
application which is going to be tested can be located either on cloud or on premise.
Page 61
4. CLOUD-TESTING TYPES
According to the reviews gathered,[4] following are the main testing types provided by cloud testing providers:Unit testing:- Unit testing is also known as component, module and program testing. It can be described as testing of a
function, module or object in isolation from rest of the program.
Integration testing:- Integration testing checks the interfaces between components, interactions with different parts of
a system. In cloud testing, additional integration testing required to check the interconnection between
a) Cloud-based connectivity protocols and APIs crossing clouds.
b) End-to-end application integration which is crossing clouds.
System testing:- System testing techniques is used to prove the systems behaviour within its own boundaries.
Acceptance testing:- Acceptance testing is performed to check the validation and verification of the system
Functional Testing: - Functional testing of both internet and non-internet applications can be performed using cloud
testing. The process of verification against specifications or system requirements is carried out in the cloud, instead of
on-site software testing. [5]
Availability testing:- Cloud testing can check for availability of web-based applications. Web-based application
provider has to ensure that there are no abrupt downtimes.
Non-Functional Testing: - Non-functional testing is done to ensure that an application meets the specified
performance requirements.
Performance Testing:- Performance testing measure response times and isolate issues related to specific steps or
actions while system is subjected to increasing load from different locations and multi user operations.
Load testing: - Load testing is one of the important testing type of cloud testing. Load testing is conducted to
understand the behaviour of the application under a specific expected load. In on-premise automation testing the load
gets generated by the same system.Whereas in cloud-testing, load gets generated by multiple systems which is closer to
the real-time situation.
Stress testing:- Stress test is used to determine ability of application to maintain a certain level of effectiveness beyond
breaking point or maximum expected capacity or beyond the expected usage. It is essential for any application to work
under excessive stress and maintain stability. Stress testing assures this by creating peak loads using simulators. But the
cost of creating such scenarios is enormous in on-premise environment.
Security testing:- Security testing is done to check whether the application is secured or not. It checks to see if the
application is vulnerable to attacks.
5. CLOUD-TESTING ADVANTAGES
Cloud based testing gives following advantages:1. In cloud-based testing, test resources are virtualised hence it provides efficient implementation independent
infrastructure.
2. Test resources will be available on-demand which reduces set-up efforts and cost required for it.
3. Test environment can be scale up or down which helps to optimise the total environment.
4. Testing can be performed on various platforms which give the assurance on product service.
5. Test environment will be readily available and can be easily controlled.
Page 62
6. FUTURE SCOPE
Since we are in the early days of cloud testing, many new testing challenges have yet not been identified. More
innovative techniques are needed to be defined in Cloud-testing. Cloud-testing models need to be derived. QoS
standards need to be defined in cloud-testing.
7. CONCLUSION
Software testing and cloud computing both are likely to be popular fields in near future. Traditional software testing
techniques are being adopted for the cloud. Cloud- testing offers functional as well as non-functional type of testing.
Functional testing considers specified behaviour whereas non-functional testing considers scale of measurement i.e.
Time, Speed etc. An increasing number of organizations are accepting cloud computing as a model to test the
application. With improved interaction between developer and tester teams, we can also expect the applications to
improve in quality.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to sincerely thank Assistant Prof. Dhanashree Toradmalle, Shah and Anchor Kutchhi Engineering
College, Mumbai for her advice and guidance at the start of this article. Her hard work and passion for research also
has set an example that I would like to follow. I really appreciate her interest and enthusiasm during this article.
REFERENCES
[1] Katherine, A. V. & Alagarsamy, K. Conventional Software Testing Vs . Cloud Testing. 3, 15 (2012)
[2] Gao, J., Bai, X. & Tsai, W. Cloud Testing- Issues , Challenges , Needs and Practice. 1, (2015).
[3] Mohata, V. B., Dakhane, D. M. & Pardhi, R. L. Cloud Based Testing : Need of Testing in Cloud Platforms. 2,
369373 (2013).
[4] Inki, K., Ari, I. & Sozer, H. A Survey of Software Testing in the Cloud. 2012 IEEE Sixth International Conference
on Software Security and Reliability Companion 1823 (2012).doi:10.1109/SERE-C.2012.32
[5] Chandane, S. H. New Computing Paradigm: Software Testing in Cloud , Issues , Challenges and Need of Cloud
Testing in today s World. 6875 (2013).
[6] College, P. R. P. ER ER. 2, 17 (2013).
[7] Riungu-kalliosaari, L., Taipale, O. & Smolander, K. Testing in the Cloud : Exploring the Practice. 4651
[8] Cohen, C. Software Testing as a Service ( STaaS ). 114.
[9] Prakash, V. & Bhavani, R. CLOUD TESTING MYTHS FACTS AND CHALLENGES. 9, (2012)
[10] International, A. & Testing, S. Cloud-Testing vs . Testing a Cloud - 10th Annual International Software Testing
Conference. (2010).
AUTHOR
Shraddha Mungekar received the B.E. degree in Biomedical Engineering from Watumall Institute of Electronics
Engineering and Computer Technology in 2011 Currently she is pursuing M.E. in Information Technology from Shah
and Anchor Kutchhi Engineering College.
Dhanashree Toradmalle received the B.E.degree in Computer Engineering from Padmabhushan Vasantdada Patil
Pratishthans College of Engineering in 2002. She received the M.E. degree in Computer Engineering from Mahatma
Gandhi Missions College of Engineering and Technology in 2008. Currently she is working as an Assistant Professor
at Shah & Anchor Kutchhi Engineering College ,Mumbai.
Page 63
ABSTRACT
Public Private Partnership (PPP) practice is taking its root in Nigeria. This is partly because of governments lean finances over
the year in financing numerous development projects and its low Capacity in risk management. Currently, the current oil price
drop consequences and its sequential down turn impacts on nations economic outlook have made PPP im perative. It is known
that numerous capital is in private hands and the willingness of these private investors is being harnessed by the governments
through the Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission (ICRC) and other quasi bodies. The Lagos Ibadan express way,
LekkiEpe road, Murtala Mohammed airport have been successfully implemented and more concessions are being negotiated.
This practice has been implemented successfully on roads, ports, dams, housing and on most development projects.
Contemporary global investment trend of the last two decades have widely attributed PPP approach as an appropriate
development bailout conveyor suited to cushion the stiff effects of ailing economic prevalences on some prestigious national
projects.
1.INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, Provision of public services and infrastructure has been the exclusive duty of the government. But with
the increasing population density, urbanization and other developmental needs, governments have been restrained from
adequately addressing the much expected needs of the people. Adopting the public private partnership (PPP) involves a
rigorous process compared to the traditional budgetary procurement. But that notwithstanding, a good planned PPP
projects always meet the value for money, delivers greater efficiencies and improve service delivery. In the vein of
explaining more on this important procurement subject public private partnership, which is a concession
arrangement contractually bounded by a legal procedural framework where the government is responsible for the public
service but will delegate many of the operational tasks to private sector service providers under contract.
In the Nigerian context where there are a very large infrastructural needs and much needed funds to service re-current
expenditures, public private partnership can both meet the infrastructural needs and also generate much needed funds
required to lessen the financial burden in keeping up with the huge re-current expenditures. This practice has notably
shown a large scale improvement in infrastructural services, and even has a more edge over privatization exercise in
the sense that the government may set up the user charges, control prices and prevent market abuse. Moribund
approach of managing infrastructures in Nigeria over the years has conspicuously depicted a high rate of depleting
consequences in both social and economic statue of various public assets in the country. Properly adapting public
private partnership in Nigeria will go a long way in alleviating our infrastructural deficiencies; create competitive
market, improve quality in service delivery systems.
Public private partnership collaboration has its own complexities, nurturing and implementing PPP projects has far
greater challenges than structuring and implementing conventional projects, which always emanate due to a long-term
period of service provision agreement. With this long-term agreement, future is naturally subject to uncertainty. These
uncertainties can be mitigated by the intending or the private concessioner by selecting relatively stable projects as
public private partnership and to contractually specify with the concession party on how unforeseen variations will be
handled. Implementing PPP projects is never an easy task, despite the abound benefits associated with its practice.
However huge body of literatures and case studies has shown that the benefits outweigh its structural challenges.
Meanwhile, due to varying/diverse political, legal, constitutional, economic and social circumstances that prevail in
different countries, branding a single blueprint of how to make a PPP programme work becomes a bigger global
challenge.
Page 64
Page 65
which huge capital had been invested into; grossly mismanaged by same administration; where the same body
concurred and sold out these properties in a manner which most procurement critics tagged biased procurement
arrangement; Value for money was not well evaluated; private investors capital that was used to acquire most of
these government prestigious assets, when reviewed under VFM-criterion proved that most of these assets were
leniently and unjustly sold out. Further addressing this contemptuous procurement option into evaluation would lead to
a lot of questioning, which most critics have taken an answer to. Privatization as a procurement option has its own
undisputed merits considering most places in the world where such practice was successfully implemented. Argument
raised by most critics was constructively posed demanding that such asset transfer should have been made in a
competitive manner and other procurement option like PPP placed as a contrasting alternate procurement option to be
debated on at least. The national policy on procurement highlighted two reasons why government may choose to
privatize services: (a) Economic reason- selling off tagged underperforming assets, (b) Political reasons- to eliminating
public corruption.
Consequently, privatization has successfully been implemented in some part of the globe and reasons for embarking in
this procurement option were notable seen, observed economically in terms of value for money and in terms of quality
services. Virtually all the Private investors that acquired some of these government assets are leaping profits at an
exponential margin from their investments. The fact is that Nigeria has a large market and most of these private
investors have just explored the market size advantage and made total reformation in the way these assets were been
previously managed.A formidable developmental synergy called PPP which is most needed to improve infrastructural
funding gaps and service needs of the Nigerian populace, whereby public agencies can optimize, control and in most
cases regulate the private partners operations.Inherent risks and the associated performance rewards and penalties
embedded in PPP spurs the private partners to achieve efficiency at each stage of the project and introduce an efficient
means of getting things done. For an optimal utilization of resources and efficient output delivery, private partner are
always instigated to provide an ongoing operations and maintenance management, in addition to the well-designed and
built projects.In addition, the public sector are enabled under ppp to harness the expertise, innovations and operational
efficiencies that the private sector can offer to projects and services initially procured and delivered by the public sector.
Procurement edge of Public Private Partnership and inherent risks
The global financial crisis of 2008 resulted to collapse of large independent and government financial institutions.
Down turn in stocks and the bailout of banks by the national government through the central bank initiative has
severely affected the governments financial capacity both in the federal and state level.The public-private partnerships
have gained popularity with government as a means of procurement of public-sector infrastructure such as water, road,
electricity, railways, airports, hospitals, schools etc. Manual (2012), opined that PPPs approach harnesses prudently the
needed expertise from pools of qualified labour and the prerequisite resources in the private sector, utilizing the
combined resources for optimal service delivery and thereby making it easy for the government to focus mainly on its
assigned regulatory functions. In the Nigerian PPP Review Detail (2012) drafted by the infrastructure concession
regulatory commission, it was noted that the success or failure of PPP can often be traced back to the initial design of
PPP policies, legislation and guidance. A well institutionalized framework is often required to provide explicitly a
detailed overall roles and responsibilities of the participating PPP partners.PPP being a competitive procurement
process requires due process of structuring in accordance with the Federal government of Nigeria directive for any form
of procurement relating the Federal government of Nigeria and concerned ministries, departments and Agencies. The
legislation governing PPP procurement in Nigeria as was enlisted in the Public-Private Partnerships manual are as
follows:
1. The Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission (ICRS) Act of 2005.
2. The public procurement Act 2007
3. Regulations issued by ICRC governing the PPP process.
4. The state laws as described in each states PPP policies.
The objectives of the government determine not only the type of procurement practice to engage on but also determine
the choice of PPP model to be chosen. These models are distinct from each other as a result of the level and nature of
risks that is shifted from the public sector to the private sector. The type to be selected is adequately determined upon
proper evaluation of the project features and proper scrutiny taken in any of the chosen objective as regards its
relevance, purposefulness and specificity. Four different PPP models which can equally be referred as PPP contract type
are often in use and are as follows:
1. The service contract PPPs
2. The management contract PPPs
3. Lease contract PPPs
4. Concessionscontract PPPs(e.g. build-operate and transfer, (B0T), design build and operate DBO),
Page 66
These PPP models thus are characterized broadly under five domains: Asset ownership, operation and maintenance,
capital investment, commercial risk, service and revenue generation use. Some of the major reasons why public sector
venture into partnership with the private sector investors emanate due to the need of: (a) Improving service efficiency,
(b) Transferring investment risks. It is crucial to choose a given PPP model referencing the noted underlying principles
of PPP:
1. The best value should be sought for, and not necessarily the lowest initial cost.
2. The inherent risks should be assigned to the party or partner capable of managing the risks.
3. Penalties should be imposed for non-performance, and the key performance index should be well publicized.
4. Contract uncertainties should be well deliberated on and properly taken care of at the inception stage of the
agreement.
Notably, any agreement covering such a long period into the future is naturally subject to uncertainties/ variations.
Governments should improvise a mitigation measure in order to make projects that are economically viable over long
term to be commercially viable for investors.These mitigation measures could either be in form of viability gap funding
which is amitigation measure, in form of grants that are only disbursed after investors have committed equity to the
project, thereby putting their money at risk for projects they believe to be viable.
Nigerias infrastructure and service delivery forecast under PPP
The African Public Private Partnership Network Inaugural meeting (AP3N, 2013) was solely organized to deliberate on
the objectives of their proposed established network of African PPP counterparts.These objectives that form the basis for
the interactive and developmental cooperation among these member countries are as follows:
1. To encourage more African countries to embrace the PPP procurement option and promote the development of a
coherent PPP practice and expand the PPP market in the region.
2. To provide a platform for peer-learning through sharing ideas and experiences between African PPP units officials
and thus create a knowledge hub for PPP practitioners.
3. To enable African PPP unit officials work together to build political support and facilitate the development of
regional solutions to challenges of infrastructure financing among African countries.
4. To provide a regional data base for PPP practitioners and projects that should be accessible to all members of the
network and other stakeholders.
5. To provide an effective interface with the outreach to the private sector stakeholders in the finance, construction
and consulting industries.
Reportof the AP3N quoting Earnest Shonekan noted that Africas overall infrastructure need is estimated at about USD
93billion, and in filling this gap, would require countries to pool ideas, experiences, information and resources to
develop a robust framework to strengthen their PPP regimes. Two key issues were identified as the principal factors
militating against adequate PPP practice in virtually all the participating countries, and these two issues are highlighted
as follows:
1. Inadequate legal, regulatory and Institutional framework.
2. Weak capacity and low level of participation by the private sector.
The Nigerian PPP framework as was noted in the AP3N Inaugural report 2013 was derived from the ICRC Act, an act
that mandates ICRC to provide enabling environment for successful procurement, implementation, operation and
sustainability of all concession agreements entered into by the Federal Government.Among the countries that
participated, South Africa is the only country that has a strong PPP history, which has established record of 23
completed projects in energy, ICT, Tourism, transport, Health etc. Few other countries like Lesotho, Zimbabwe and
Tanzania are still lagging-behind on this procurement practice, with each of them not having either apronounced policy
or existing laws. Countries like Angola has a PPP in Biomass Power generation, DRC also have an antique record of
PPP in power sector and their current PPP effort is in telecommunication sector which has been rated a success. In
addition to these, numerous concessions have taken place within this last decade in the Nigerian system. Nationally,
remarkable concessions has taken place which the Federal government and some of its establishments had
acknowledged to be impressive, (1) Apapa port managed by AP Moeller, and (2) Lekki Toll road managed by Lekki
Concession Company.
Achievements of PPP Programmes in Nigerian Port sector and their noted anomalies.
The federal government of Nigeria in 2006 through one of its procurement arms, the Bureau of Public Enterprise
arranged and conducted the port concession in order to ameliorate the problems of low productivity, lack of cargo
handling equipment, delay in cargo delivery, ineffectiveness and inefficiency, decaying port infrastructure, inadequate
funding, restive dock labour, multiple and uncoordinated security agencies, port congestion and governments lethargic
protocols in obtaining approval for projects. Kruck (2008) listed key reasons for port concession as follows:
Page 67
Page 68
Page 69
Page 70
public. There have been obstinate demands for the review of the port concession agreements, which most people feared
to be groomed on a political interest, and also on the dire interest of meeting up with the best global practice.
Achievements of PPP Programmes in construction of Lekki-Epe Express way
The pioneer toll road concession project in Nigeria is that of Lekki-Epe deal between the Lagos state government and
the Lekki Concession Company limited. The purpose of this concession is to provide sustainable solutions to the
challenges brought by heavy traffic congestion along the Lekki Peninsula Lagos. The contract between the Lagos state
government and the Lekki concession company (LCC) was signed on April 24 2006, and includes the upgrade of
50km of existing dual-lane and dual carriage way to three-lane highway and the construction of a new approximately
20km of the coastal road on the Lekki peninsula. In 2008, Lagos State government also signed supplementary
agreements with LCC was also signed as well.This concession agreement was grouped in phases; the first phase of the
project was the upgrade, expansion and maintenance of approximately 50km of the Lekki-Epe express way, while the
construction of the new 20km coastal road was grouped in the second phase of the project. The estimated cost of the
approximately 50km road expansion starting from OzumbaMbadiwe to Epe as at 2008 was pegged on fifty five billion
naira. In the contract agreement, the concessionaire was given the concession to recoup interest on the investment
through toll collection from the users for a period of 30 years before transferring the asset to the State government
(Daily Independent, 2013, Lekki-Epe Corridor, 2009).
It was further noted that the Lekki Toll road concession was a PPP arrangement and employed build-operate-transfer
(BOT) concession type of infrastructure delivery. The concession was for a period of 30years, after which the Lagos
State government takes over the assets. The Lekki concession company is an Arm group of companies that corroborate
and partnered to form a special purpose vehicle, to deliver essential road infrastructure and service along the Lekki
Peninsula of Lagos. This special purpose vehicle comprised of construction companies, Toll Service Company, design
and IT installation firm, legal and regulatory advisers. In addition, some of the Lekki concession companys local
investors comprised of First Bank of Nigeria, Stanbic IBTC, and African Infrastructure Investment Managers.However,
the concession agreement between these two parties on the Lekki Toll road was short-lived and was prematurely
truncated by the Lagos State government. Back in 2011, many resident and road users considered the toll exorbitant,
and in August 28, 2013, the Lagos State government after the proposed bill was approved by the State house, acquired
the concession rights on the project at an estimated cost of 25.3billion naira, thereby terminated Lekki-Epe deal with
LCC as concerns mass complaints on the exorbitant tolls.On the other hand, the over stretched complaint on the tolls
that prompted the termination of the deal was basically due to poor planning by the two parties, depicting their
ineptness to capture all the necessary risk factors that could threaten the agreement. The then Lagos State
commissioner of Finance Ayo Gbeleyi, explained that in the concession agreement between the Lagos State government
and the Lekki concession company, that the concessionaire has the jurisdiction to increase the toll tariff based on the
inflation rate in the country quarterly. The currency devaluation from 2008 to 2013 resulted to a steep inflation hike of
35.2% which obviously impacted on the projected cost of the project, and the concessionaire had no option other than to
increase the toll for proper adjustments of the cost effects due to inflation. The Lagos State government also admitted
that they never envisaged there would be devaluation of the countrys currency. But that concessioners argument lacks
merit, subject to unmerited optimism, considering the Nigerias poor economic policy that had always opted for
devaluation as only means to combat trade imbalances.In any bilateral legal transaction like PPP which is a contract of
obligation between the public and the private partner.It is expected that such contract obligations between these two
parties (Lagos State government and Lekki Concession Company limited) should be concluded for the prescribed fixed
period of time and finally end in expiration, rather than extinction. Inversely, unplanned situations, poor and
unstructured planning has led to litanyof project truncations.
Presently in contract agreements, provisions are basically made as a matter of principle to contain situations in case of
force majeure like natural disasters (earthquakes, landslide, lightning, fire and floods) Act of God, terrorist acts, war,
riots, industrial actions, blockades, civil unrest, strikes, labour disputes, accidents, financial crisis, that might result
during the course of the project, which could alter part of the original agreement.Though risk allocation in terms of best
practices, should be treated within the transaction, and in the choice of unfavorable outcomes like financial crisis, it is
better that the public sector step with their contributions in rebalancing tariffs so that the project would be made viable.
The Lagos state government as a way to encourage private investors nascent involvement with public sector should
have quenched the civil unrest brought by the claims laid by the lekki road users on the toll tariff having acknowledged
the inflation factor, by subsidizing the toll rate to best adjustable minimal.
Happidays (2013) e-report testified many uncertainties that may likely afflict investment if PPP models of financing
project were not properly addressed. Some of these uncertainties from his report are financial, managerial, regulatory,
societal resistance, and legal entanglement. The abrupt termination of the deal by Lagos State government was never
the ideal solution to contain the complained difficulties experienced. The state government action may discourage
intending private investors from investing on infrastructural projects. It is very glaring to the both concession parties
that the contingence factor that led to the toll hike was beyond the control of thetwo parties, and it surfaced due to the
poor identification of some of the key incident factors that conversely halted the project.A provision for agreement
amendment should at least be specified in the concession documents, whereby the government having acknowledged
Page 71
the consequences of the financial crisis on the projected cost of the project as was estimated in the original agreement
paper, should have aided the private investors by providing a kind of service support fund that would have aided in
subsidizing the toll fare. It is quite understandable the reasons why the road tolls were made highand these can easily
be admitted because the primary aim of every private investor is to leverage the invested capital fund from the return on
the interest from the project.Userscomplaints should have been negotiated on properly, other than this unfriendly and
less-objective action taken by the Lagos State government, though the concessionaire party Lekki concession company
should on their part have givena notice to the other party likely their employer on the project cost variations, rather
than transferring the cost implications directly to the road users by inflating the toll rates. Happiday (2013) e-report
affirmed Lagos State among the key players in PPP, because of their ability to commit to a long term concession
agreement.However, with the embryonic truncation of the first ever tagged PPP mega breakthrough with Lekki
concession company, it is noweven more hilarious to reiterate or reaffirm some states as key players capable of keeping
long term concession agreement because there is no unified theoretical basis for PPPs but the success principally lies
with the adept will of the two concession partners in identifying the key project tools and situations likely to prevail
within the agreement terms.
Some of the Public Private Partnership Projects in Nigeria
PPP model was officially adopted in Nigeria in 2005 for efficient project and service delivery in the country, as it seeks
to make good the huge financial resources, the expertise and management efficiency usually associated with the private
sector. A lot of success reports in infrastructural development have been made, as some of these major projects were
completed in record time under the PPP model, like the local wing of the Murtala Muhammad Airport Lagos. It would
be appropriate to note also that even before PPP model became official government policy in 2005, Federal housing
Authority had in the year 2000 adopted the PPP programme and built to completion 651 housing units in Gwarinpa II
Estate, Abuja. In the same cycle, some of the completed and ongoing PPP projects in housing, roads, power,
agriculture, social Infrastructure, transport and urban development are enlisted in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3: Some of the completed and ongoing PPP projects in Nigeria
Page 72
Page 73
2.CONCLUSION
A step-by step guide to PPP should be adeptly followed in other to combat unplanned situations that may likely surface
as a result of unstructured planning,which from the past reports has led to litany of project truncation.A more
streamlined process in PPP practice devoid or with minimal trace of political Will that will properly harness good
private sector capacity should be opted for. PPP like all other methods of procurementapproach strictly advocate for
proper attention on issues as it concerns finance, managerial, social resistance, regulatory and legal
framework.However, the bloated task in PPP structure, that now incorporates Project design, operations and assets
management for adequate products and service delivery has also driven most private investors craving for a geometric
return ontheir investments at expense of social reactions andrecommendedstandards. In other to ameliorate and contain
these areas of identified likely difficulties, a good legal and regulatory framework should be put in place and made
good, such that, much contractual agreements would not be breached, thereby reducing to a tolerable minimum the
volume of truncated projectsin the country.
REFERENCES
[1] Anonymous (2013) In a published report on Business and Maritime West Africa online journal on the 22
November 2013.
[2] Anugwara, B. (2014) Shipper Council: bracing up for commercial regulation challengers. Retrieved from
www.mynewswatchtimesng.com/shippers-council-bracing-commercial-regulation-challenges/on march, 2014.
[3] AP3N (2013) Report of the African Public Private Partnership network (AP3N) Inaugural meeting held on the 15th
of Feb. 2012, Theme: Promoting Regional Infrastructure as a Critical ingredient in achieving greater regional
integration.Retrieved on 7 November 2014 from
www.sadcpppnetwork.org/index.php?...african...network...african...netw...
[4] Bagal, S. (2008). Managing Public Private Partnership: Economic and Political weekly PW. Retrieved on August
13 2014 from www.epw.in/search/apachesolr_search/bagal 2008.
[5] Daily Independent (2013) Why we acquired concession rights from LCC Lagos. Retrieved from
dailyindependent.com/2013/08/why-we-acquired-concession-right-from-lcc-lagos-govt/on the 29, August, 2013.
[6] Francoz, E. (2010) Advantages and Limitation of the different public private partnership risks. Presented at the
PPP workshop, June 2010, Jordan. Agence Francaise de Developpment.
[7] Happiday, L. (2013). e-report- Nigeria Infrastructure News, the premier online infrastructure News resource in
Nigeria.Retrieved on August 13 2014 from www.nigeriainfrastructurenews.com.
[8] ICAC (2006) Direct Negotiations: Guidelines for managing risks in direct negotiation, May 2006. Retrieved on 6
July 2014 from www.icac.nsw.gov.au.
[9] ICRC (2013) PPP Project report, Published on Friday 17 May 2013. www.f.pppn.org.
[10] Kruck, B. (2008). Port reforms and concession in Nigeria. Retrieved on 10 September 2014 from
www.antaq.gov.br/portal/pdf/palestrag/seminarioreform.
[11] Lambert, V and Lapsley, I. (2006). Redefining the boundaries of Public sector accounting research? The Irish
Accounting Review, Vol. 13, Special Issue, 85-105.
[12] Lekki-Epe Corridor (2009) Solving Communities Need. Africa News Services.
[13] Manuel, T. 2012. NDP Launch Speech by Trevor A. Manuel, Minister in the Presidency: National Planning
Commission. Available http://www.thepresidency.gov.za/pebble.asp?relid=6601 [Accessed on 17/4/2013].
Page 74
[14] Nigerian Port Authority, NPA (2014) Retrieved on 10 September 2014 from
www.nigerianports.org/news.aspx?id=353.
[15] Nigerian Ports Authority, NPA (2012): Terminal operators in Western Ports & Eastern Ports of NPA. Retrieved on
13 September 2014 from www.nigerianports.org/dynamicdata/.../cargo throughput-2007-2012.p.
[16] Nigerian PPP Review Detail (2012) Where are we?: The ICRC and Its Retinue, Vol.1, Issue 1. July 2012.
[17] Razak, R. (2005) Understanding port reforms. The Nigerian Situation (Ed). Lagos: Marine Business
International.
[18] Zagreb (2009) A Step-By Step Guide to public private partnerships. Agency for Public Private Partnership,
republic of Croatia. Retrieved on August 13 2014 from
www.javnanabava.hr/userdocsimage/userfiles/file/Raznepublikcije/step.
Page 75
ABSTRACT
Posting online reviews is a new trend set for people to share with other users their opinions and sentiments toward products and
services. E-commerce websites provides the venues and facilities for people to publish their reviews. Those online reviews
present a wealth of information. In this paper, reviews of viewers from movie fertility are collected and processed. When the
movie trailer releases various reviews are posted by users on social media sites. We are mining those reviews and predicting
sales performance of movie. These predictions will be used by share holders and box office for the movie business.
Keywords: Review mining, sentiment analysis, Record Classification, Information search and retrieval, data mining.
1.INTRODUCTION
The basic idea behind the movie sales performance prediction is to collect online reviews various sources, calculating
rating and revenue based on sentiment analysis and predicting sales for movies. So it is helpful for the people who are
investing for the movies in share market and the box office business.
Review mining has recently received a great deal of attention. As a domain-driven task, it is essential to understand the
characteristics of online reviews and their predictive power. To this end, it investigates the pattern of reviews and its
relationship to sales data by examining a real example from the movie sector.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Predicting sales performance based on movie and movie trailer reviews, it investigates the pattern of reviews and its
relationship to sales data. To predict the sales performance we calculate rating and revenues by mining reviews. We
predict the sales by mining movie trailer reviews and mining movie reviews will be helpful for the people who are
investing for that movie production as a share market.
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
To analyze the large volume of online reviews
To investigate the pattern of reviews and its relationship to sales data in movie domain.
To predict box office business by mining trailer reviews.
To help investors for further investment.
STATEMENT OF SCOPE
This system is designed to help share investors and various stake holders which invest in movie. It provides accurate
prediction which is based upon movie trailers reviews and reviews when movie actually releases.
Input and Output
Input: Online Reviews for the movie trailer and for movie.
Output:
1. Rating for the movie based on the reviews.
2. Revenue (box office collection) of the movie.
Fig.1.Block diagram
Page 76
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS
Input constraints:
1. This web application will not predict reviews given in any other language rather than English also reviews posted
in short forms will not be analyzed.
2. Reviews given in symbolic notation is not acceptable.
3. One viewer can post reviews only once and review should be in simple English statement.
4. The usage of punctuation marks does not have much effect on the sentiment analysis. E.g. number of exclamations
express the intensity of sentiment, but in this system it does not add any weight age to the sentiment.
5. The abbreviations that can be allowed in comments are limited. E.g. gud for good.
PERFORMANCE AND SECURITY CONSTRAINTS:
1. The social media data is also fetched. Thus security mechanisms should be there to keep the system data genuine.
2. The information given by user while creating account must be verified for genuineness so that a single user should
not have multiple accounts in order to spam the system. The system should be taken care against overwhelming.
The review spamming, multiple accounts may degrade the system performance
RELATED WORK
1. Relevant mathematics associated with the Project:
Let S be the system which processes the reviews, analyzing sentiments in them, which will serve as the basis for
predicting movie future sales performance.
S = { s , e , X , Y , fme , ffriends , DD , NDD , Xmem | s }
Where,
s : first state/ initial state
e : end state/ final state
X : set of input
Y : set of output
fme : Function which calculates the performance probability of movie
ffriends : Friend function
1. INITIAL STATE: Collecting reviews
2. INPUT:
Input X can be given as
X={C, D, id, rd}
Where,
2.1. C is the set of comments
C= {C1^C2}
Where,
C1 is the set of user comments
C1= {c1,c2,c3,,cn}
C2 is the set of expert comments
C2={ c1,c2,c3,,cn}
2.2 D is the set which contains movie details
D= {A, name, dir, prod}
Where,
name: Name of the movie
dir: Name of director
prod: Name of Production house
A represents lead actors of movie
A={ a1,a2,a3,,an} ; n<5
2.3 id =Movie id of a particular movie
2.4 rd= Release date of movie,
3. Function:
3.1 fme can be given as
fme ={ f (x) }
S Success state when
1) If correct commets are used for prediction
2) If correct rating are used for prediction
F Failure state when
1) If wrong comments are used for prediction of rating.
2) If wrong rating is used to predict the revenue.
Page 77
Page 78
ADVANTAGES
1. Helps users to take decisions
2. Helps investors for investments
3. Production house can produce better movies depending on rating and revenue
4. Helpful to schedule the theatre shows
5. Quality Prediction
APPLICATIONS
1. 1.Box Office Business
2. 2.Share investors
3. 3.Suggesions To Viewers
4. 4.Production House
2.CONCLUSION
From all of the above work done we concluded that the wide spread use of online reviews as a way of conveying views
and comments has provided a unique opportunity to understand the general publics sentiments and derive business
intelligence. We have studied the problem of predicting sales performance using sentiment information mined from
reviews. A center piece of our work is the proposal of S-PLSA, a generative model for sentiment analysis that helps us
move from simple negative or positive classification toward a deeper comprehension of the sentiments in blogs.
Using SPLSA as a means of summarizing sentiment information from reviews, we have to develop ARSA, a model
for predicting sales performance based on the sentiment information and the products past sales performance. We have
further considered the role of review quality in sales performance prediction, and proposed a model to predict the
quality rating of a review when it is not readily available. The quality factor is then incorporated into a new model
called ARSQA. Equipped with the proposed models, it will help to better understand the predictive power of reviews
and conduct businesses in a more effective way.
REFERENCES
[1] Xiaohui Yu, Yang Liu, Mining Online Reviews for Predicting Sales Performance: A Case Study in the Movie
Domain, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, Vol. 24,
[2] Adeyemi Adejuwon, Amir Mosavi, Domain Driven Data Mining Application to Business, IJCSI International
Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, Issue 4, No 2, July 2010
[3] Anindya Ghose, Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis, Estimating the Helpfulness and Economic Impact of Product Reviews,
IEEE Transactions On Knowledge And Data Engineering, Vol. 23, Aug 2011
[4] Nihalahmad R. Shikalgar, Deepak Badgujar, Online Review Mining For Forecasting Sales, IJRET: International
Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, Vol 2, Dec 2013
AUTHOR
Pooja Deshmukh received the DIPLOMA in Computer Engineering from Government Polytechnic Pune in 2012 and
completing B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
Shraddha Bhalerao received the DIPLOMA in Computer Engineering from Government Polytechnic Pune in 2012
and completing B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
Rutuja Jadhav received the DIPLOMA in Computer Engineering from Government Polytechnic Nashik in 2012 and
completing B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
Pooja Mhaske received the DIPLOMA in I.T Engineering from Government Polytechnic Pune in 2012 and completing
B.E. in Computer Engineering from Pune Institute of Computer Technology.
Page 79
ABSTRACT
It is necessary in many applications to design an antenna which has high directivity, less VSWR, low return loss and low side
lobe level. Fractal microstrip fork antenna with parasitic elements can be used in various applications like satellite
communications, terrestrial communications, spacecommunications and in radar. The dimensions of the proposed antenna are
40 x 40 x 3.2 mm. Copper (annealed) metal is used as the ground plane and the patch. FR4 (lossy) material is used as the
substrate. The proposed antenna has the return loss, VSWR, directivity, side lobe level of -51.366576dB, 1.0054185, 9.576dBi
and -13.1dBi at an operating frequency of 11.712GHz.
Keywords: - Antenna, fork, fractal,microstrip, return loss, VSWR, directivity and side lobe level.
1.INTRODUCTION
An antenna is an electrical device which is used to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves. There are two types of
antennas transmitting antenna and receiving antenna. As the size of normal antenna is very large, it cannot be used
in mobile andsatellite communications. So, microstripantennas are preferred because of the following advantages like
small size, low weight, low cost and they can be easily fabricated. A microstripantenna has a ground plane, substrate
and a patch. Patch is printed over the substrate of microstip antenna. This patch acts as a radiator and radiates
electromagnetic waves.
In this paper a fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna with parasitic elements has been proposed which has less return
loss and high directivity when compared with normal fork antenna.
Page 80
Thickness of substrate in fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna with parasitic elements is 3.2mm. The dimensions of
the antenna are presented in the table.1.
Table.1: dimensions of proposed antenna
3. RETURN LOSS
Return loss is the power reflected by the antenna due to the mismatch of transmission line and antenna. If the return
loss of the antenna is 0dB then the power fed to the antenna is completely reflected back by the antenna and nothing is
radiated. If return loss of antenna is -10dB, then -7dB is the reflected power and 3dB is delivered to the antenna. Lower
the value of return loss, higher is the efficiency of the antenna.
The simulated return loss of fork shaped patch antenna and fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic elements
are shown in fig.3 and fig.4.
4. VSWR
VSWR stands for voltage standing wave ratio. VSWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum value of standing wave
voltage to its minimum value. VSWR value is always real and positive. If VSWR value is large, the antenna is not
matched with the transmission line and there will be high return loss and vice versa. The minimum value of VSWR is
0ne. The simulated VSWR of fork shaped patch antenna and fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic elements
are shown in fig.5 and fig.6.
fig.5: 3D far field pattern of Fork shaped patch antennaat f=11.304 GHz
fig.6: 3D far field pattern of fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic element at f=11.712GHz
Page 82
Polar Plots:
The polar plots of far field pattern of fork shaped patch antenna and fractal fork shaped patch antenna with parasitic
elements are shown in fig.7 and fig.8.
6. CONCLUSION
Thus the fractal fork shaped microstrip antenna with parasitic elements has been designed which has return loss and
directivity of -51.366576dB and 9.576dBi at the operating frequency of 11.712GHz.The return loss, VSWR, directivity
of the proposed antenna are better when compared with the normal fork shaped antenna. Thus from the simulated
results it can be proven that the proposed antenna is good when compared with fork shaped patch antenna.
REFERENCES
[1] Abolfazl Azari, A New Super Wideband Fractal Microstrip Antenna, IEEE Trans.On Antennas and
Propagation, Vol. 59, No. 5, May 2011.
[2] R. E. Munson, Conformal Micro strip Antennas and Micro strip Phased Arrays, IEEE Trans. On Antennas
Propagation, Volume 22, issue 1, January 1974.
[3] Constantine A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Second Edition, 1997.
[4] David M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Fourth Edition, 2011.
[5] Omar Noori, JalelChebil and et.al,Design and Analysis of Triple-Band MicrostripPatch Antenna with h-shaped
Slots, International Conference on Computer and Communication Engineering, 3-5 July 2012, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia.
[6] SushilKakkar, Priyadarshini and Shweta Rani, New Antenna with Fractal Shaped DGS for Emergency
Management Applications, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software
Engineering, Volume 3, Issue 3, March 2013.
[7] I. Zahraoui, J. Terhzaz and et.al, Design and Analysis of a New Dual-Band Microstrip Fractal Antenna,
International Journal of Electrical, Computer, Electronics and Communication Engineering Vol.9, No.1, 2015.
[8] TruptiIngale, ChaitaliIngale and et.al, Effect of Different Substrate Material on Performance of H Shaped Patch
Antenna, International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer and Communication Engineering, Vol. 2,
Issue 11, November 2014.
Page 83
[9] Patil V.P., Kharade A.R., Enhancement of Directivity of Rectangular MicroStrip Antenna Using Multilayer
Multidielectric Structure, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, Vol.3, Issue.12,
September 2012.
[10] M.T. Islam, M.N. Shakib and N. Misran, Multi-Slotted Microstrip Patch Antenna For Wireless Communication,
Progress In Electromagnetics Research Letters, Vol. 10, 1118, 2009.
[11] A.B. Mutiara, R.Refianti andRachmansyah, Design of Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Communication at 2.4
GHz, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, Vol.33, No.2, 30th November 2011.
[12] Ashish Ranjan, Manjeet Singh and et.al, Analysis and Simulation of Fractal Antenna for Mobile Wimax,
International Journal of Future Generation Communication and Networking, Vol.7, No.2, 2014.
[13] Junshen Yu, et.al,Study of an Ultra-wideband PlanarEllipticalDipole antenna, University of posts and
telecommunicationBeijing China, university of London UK, Microwave Technology andComputational
Electromagnetics, 2009.
[14] Qinjiang Rao, et.al, A New Aperture Coupled Microstrip Slot Antenna,IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, Vol.53, Issue.9, September 2005.
[15] A. Janani, A. Priya, Design of E-Shape Fractal Simple Multiband Patch Antenna for S-Band LTE and Various
Mobile Standards, International Journal of Engineering and Science, Vol.3, Issue 1, May 2013.
Page 84
ABSTRACT
This article presents an overview of recommendation System and illustrates the present generation of recommendation
techniques. These techniques are usually categorized into three main classes as Collaborative Filtering (CF), Content-Based
Filtering (CBF), and Hybrid Recommendation approaches. CF is a framework for filtering information based on the
preferences of users. This technique can predict a users preferred items by using the users known history data as well as other
users known history data, and then recommends items to the user. This paper is focused on collaborative filtering; its types
and its major challenges for instance cold start problem, data sparsity, scalability and accuracy.
1. INTRODUCTION
Due to tremendous increase in e-commerce and online web services the matter of information search and selection has
become increasingly serious; users are confused by which alternative to consider and they may be not having sufficient
time or knowledge for personal evaluation of these alternatives. Recommender systems have proved that , they are a
helpful way for online users to deal with the information load and have turn out to be one of the most popular and
powerful tools for e-commerce. Recommender system provide list of items by predicting which item are most suitable to
user, based on user past history, preferences and constraints [4]. Different algorithm and methods are used by
recommendation systems to provide personalized recommendations.
Recommendation systems are divided into following three categories:Content-based Recommending
In this method user will be recommended items comparable to the ones the preferred in the past, or matched to the user
characteristics.
Collaborative Filtering
It is the process of evaluating or filtering items using the opinions of other users. Collaborative filtering techniques
collect users profiles, and examine the connection among the data according to similarity function. The likely
categories of the data in the profiles include user behavior patterns, user preferences, or item properties. Collaborative
filtering technique collects large information about user behavior, history, click pattern and recommends what user will
like based on
his similarity with other users communally.
Hybrid methods
Hybrid methods are a combination of different filtering methods. In Hybrid collaborative filtering [5], [6] system,
collaborative filtering is combined with other recommendations techniques like content based filtering. Content based
recommendation system make predictions based on the content of textual information like URLs, logs, item description
and profiles about user taste, preferences and needs. Demographic based recommendation system [8] makes use of user
profile information such as occupation, gender and postcode. Utility based recommenders and knowledge based
recommender system uses knowledge about how a particular object satisfies user needs.
Page 85
Adjusted-cosine similarity, similarity metric is used to compute item similarity by using all users who have rated both
item i and j as in formula (2) below:
Page 86
userSim()is calculated by using the Pearson correlation. The Pearson correlation coefficient is calculated by comparing
ratings for all items rated by both the target user and the neighbor as given in following formula (4). Pearson
correlation ranges from 1.0 for users with perfect agreement to -1.0 for perfect disagreement users [1] [16].
Page 87
In the certain classes, the preferences that are related to the dissimilar items are liberated. The cluster model defines the
probability of joint probability of votes and class to a group of marginal and conditional distribution [18].
Pr (C=C1V1,C2V2,,Vn) = Pr (C=C)Pr (Vi |C = C)
Pr (C=C1V1,C2V2,,Vn) = Probability of a person of specific class and a collection of votes.
Pr(C=C) = Class membership probability.
Pr (Vi |C =C) = From users vote training data condition probability of votes is calculated.
If no variable is seen in user database then we have to use methods that can learn parameters with hidden variables for
modeling.
(2) Bayesian Network Model
Bayesian network model is represented in a directed acyclic graph. This model is represented in a triplet<M.D,@>,
where M denotes random variable, D denotes directed arc and @ denotes conditional probability table determining
how much a node depends on its parent node[19].
(1) Simple nave Bayesian collaborative filtering
In Naive Bayes classifier we assume the features are independent for a given class, the probability is calculated by
taking all features, the class with the highest probability will be classified as predicted class.
(2) TAN-ELR collaborative filtering
Simple nave Bayesian collaborative filtering method lacks when dealing with partial data or in completed data. This
technique is overcome by Extended Logistic Regression algorithm(ELR) which is a discriminative parameter learning
algorithm that maximize log conditionals likelihood TAN-ELR (Tree Augmented Nave Bayes) have high classification
accuracy for both complete and incomplete data[17].
Page 88
Black sheep
Blacksheep are opposite group of people who are not in favor of recommendation system concept.
4. RELATED SURVEY
A review of our study on following research work shows that ,the authors have used various collaborative techniques
like personalized collaborative filtering, user based collaborative filtering, item based collaborative filtering etc. for
building a recommender system. Some drawbacks of collaborative filtering such as cold-start problem, data sparsity and
scalability are also discovered and overcome. Yechun Jiang, Jianxun Liu, Mingdong Tang and Yechun Jiang, Jianxun
Liu, Mingdong Tang (2011) [9] discussed on personalized collaborative filtering method used for Web service
recommendation. Computation of similarity is a main part of Web service recommendation techniques. Similarity
measurement is calculated among users and personalized influence of services. By utilizing the similarity measurement
model of Web services, an effective Personalized Hybrid Collaborative Filtering technique is developed by integration
of personalized user-based algorithm and personalized item-based algorithm. They also conducted experiments based
on real Web service QoS dataset WSRec which consists of more than 1.5 million test results of 150 service users
belonging to different countries on 100 publicly available Web services situated all over the world. Their Experimental
evaluation shows that the method increases accuracy of recommendation of Web services considerably. Anand Shanker
Tewari, Kumari Priyanka (2014) [10] designed online book recommendation system for students reading textbooks.
Motivation of this project was to develop recommendation system to the students according to their price range and
publishers name. Recommendation system is designed by combining the features of user based collaborative filtering
and association rule mining. Recommendation is carried at offline mode and system stores recommendation in
students web profile. First system scans the buyer profile record find out the category of the book that the buyer has
bought earlier such as Novels, educational book, Bibliography etc. Then it find out the subcategory of the book for
example if at stage1 category of book is educational then subcategory would be Computer data structure, Theory of
mechanics, operating systems etc. At stage third association rule is applied on transaction database and list of books is
generated that buyer can buy it afterwords at stage 4 user based collaborative filtering technique is applied to the books
found in stage 3 and top N recommendation are provided to targeted buyer. Jyoti Gupta and Jayant Gadge (2014) [11]
used Collaborative Filtering algorithms to provide recommendations to a user. The recommendations are given based
on the ratings of other users in the system. In their proposed work they have given solutions to overcome the Problems
faced by collaborative filtering algorithms for instance sparsity, scalability, and cold start. In the proposed outline, item
based collaborative filtering prediction is joined with prediction by means of demographics based cluster of user in an
adaptive weighted scheme. Item similarity and user clusters are computed offline, which makes the solution scalable. A
new user is added to the cluster with the nearest centroid based on demographics and can be given immediate
predictions based on the user cluster. An adaptive weighting scheme will improve the quality of predictions by
giving more weight to prediction using demographics based user clusters when the number of ratings available for
a user are less, for example in cases when the user is new, and increasing weight to item based collaborative filtering
as the number of ratings available for a user increases. This will result in a solution that is scalable while addressing
user cold start. Anand Shanker Tewari, Abhay Kumar and Asim Gopal Barman (2014)[14] have designed
recommendation system to recommend books to the buyer that suits their interests. The working of the system is
divided into different stages. Stage1 finds out the category of the book that the buyer has bought earlier like novel,
science, engineering etc. from the buyers web profile. Stage2 finds out the subcategory of the book if there is any in
the stage1 found category.stage3 performs content based filtering of category /subcategory found in stage1 and 2, to
find out the books that are much similar to the books that the buyer has bought earlier based on the books overview
content from the buyers past history record. At stage 4 based on the result of stage3 item based collaborative filtering is
done to find out the list of books in the descending order of recommendations. In this step, the system actually evaluates
quality of the recommending books based on the rating given to those books by the other buyers. From the book
transaction database is used to find all those transactions whose category and sub category (if there is any) is same as
found in stage1 and stage2. Stage5 applies association rule on those transactions and find out the books that the buyer
can buy afterward. Stage6 discovers the intersection of the result of stage4 and 5. The intersection result is arranged in
the descending order of recommendations as given by the stage4.Outcome of the stage 6 is the final recommendations
for the buyer. All these steps are performed when the buyer is offline and the results are stored in the buyers web
profile. When the buyer comes online next time the recommendations will be generated automatically. ZhichaoQuan
(2013) [12] in his research made use of user personality for the improvement of the user model and proposed two
personality-based collaborative filtering recommendations are: first one is to calculate user similarity from the user
personality point of view and choose nearest neighbor, and then produces recommendation; second one is using the
personality-item rating matrix, and after that create recommendation for target users. Because of the stability of
people's character, recommendation based on users' character is also relatively stable. This avoids the problem of
frequently update of traditional user models, thus greatly reducing the cost of calculation. If user personality can be
Page 89
attained well, there will be no more cold start problems. The number of items of traditional collaborative filtering
recommendation is too large, while personality factors in the proposed method is in small quantity and will not change
as time goes by, which alleviate the sparsity problem to a certain extent. The weakness of this method is that: before
recommendation, one must get users' characters, which would increase the work of the recommendation system. If
there is no best way to obtain the character of the new users, "cold start" problem will occur. So when a new user is
added, if the user character is not accurately obtained, their interests should be taken advantage of to discover their
characters, and then make recommendation to users based on character traits.
5. CONCLUSION
Recommender System has made tremendous increase over the last decade. Collaborative filtering technique provides a
solution to recommender system. In collaborative filtering the recommendations are given to the new user based on the
preferences made by group of user who has similar tastes. In this paper, Collaborative filtering tasks, their main
challenges and their possible solutions are discussed. This paper also covers major categories of CF techniques:
memory-based, model-based, with examples for representative algorithms of each category, and analysis of their
predictive performance and their ability to address the challenges. The study of various research papers and their
results provides the fact that collaborative filtering is one of the most widely used filtering technique however it suffers
from sparsity, accuracy, scalability, cold start etc.
REFERENCES
[1] Sarwar, B., Karypis, G., Konstan, J.A., Riedl, J., Item-Based Collaborative Filtering Recommendation
Algorithms, Proceedings of the 10th international conference on World WideWeb. 2001, Hong Kong. ACM Press
p. 285-295.
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_filtering.
[3] Linden G. Smith B., York J., Amazon.Com Recommendations: Item-To-Item Collaborative Filtering, Internet
Computing, IEEE, 2003.
[4] Francesco Ricci, Lior Rokach and Bracha Shapira, Introduction to Recommender Systems Handbook, Springer,
2011.
[5] L. H. Ungar and D. P. Foster Clustering Methods For Collaborative Filtering, in Proceedings of the Workshop
on Recommendation Systems, AAAI Press, 1998.
[6] P. Resnick, N. Iacovou, M. Suchak, P. Bergstrom, and J. Riedl, Grouplens: an open architecture for collaborative
filtering of netnews, in proceedings of the ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, pp. 175186, New York, NY, USA, 1994.
[7] G.Adomavicius and A. Tuzhilin, Toward the next generation of recommender systems: a survey of the state-of-the
art and possible extensions,IEEE Transactions on Knowledgeand Data Engineering, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 734749,
2005.
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommender_system
[9] Yechun Jiang, Jianxun Liu, Mingdong Tang and Xiaoqing (Frank)Liu ,An Effective Web Service
Recommendation Method based on Personalized Collaborative Filtering, IEEE International Conference on Web
Services, 2011.
[10] Anand Shanker Tewari and Kumari Priyanka ,Book Recommendation System Based on Collaborative Filtering
and Association Rule Mining for College Students, IEEE International Conference on Contemporary Computing
and Informatics, 2014.
[11] Jyoti Gupta and JayantGadge , A Framework for a Recommendation System Based On Collaborative Filtering
and Demographics, IEEE International Conference on Circuits, Systems, Communication and Information
Technology Applications, 2014.
[12] ZhichaoQuan , Collaborative filtering recommendation based on user personality, IEEE International
Conference on Information Management, Innovation Management and Industrial Engineering, 2013.
Page 90
[13] K.Yu, A. Schwaighofer, V. Tresp, X. Xu, and H.-P. Kriegel, Probabilistic memory-based collaborative filtering,
IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, vol. 16, no.1, pp. 5669, 2004.
[14] Anand ShankerTewari , Abhay Kumar and Asim Gopal Barman, Book Recommendation System based on
Combine Features of Content Based Filtering, Collaborative Filtering and Association Rule Mining, IEEE
International Advance Computing Conference, 2014.
[15] Su, Xiaoyuan, and Taghi M. Khoshgoftaar. "A survey of collaborative filtering techniques." Advances in Artificial
Intelligence 2009 (2009): 4.
[16] K. Miyahara and M. J. Pazzani.Improvement of collaborative filtering with the simple Bayesian
classifier,Information Processing Society of Japan, vol. 43, no. 11, 2002.
[17] B. Shen, X. Su, R. Greiner, P. Musilek, and C. Cheng, Discriminative parameter learning of general Bayesian
network classifiers, in Proceedings of the 15th IEEE International Conference on Tools with Artificial
Intelligence, pp. 296305,Sacramento, Calif, USA, November 2003.
[18] Breese. J. S, Heckerman. D, Kadie.
Filtering. Microsoft Research, 1998.
[19] J. Pearl, Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems, Networks of Plausible Inference, Morgan Kaufmann,
San Francisco, Calif, USA, 1988.
Page 91
ABSTRACT
Following the appearance of several agent architectures proposed by designers during the processing of their SMA specific to
their areas of research, we have decided to introduce a generic agent architecture composed of layers of agents and other
optional components such as databases, web services, or other files. This generic architecture designed to better adapt existing
and proposed architectures for multi-agent systems studied in other researches. The architecture proposed in this paper is
based on a number of researches highlighting architectural data for specific multi-agent systems [1], [2], [3] etc. Indeed, it
offers different agents types (presentation agent, business agent, data access agent...). The proposed architecture, considered as
generic, is suitable for a large number of multi-agent systems. It can be configured according to the studied multi-agent
systems structure and to agents as well as the type of collaboration to develop. It has an open system in which we can remove
or add new features that will be provided obviously by the agents.
1. INTRODUCTION
Multi-agent systems structure and contents are continuously evolving. Information appear and disappear and new
concepts and components are created and changing very quickly. Multi-agent systems architecture must be able to
follow this development and must be extensible, adaptive and flexible to use information derived from MAS.
As its name suggests, our proposed Agent architecture takes advantage of the Agent-oriented software engineering to
ensure flexibility and reusability. The starting point of this architecture is a prototype already made for a collaborative
information system [1]. This system has already adopted the agent approach and used a device to facilitate and optimize
information and resources exchange and sharing among collaborative partners network in a supply chain. However,
this prototype has concerned only one research area which is the design and development of collaborative information
systems applied in logistics.
Our architecture uses computer applications architectural structure already known by its four layers (Presentation,
Business, Data Access and Data Storage) by deploying it on a larger and more effective agents software organization,
with more specialized agents in order to process simultaneously multiple research areas.
2. ARCHITECTURE DESCRIPTION
For our system design, we propose a four-level model, each level includes one or more agents (see Figure 1) that
communicate and collaborate with each other to perform the tasks assigned to them. Depending on these agents
behavior nature, that can be distributed, centralized or hybrid, we found three cases of architectures. Subsequently we
present the model of each case of architecture with its four related layers Presentation, Business, Data Access and
Data Storage :
2.1 Case of simple architecture
This architecture illustrates the distributed system behavior among several agents namely GUI, Business and Data and
Services Access agents. In this case, the decision is not taken by a single specialized agent, but by different agents, each
agent having a local activity and limited vision of the whole system.
Page 92
Page 93
Page 94
Data Storage Layer (framed in blue): This layer contains the elements (files, databases and services repository)
necessary to perform the action plan defined by the Business layer.
Like simple architecture, each of the "Business" and "Data and Services Access" cognitive agents of the Business
and Data Access and Services layers for this architecture can be rational, adaptive or intentional according to their
roles in the system multi agents being studied.
2.3 Case of hybrid architecture
This architecture provides a system that can be shared between distributed and centralized behaviors among several
agents namely GUI, Business and Data and Services Access agents. Indeed, we can find for example a distributed
behavior of the Presentation layers agents and another centralized behavior of the Business and Data Access and
Services layers agents. So, we will have the following model corresponding to this architecture:
Figure 3 Hybrid Agent Architecture with distributed GUI agents behavior and centralized Business and Data and
Services Access agents behavior
Or, we can find a centralized agents behavior of Presentation and Data and Services Access layers and another
distributed agents behavior of the Business layer. So we will have the following model corresponding to this
architecture:
Figure 4 Hybrid Agent Architecture with distributed GUI agents and Data and Services Access agents behavior and
centralized Business agents behavior
We can find a third example of hybrid architecture where there is a centralized agents behavior of Presentation and
Page 95
Business layers and another distributed agents behavior of the Data and Services Access layer. The model for this
architecture is the following:
Figure 5 Hybrid Agent Architecture with distributed GUI agents and Data and Services Access agents behavior and
centralized Business agents behavior
3. APPLICATION EXAMPLES
This chapter is dedicated to MAS design phase where we present the architecture of three applications: Chat
Application chat, Football Team and Collaborative Information System Management. This will help us to test and
validate our proposed architecture and consider it as generic for any type of multi-agent system.
3.1 Application Example 1: Chat Application
Our proposed architecture has been used to design a multi-agent system of a chat application [4] which consists of three
reactive agents playing the roles of chatters. These agents are considered reactive since each of them does not respond
before the application user declares the recipient's name. Thus, they have a stimulus /response behavior. Therefore, an
agent will be prepared to capture the name and message and send it to another suitable agent. It will also react to clear
all sent or received messages from its interface.
The designer can build the architecture of its multi-agents system from our generic agent architecture (see section 2).
For this, he must choose one of three proposed architectures cases, rely on the chosen architecture initial structure with
its four layers "Presentation, Business, Data Access and Data Storage" and project them on his system.
In this first example, our chat application will have a single graphical interface called and used by three reactive agents
where each of them will capture the recipient agent name entered by the user to send a message. Therefore, the only
possible processing in this application is the verification of the recipients name of the message to send. This
verification is performed through the consultation of a table or a file containing the chat application user names. We
can consider our chat application as a simple application with a distributed behavior and thus its architecture will
correspond to the first simple case proposed at the 2.1 section of our architecture Generic Agent and whose four layers
were used and adapted to our example. So we get a valid architecture for our chat application illustrated by the
following Figure 6:
Page 96
As shown in the figure above, each of the Presentation layers reactive chat agents has a graphical interface that lets
capture the recipient's name and the message to send. This data is then sent to the Business agent, corresponding to
Business layer, who initiates the verification of the recipient's name captured by the user. For this, he uses the Data
Access agent of the Data Access layer that loads the requested table or data file from the Data Storage layer in order to
let Business agent perform its verification. Finally, the GUI agent displays the message in the recipient agents
GUI.
3.2 Application Example 2: Football Team
Our proposed architecture has been used to design a multi-agent system representing a football team (see Figure 7),
whose simulation was studied by El Bejjet [5].
Page 97
then uses nine graphical interfaces offered by nine reactive GUI agents. Each GUI is useful to inform the player,
goalkeeper or referee data namely their roles, names, sizes, weights, perceptions...
Then, this data is sent to the main Business cognitive agent of the Business layer. This agent is responsible for
establishing the link between the nine agents (six cognitive representing the game players and three reactive
representing the two goalkeepers and the referee) and transferring data captured at GUIs level of the Presentation layer.
In order to help achieving the objectives of Manager agents that it manages, the main Manager agent uses the
Data Access agent of Data Access layer that loads the requested data table or data file from the Data Storage layer, so
that the agent can perform its role. It also loads the web service ensuring the simulation of each Business agent which
transfers the football team general simulation result to the Presentation layers GUI agent.
3.3 Application Example 3: Collaborative Information System Management
In this third example, we have used our generic architecture for the design of a collaborative platform (see Figure 9)
based on a supply chain that ensures cooperation, information backup and sharing between supply chains actors in real
time. The main objective of this platform is to facilitate and optimize information and resources exchange and sharing
among the collaborative partners network. This collaborative platform has been studied and designed by Dachry [6]:
Page 98
services base) and external resources (databases / remote services) to execute the established action plan.
This agent is considered as a reactive agent due to its stimulus action mode after receiving Manager agent
requests and this by calling the appropriate service and by collecting Service agents responses.
One cognitive Service agent: This agent loads services necessary to perform the action plan produced by one of
the Composer agent.
This agent is considered as a cognitive agent due to its capacity to remember all action plans that he received from
a Composer agent and its ability to decide of the appropriate service to perform this action plan [7]. It will
therefore have a knowledge base represented by the agents possible representations section. In our example, we
find representations regarding the services it loaded for the corresponding Composer agent so that it can perform
its action plan. These representations define these services identifiers, names, and availabilities. The second
representations that this agent may have are those related to the action plans received by Composer agents i.e.
action plans identifiers, ordered articles types and processed requests identifiers and in order to quickly detect
action plans and queries for which he has already loaded services for processing.
The projection of our generic agent architectures four layers "Presentation, Business, Data and Services Access and
Data Storage" (see section 2) on our multi-agent system simulating a collaborative system between actors in the supply
chain gives us the valid architecture for our application illustrated in Figure 10 below:
Page 99
it calls the main Data Access agent of the Data Access layer that manages several reactive Database (BD) agents or
cognitive Services agents. These agents are respectively responsible to access to the requested table or web service
from the Data Storage layer so that the Composer agent can execute its action plan. Finally, he transfers his
processing result to the Manager agent of the Business layer that brings all the five Composer agents processing
results in the form of a comprehensive response and returns them to the Presentation layers main GUI agent.
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we presented our architecture following the agent-based paradigm. This architecture has as main mission
the projection of the various models provided on the different layers of agents belonging to a multi-agent system and
the generalization of all architectures implemented for MAS that had previously been studied. Indeed, since there is no
optimal agents architecture which precisely depends on the considered application domain and system requirements,
we have tried to give a general architecture that can be simple, complex or hybrid depending on the agent behavior
nature (distributed, centralized or both) at each Presentation, Business and Data and Services Access layer. Our
proposed architecture tries to reconcile and factorize cognitive and reactive architectures simultaneously. It has the
advantage of being easy to adjust by the designer in order to develop an efficient architecture specific to his MAS
according to its agents behavior.
References
[1] W. Dachry, Architecture du systme dinformation collaboratif et application en logistique. Ph.D. Thesis. Hassan
II University - An Chock, Dcember 2013.
[2] H. Mansouri, Conception et Ralisation dune plateforme de surveillance environnementale base de nuds relais
mobiles. Ph.D. Thesis. Hassan II University - An Chock, April 2014.
[3] J. Boussaa, Contribution la rsolution des problmes de satisfaction des contraintes : cas de loccupation
despace. Ph.D. Thesis - Cadi Ayyad University, October 2013.
[4] S. Maalal, M. Addou, A New Approach of Designing Multi-Agent Systems, International Journal of Advanced
Computer Science and Applications (IJACSA), II (11), pp.148157, November 2011.
[5] R. El Bejjet, H. Medromi, A Generic Platform for a Multi-agent System Simulation, International Review on
Computers and Software (I.RE.CO.S), XLV (4), September 2010.
[6] W. Dachry, B. Aghezzaf, B. Bensassi, Collaborative Information System for Managing the Supply Chain:
Architecture Based on a Multi Agent System, International Journal of Research in Industrial Engineering, II (2),
pp. 1-16, 2013.
[7] S. Maalal, W. Dachry, M. Addou, A New Approach of Designing Multi-Agent Systems, International Journal of
Emerging Trends & Technology in Computer Science (IJETTCS), III (1), pp. 259-269, January February 2014.
[8] M. Huget, An application of AgentUML to Supply Chain Management, JFIADSMA02, Lille, 28-30 October
2002.
AUTHORS
Sara Maalal was born in Rabat the Moroccos capital in 1985. She received his professional master in Computer
Engineering and Internet (3I), Security Networks and Systems Option, in 2008 from the Faculty of science of HASSAN
II University, Casablanca, Morocco. In 2010 she joined the system architecture team of the National and High School
of Electricity and Mechanic, Casablanca, Morocco. As a software engineer, her actual main research interests concern
Designing and modeling Multi-Agent Systems.
Malika Addou received her Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from University of Liege, Liege, Belgium, in 1992. She got
her engineer degree in Computer Systems from the Mohammadia School of Engineers, Rabat, Morocco in 1982. She is
Professor of Computer Science at the Hassania School of Public Works, Casablanca, since 1982. Her research focuses
on Software Engineering (methods and technologies for design and development), on Information Systems (Distributed
Systems) and on Artificial Intelligence (especially Multi-Agent Systems technologies).
Page 100
Assistant Professor, Working in Satyam College of Engineering and Technology, Midalakkadu, India
Consultant-Pre editor, Deputed to Hurix systems, Forte Solutions pvt. Ltd, Anna salai, Chennai, India
3
Abstract
High frequency PLL architecture with low noise, low spur and less area has been used in telecommunication based
applications such as FM Receiver, which is part of a multi-radio System-on-Chip (SOC). In order to have long lasting battery
backup, electronic gadgets such as smart phones and tablets are operating with low frequency reference clock that is 60MHz
frequency. PLLs are playing vital role in generating multiple stable clock frequency needed by multi-radio system. In this
project, a 4.6 GHz Multipass voltage controlled ring oscillator based dual loop PLL is proposed. Aperture phase
detection mechanism along with phase to analog voltage convertor is used for the designing of low inband noise PLL.
A newly designed multipass voltage controlled ring oscillator is proposed to reduce effective stage delay and thereby
increasing the slew rate of generated signal. The proposed PLL is fabricated in a standard 0.18m CM OS process
using Mentor graphics Pyxis schematic software Tool. Mentor Graphics Pyxis tool is used for implementing the
modules of PLL. Transient and Noise analysis has been performed and compared with the existing PLL. Area of the
PLL is optimized considerably by properly choosing the circuitry of internal blocks with less num ber of transistors
without compensating overall performance of system.
Keywords: Phase Frequency Detector (PFD), Aperture Phase Detector (APD), Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO),
True Single Phase Clocked (TSPC), Frequency Locked Aid (FLA), Mentor Graphics Pyxis.
1. INTRODUCTION
Phase locked loops (PLLs) are widely used for frequency synthesis and clock generation in modern Systems-On-Chip.
A PLL is a control system which uses negative feedback to align the clock phase of a voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO) to that of the input reference. Typically a Quartz Crystal Oscillator (XO) is used to generate the input reference.
A quartz crystal is a piezo-electric device which produces a mechanical oscillation when a voltage source is applied; the
frequency of oscillation is determined by the shape, the cut and the elastic constants of the crystal [3]. Each XO
provides a precise, fixed frequency source often in the range of a few kHz to tens of MHz. A higher oscillation
frequency is also possible by tuning a crystal to its harmonics, called overtone frequencies.
An XO exhibits extremely low phase noise due to its high Q factor, which is several orders of magnitude higher than
an LC tank oscillator [5]. An XO also offers superior thermal stability often within 100ppms. However an XO is
typically designed around a few standard frequencies. The main advantage of using a PLL for frequency multiplication
lies in its ability to synthesize a highly tunable clock source using a local VCO with its in-band phase noise
performance approaching that of the XO.
Page 101
version of the VCO clock feeds back to the PD and the loop is closed. In steady state frequency multiplication is
achieved, fvco=N.fref where N is the divide ratio.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is an old technology dating from 1930s. It is used for a wide range of applications in the
fields of communications, instrumentation, control systems and multimedia apparatus. The techniques were mainly
used for synchronous reception of radio signals. Widespread use of PLL began with TV receivers during 1940s. A PLL
is a device which locks an output signal phase relative to an input reference signal phase. The signals of interest may be
any periodic waveform but are typically sinusoidal or digital clock PLLs were used to synchronize the horizontal and
vertical sweep oscillators to the synchronous pulses. Literature review about various types of PLL is discussed as
follows,
2.1 A Fully Integrated CMOS Phase Locked Loop
Cheh Ming Hung et al. (2002) [2] proposed a fully integrated 1.5-V 5.5-GHz CMOS Phase-Locked Loop. In this paper,
a 1.5-V 5.5-GHz fully integrated phase-locked loop (PLL) has been implemented in a 0.25- m foundry digital CMOS
process. Also produced many results and a PLL operating at 5.5 GHz with low phase noise and low power consumption
has been demonstrated using a 0.25- m foundry digital CMOS process. By utilizing voltage doublers in the PLL to
supply the charge pump, the frequency tuning range is increased while the degradation of the PLL phase noise and
spurs is kept negligible. A new charge-pump circuit which reduces the current glitches at its output is realized and the
PLL spurs are < - 69 dBc. The achieved performance of the PLL suggests that integration of a low-cost and low-powerconsumption frequency synthesizer for high bit-rate 5-GHz wireless applications is feasible in a standard digital 0.25mCMOS process.
2.2 A Digital calibration technique for charge pumps in Phase-Locked systems
Chi-Fu Liang et al. (2008) [3] proposed a digital calibration technique for charge pumps in phase-locked systems. In
this paper, A digital technique is adopted to calibrate the current mismatch of the charge pump (CP) in phase-locked
systems. In this digital calibration technique, there is no extra replica CP needed. A digital calibration technique has
been proposed to alleviate the mismatch in conventional CP circuits. Unlike the previous method with a replica CP, this
proposed technique calibrates the CP circuit in the loop without a replica CP. For the wideband applications, the
control voltage of the VCO may vary in a wide range. Our technique may provide a good way to compensate the CP
current mismatch due to the channel-length modulation. The technique consumes negligible power with a cost of extra
calibration time. However, the extra calibration time can be further reduced by transforming the SAR controller into a
counter once the SAR controller has completed.
2.3 CMOS fractional-N Synthesizer utilizing Hybrid PFD/DAC structure for reduced broadband Phase noise
Meninger. E et al. (2006) [8] proposed A 1-MHZ Bandwidth 3.6-GHz 0.18 m CMOS Fractional-N Synthesizer
Utilizing a Hybrid PFD/DAC Structure for Reduced Broadband Phase Noise. In this paper, A frequency synthesizer
architecture capable of simultaneously achieving high closed-loop bandwidth and low output phase noise is presented.
The proposed topology uses a mismatch compensated, hybrid phase/frequency detector and digital-to-analog converter
(PFD/DAC) circuit to perform active cancellation of fractional-N quantization noise. When compared to a classical
second-order delta sigma synthesizer, the prototype PFD/DAC synthesizer demonstrates > 29 dB quantization noise
suppression without calibration, resulting in a fractional-N synthesizer with 1-MHz closed-loop bandwidth and - 155
dBc/Hz phase noise at 20-MHz offset for a 3.6-GHz output. An on-chip band select divider allows the synthesizer to be
configured as a dual-band (900 MHz/1.8 GHz) direct modulated transmitter capable of transmitting 271-kb/s GMSK
data with less than 3 degrees of rms phase error. We have proposed utilizing a mismatch compensated PFD/DAC
structure to dramatically reduce the impact of fractional-N dithering noise on synthesizer performance. The proposed
architecture utilizes several compensation techniques to alleviate the presence of mismatch sources that would
otherwise adversely affect noise cancellation. Circuits capable of generating an accurate charge-box through the use of
dynamic element matching techniques have been presented. Using these techniques, mismatch that would otherwise
result in incomplete noise cancellation and large fractional spurs is converted to broadband noise that is then filtered by
the PLL. The prototype PFD/DAC synthesizer exhibits 29-dB noise suppression when compared to the same system
configured as a second-order synthesizer, demonstrating a simultaneous achievement of excellent noise performance
and high synthesizer bandwidth, without the use of calibration. Measurements of the prototype system suggest that
future designs of the PFD/DAC synthesizer should focus on reducing, and perhaps noise shaping, the timing mismatch
between the two phase paths within the PFD/DAC, since this noise source limits noise performance. Measurements
further suggest that on-chip coupling limits fractional spur levels to 45 dBc for the 3.6-GHz output, implying that this
is a primary issue of concern for future designs.
Page 102
Page 103
Page 104
A schematic diagram of designed single stage of ring oscillator is shown in the figure 6. Once the latch is triggered, it
helps pulls up the voltage on one side while simultaneously reducing it on the order. The control voltage is connected to
the gates of the M3 and M4 such that increasing the positive feedback gain in the latch by reducing FET resistance.
Page 105
FLLUP and FLLDOWN in the figure show the UP and DOWN pulses of the frequency locking aid loop. ICTRL
indicates the waveform of charge pump current and is the filtered out by loop filter to pulsated DC, shown in figure as
LFOUT. The frequency locking aid helps main loop for the locking process. After locking process, the output of both
FLLUP and FLLDOWN become low, this indicates reference frequency is matched with the divider frequency. Figure
9, shows the output waveforms of Differential to single ended circuit, reference signal and the generated signal. The
signal generated by multipass ring oscillator VCO is half swing output. So it is needed to make them as full swing
signal by the help of differential to single ended circuit.
The conventional PLL architecture uses the LC based voltage controlled oscillator and is implemented using 180 nm
technology. It consumes power of 4.02 mw which is high compared to this proposed PLL, which consumes 3.5mw. So,
13% of power is saved by this design. High frequency signals of 4.6 GHz frequency can be generated due to high slew
rate of proposed multipass ring oscillator which is implemented in dual loop PLL architecture.
5.Conclusion
A dual loop phase-locked loop and various PLL architectures were implemented and simulated in Mentor Graphics
Pyxis tool with 180nm technology. In this project, modified dual loop PLL with 60 MHz reference frequency is
compared with the LC VCO based dual loop PLL of 60 MHz reference frequency. From analysis results, it is evident
that major noise and spur causing resistors and capacitors value considerably reduced in this design compared to
conventional one. This reduces overall noise of the system by 13.6% compared to LC VCO dual loop PLL architecture.
Since, it is tedious to control the switch dynamically in modified aperture phase detector design. Number of transistors
used in proposed APD is 46, transistors involved in conventional sequential APD is about 64. Hence, proposed APD
occupies 29.5% less area comparatively. This proposed PLL can be used for generating clock signal in a baseband
portion of an FM receiver in portable applications. Since, it operates with 60MHz reference frequency it consumes less
power for operation. This is a desirable feature needed for battery operated devices.
Page 106
References
[1] Arnold Goldstein, (1963) Analysis to phase controlled loop with a saw tooth comparator, Bell System Tech
Journal, Vol. 5, pp 603-663.
[2] Cheh-Ming Hung and James C Hung, (2002) A Fully Integrated 1.5-V 5.5-GHz CMOS Phase-Locked Loop,
IEEE journal of solid state circuit, Vol. 37, No.4,pp 203-204.
[3] Deyun cai, Haipeng Fu, Junyan Ren, Wei Li, Ning Li, Hao Yu, and Kiat Seng Yeo,(2013) A Dividerless PLL
With Low Power and Low Reference Spur by Aperture Phase Detector and Phase to Analog converter, IEEE
Transactions on Circuit and Systems I, Vol.60, No.1, pp. 35- 48.
[4] Enrico Temporiti and Subburaj. K, (2004) A 700-kHz Bandwidth Fractional Synthesizer with Spurs
Compensation and Linearization Techniques for WCDMA Applications, IEEE journal of solid state circuits,
Vol.39, No.9, pp. 15-17.
[5] Ginsburg. B. P, Nagaraj. N, Ozgun. M, Subburaj. K and Ledesma.F, (2011) Highly-linear FM transmitter for
mobile applications in 65 nm CMOS, in Proceedings on RFIC, Vol 34, pp. 14.
[6] Guan Chyun Hsich and James C Hung, (1996) Phase Locked Loop Techniques -A Survey, IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, Vol. 43, No 6,pp 233-245.
[7] Mao Lai and Michino Nakano, (1996), Special Section on Phase Locked Loop Techniques, Guest Editorial,
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol.43, No 6, pp 561-569.
[8] Meninger.E and Mao Nakano, (2006) A 1-MHZ Bandwidth 3.6-GHz 0.18-m CMOS Fractional-N Synthesizer
Utilizing Hybrid PFD/DAC Structure for Reduced Broadband Phase Noise, IEEE journal of solid state circuits,
Vol.41, No.4, pp.57-64.
[9] Pellerano.S, Liu. J. F, Carley. L. R, and Yue.C. P, (2004) A 13.5-mW 5-GHz Frequency Synthesizer With
Dynamic-Logic Frequency Divider, IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits, Vol.34, No.9, pp. 281284.
[10] Pu.X, Kumar.A, Goldman.S and Nagaraj.K, (2012) Area-Efcient Low-Noise Low-Spur Architecture for an
Analog PLL Working From a Low Frequency Reference, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems-II, Vol. 59,
No. 6, pp 145-156.
[11] Seyun Cai and Tom Yo-Hung, (2013) A PLL With Low Power and Low Reference Spur for high frequency
synthesizers, IEEE Transactions on Circuit and Systems, Vol.54, No.12, pp.575-589.
[12] Tsung-Hsien Lin and Tsen Chu Yung, (2009) Dynamic Current-Matching Charge Pump and Gated-Offset
Linearization Technique for Fractional-N PLLs, IEEE Transaction on Circuit and Systems, Vol.56, No.5, pp 2932.
[13] Wegan, (2000) Frequency Synthesis by Phase Lock, 2nd edition, New York: Wiley Interscience.
[14] William C Lindsey and Chak Chie, (1981) A survey of Digital Phase Locked Loops, Proceedings of the IEEE,
Vol. 69, No 4.pp1562-1568.
[15] Zhang. P et al., (2003) A direct conversion CMOS transceiver for IEEE 802.11a WLANs IEEE Journal on Solid
State Circuits, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp.354-355.
Page 107
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this paper is to make us understand the role of importance of PSoC-5in our lives and also to know about
its various applications. Here we are going to provide a complete report on the functionality and also the implementation of
various projects on Psoc-5. Our main application over which we will work on is ADC data buffering using DMA & USB Key
HID interfacing with Keyboard.In case of ADC data buffer we will see the data will buffer easily with less losses. Also we will
see how we can interface keyboard with USB HID. These are the widel applications on which we will work on. The need of
PSoC-5 in this era is incredible. The PSoC-5 has got time management skills which makes easy and error free research areas.
PSoC-5 helps systems to retain compatibility, flexibility and is also cost effective. So as to meet the demands of the fast growing
technology we need to learn the various aspects and functionality of the PSoC-5which will help to make our work and
knowledge more valuable. PSoC-5is used in wide no. of applications. It has got a lot of scope in the future as well in the
present. The applications are power management, wireless communication, automotive transportation, centre console, touch
screens, button replacement, HVAC, motor control, switches, ultrasonic parking, computer and peripherals like iPod, iPhone,
iPad accessories and thermal management. It has got a lot of scope in medical lines like making Blood Pressure monitor,
Blood glucose meter, fertility monitor and infusion pump. Our goal is to implement the applications ADC DATA
BUFFERING USING DMA and USB HID INTERFACING WITH KEYBOARD. For achieving our goal we are starting
here with small experiments. In case of ADC data buffering using DMA through PSoC-5 the data get buffer with less losses
and we get the result by the easiest way. In the other application we can interface the USB with Keyboard very easily.
1.INTRODUCTION
PSoC-5 microcontroller is plays a very widel role in many applications now a days. As for a project it covers all the
needs on a single chip.It gives a whole new concept of microcontroller as it contains both analog & digital
blocks.PSoC-5(Programmable system on chip) [9] is made by Cypress semiconductor & is to be defined as the family of
integrated circuits.
Here we are going to do study about the basic principle of Psoc-5, implementation of small projects which will
implemented in all the processor modules ie CY8C28, CY8C38 CY8C55.Further we will work on ADC data buffering
using DMA and USB HID intermediate with Keyboard as the big applications of Psoc-5.
We will work here on PSoC-5 Designer, PSoC-5 Creator, PSoC-5 Programmer for achieving the results & for further
analysing them.PSoC-5(Programmable System on Chip) represents a whole new concept in microcontroller
development. In addition to all the standard elements of 8-bit microcontrollers, PSoC-5chips feature digital and analog
programmable blocks, which themselves allow implementation of large number of peripherals.Digital blocks consist of
smaller programmable blocks that can be configured to allow different development options. Analog blocks are used for
development of analog elements, such as analog filters, comparators, instrumentational (non)inverting amplifiers, as
well as AD and DA convertors.Number of components that can be devised is primarily a function of the available
programmable blocks. Depending on the microcontroller family, PSoC-5chips have 416 digital blocks, and 312
analog programmable block
2.THEORY
We are focusing here on reading all the desired materials and the datasheet of Psoc-5. We will use the tools like PSoC5Creator and designer to run different programmes which are necessary to understand the functioning of both the tools.
Firstly we will simply blink the LEDs using the PWM [10] as peripheral on PSoC-5 Creator and Designer using the
development Kit. We will also repeat the project by taking different ports period and period width.
Secondly we will be implementing a project which demonstrates a 9-bit Delta Sigma ADC by measuring the voltage of
the potentiometer center tap wiper and displaying the result on the LCD on all the processor modules and all the
software.These all were the basic projects that we done for knowing the steps for performing the applications.These
basic projects that we done helps us for getting our main applications.
After doing all these minor projects we comes to know about the usage of the PSoC-5 we will directly focus on
achieving the applications of Psoc-5. In case of ADC data buffering using DMA. DMA [13] controller is uses to handle
Page 108
the data transfer without CPU intervention. DMA is useful in applications that require ADC data buffering and allows
the CPU for doing the simultaneous tasks. Here we will see the basics of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 20-bit Delta Sigma ADC
data buffering using DMA with example projects. The 20-bit example project accompanying this application note
demonstrates problems with data buffering using DMA. These problems occur when the peripheral spoke width is less
than the actual data width. The project describes how to tackle this using multiple DMA channels. The DMA is used to
move data from a source to destination without CPU intervention is the basic concept on which we will further work.In
our third application i.e. USB HID intermediate with Keyboard, We are using here Psoc-5 full speed USB interface,
where we will take the basics of USB HID development and its implementation is depends upon the knowledge by
which users get knows that how to incorporate the OUTPUT items to receive information from a host device using the
status LEDs on a keyboard taking as an example, we also send the keyboard information as an INPUT to type a
predefined string of text into a text editor.
3.METHODEOLOGY
Here we will covers the next level of Human Interface Devices (HID) [11] USB development on PSoC-53 / PSoC-55
discussing OUTPUT items using a keyboard. Weare using here Psoc-5's full speed USB interface, where we will take
the basics of USB HID development and its implementation is depends upon the knowledge by which users get
knowsthat how to incorporate the OUTPUT items to receive information from a host device using the status LEDs on a
keyboard taking as an example, we also send the keyboard information as an INPUT to type a predefined string of text
into a text editor.
Human Interface Devices (HID) [12]are the devices which enable the consumers to easily interface with and control
their PCs. almost all of the HIDs send information to the host. Keyboards and mice are the most common
examples.However, there is often PC have needs to send the information to the peripheral and for receiving the
information is from the host that is accomplished with an Output Report.
Output Items in the HID Report Descriptor must be configured properly for receiving this Output Report
properlyconfiguring the Output items.The transferring result can take the form of a LED on a keyboard.The Keyboard
requires the interaction from the host to provide the information to it. In a keyboard the Input has taken from the keys
that the user presses and Output taken from the LEDs on the keyboard by which the information will display (such as
checking if the caps lock is enabled or not).
For understanding the Output Items in greater detail, the Report Descriptor will uses for a 104-key keyboard. In Figure
3.1 it will shows HID Report Discriminator in which by expanding the parameters we will able to get output. The
chosen organization of the report descriptor follows the required format for a boot interface, which we are discussing in
the Boot Interface section. However, the report descriptor can be organized in various ways and still function as a
keyboard with LEDs.
Page 109
Bytes are sent to the host as an Input Item and one byte is received from the host as an Output Item. There are eight
bytes which are sent to the host and are firstly organized with modifier keys.They are followed by general keys which
are shown in Table 3.1A modifier key is uses which is a key and with the help of it the functions of a general key are to
be modifies for performing the alternative functions.Modifier keys on the keyboard include the shift, alt, and GUI keys.
All other remaining keys are considered as general keys. The format in which this information is transferred to the host
is shown in Table
Table3.1. (Keyboard Input Report Table)
There are only seven bytes of useful information when we sent information is of 8-byte packet. This is because of the
reserved byte (Byte 1) shown in Table 3.2 It is intended for OEM [14] use and is not used in most applications. There is
to be a reserved key that may be used on a keyboard which contains a non-standard key and performs a function that is
specific to that PC. We can see it in laptops and tablet computers.
In most of the keyboards that are purchased in the consumer market, the reserved byte remains a constant value of 0x00
and the remaining bytes in the configuration are the general keys. In a given transaction six available bytes of
information indicate that up to six key codes can be sent to the PC and it will enables up to six simultaneous key
presses. The order of the key codes in the array does not have any significance.When we compare the newly received
report from the previous report the sorting is accomplished then.
Table 3.2(Modifier Key Index)
In Table 3.2 We can see that each modifier key has a corresponding bit associated with it.It means in a bit field of
information the modifier keys are stored. The HID Usage Tables shows that the Usage values for the modifier keys are
in the range from E0-E7. However, it is also to be seen that the usage values are not sent as array data. The modifier
keys are to be sent as variable data and it means that each individual bit in the 8-bit value is corresponds to one of the
modifier keys. The Usage Minimum/Maximums are then used to link the modifier key information in the bit field to
the proper Usage value with the Usage Minimum/Maximum.
The difference between Array and Variable becomes more relevant in this keyboard application.We can differentiate
them as follows:
Array versus Variable: Array means only controls that are currently active are reported such as a button being pressed.
Variable means that the data reported is the current state of every control regardless if a button is pressed or not.
According to the USB HID Usage table, the usage values for the LEDs are provided in Table 3.3 LED information is an
Absolute Item, which means that the Output Report must include the state of each LED with 0 meaning off and 1
meaning on.The LEDs are not relative items, which means that a 0 represents no change and 1 represents a change
in state.
Table 3.3(LED Indicator Index)
Page 110
When referencing the Report Descriptor the first Input item is from top down and for the modifier keys (Shift, Alt, and
GUI). These keys are configured in a Variable configuration to implement a bit field. The Input Item configuration for
Keyboard modifier keys is shown in Figure 3.1
Page 111
The final Input Item to configure is for the general (non-modifier) keys. The HID specification requires these keys to be
configured with an Array and Absolute configuration.
It is a PC user desires to enter a PCs BIOS upon boot up to edit it. For getting this, the USB HID Specification defines
a boot protocol for keyboard. These protocols are predefined and the device is required to conform to the specifications
to be a boot device. The boot protocol supports up to eight bytes of information.BIOS can ignores anything over these
eight bytes[11]. It is a very important point that in actually BIOS does not read the report descriptor because of the
predefined standard, the BIOS have expectations of the information in a certain format. Because of this reason a HID
device such as a keyboard can have two interfaces.These interfaces are: one is the boot interfaces and the other is USB
aware interfaces. In first kind of interfaces i.e. the boot interface, the requirement of a hard coded Report Descriptor is
not necessary here.
This is the project which act as a keyboard and it will type the messages also will displays the status of num lock, caps
lock, and scroll lock.
Here we are going to introduce the user to a HID device and it consists of both an Input and Output transfer. The
project acts as a keyboard that types messages and displays.For getting our application we have to do following steps:
For this project, we will start by opening PSoC-5Creator and thus create an empty project named Project_1_Keyboard.
After the project has been created and PSoC-5Creator is completely loaded, we will place the following components
into the schematic entry page (TopDesigncysch).
Character LCD
(1) USBFS
(2) Digital Input Pins
(3) Digital Output Pins
Page 112
These pins required certain changing in settings.Thus for the Input Pins, we will open the pin configuration customizer
and be sure to uncheck the HW Connection box and thus changing their drive mode to Resistive Pull Down which is
done by clicking on the General tab in the pin customizer menu. For the Digital Output Pins, open the configuration
menu, uncheck the HW Connection box, and change their drive mode to Strong.
When the components are placed, we go to the Workspace Explorer window and thus double click on
MyFirstKeyboardHID.cydwr. Click on the Clocks tab and then double click on one of the clocks to open the GUI
clock configuration window.We will make the following changes to the clock as shown in Figure 3.7.
IMO 24 MHz
ILO 100 kHz
PLL Input: IMO, Desired: 48 MHz
Master Clock PLL Out
USB Clock IMO x2
Page 113
Our next step is to be the selection of Configuration Descriptor and the window changes as shown in Figure below.
Since the project is bus powered, limit the maximum current that can be supplied to the device. It is important to
specify a value that is appropriate for the device. Here we are using 20 mA which is more than sufficient.
Page 114
Page 115
We will use the jumper wires to make the following connections on the PSoC-5CY8CKIT-001. If we want to change
the pin configuration from Figure 4.31,we have to sure to change the wiring configuration accordingly.
SW1 -P0[6] -Caps Lock Key
SW2 -P0[7] -Type Constant String
LED2 -P1[5] -Num Lock LED
LED3 -P1[6] -Caps Lock LED
LED4 -P1[7] -Scroll Lock LED
LCD -P2[6:0] -Status Display
After the device is programmed, we will connect a USB cable from the PC to the DVK. When the device has
enumerated, we will press the Caps, Num, and Scroll Lock keys on our keyboard and then observe the changes on
LEDs and LCD accordingly. When we Press SW1 on the DVK and then observe the Caps Lock toggle. In next step we
will open a text editor on the PC and then press SW2. Observe a string of text transmitted to PC and displayed in the
text editor. We are free to edit the string in the main.cfile to type anything. The program by which we will able to
obtainour application is to be explain on Appendix.
4 RESULT ANALYSIS
In this chapter we have shown the simulation results obtained by us while working on different applications of the
Psoc-5.
ADC Data buffering using DMA
Build and program the chip
Press F5 or click the debug icon to download the program and debug.
Page 116
Page 117
5.APPLICATIONS
These all were the methodology by following the each and every steps from here we firstly implement the small projects
and further will implement our main big applications i.e ADC DATA BUFFERING USING DMA and third
application is USB HID intermediate with Keyboard.For getting these main applications implementations we will
follow the same method from these PSoC-5creator, PSoC-5designer and PSoC-5 Programmer but for these we will
firstly study what is data buffering, what is ADC data and what the meaning of DMA, how data will buffer by DMA?
In our next application i.e. USB HID intermediate with Keyboard, here we will see how we can intermediate the
keyboard with USB HID.We will provide the input from Keyboard by pressing any key on Keyboard like Caps Lock
and then output we will see on PSoC-5board by LED glowing. Hence we will comes to know that the USB HID get
intermediate with Keyboard. By knowing all these concepts and all these questions we will easily implement our
applications
6.CONCLUSION
This dissertation focuses on use of PSoC-5(Programmable System on Chip) for achieving big applications. We designed
here ADC data buffering using DMA and USB HID intermediate with Keyboard. In case of ADC data buffering using
DMA, we buffers 8 bit, 16 bit, 20 bit and 12 bit SAR ADC data using DMA very easily.USB HID intermediate with
Keyboard, we have done burning of the program on Pasco throughPSoC-5/ Miniprog 3 from PC to PSoC-5board and as
the output we can see the output on board in the form of light in LED by providing the input from Keyboard. PSoC-5is
a less time consuming device.
We started from basics projects .With the help of these basic projects we got enough information to achieve our main
applications. Firstly we have done LED with PWM project, thus we put some changes on it by changing the
connections and as a result we glow the LED on board. We also have done ADC to LCD display and other basic project
was Capsense. By doing these projects we got familiar with the working of cypress kit.
This Kit is very attractive and main thing that it is very interesting. On performing the work on kit, we felt more
curiosity for doing work on it. By the use of this kit we can also make our own IC.
REFRENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Page 118
[10] The Method of data exchange between high performance PWM modulator and MCU by Maxim, D. ; Volkov, A.G.
; Makarov, D.V. Micro/Nanotechnologies and Electron Devices (EDM), 2012 IEEE 13th International Conference
Publication Year: 2012.
[11] A human-robot interface using vision-based eye gaze estimation system Dong Hyun Yoo ; Jae Heon Kim ; Do
Hyung Kim ; Myung Jin Chung Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2002. IEEE/RSJ International ConferenceYear:
2002.
[12] Microcontroller implementation of a voice command recognition system for human-machine interface in embedded
systemsBernal-Ruiz, C. ; Garcia-Tapias, F.E. ; Martin-del-Brio, B. ; Bono-Nuez, A. ; Medrano-Marques, N.J
Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation, 2005. ETFA 2005. 10th IEEE Conference in 2005.
[13] DMA controller design using self-clocked methodology Aghdasi, F. ; Bhasin, A.AFRICON, 2004. 7th AFRICON
Conference in Africa, 2004.
[14]A Case Study to Track High Value Stillages using RFID for an Automobile OEM and its Supply Chain in the
Manufacturing IndustryAghdasi, F. ; Bhasin, A. AFRICON, 2004. 7th AFRICON Conference in Africa
Page 119
Njeru Mwiti Kevin, 2.Zipporah Munene, 3.Mwangi Robert Kimani, 4.Kevin Murithi Njagi,
5.
Bildad Mbagara, 6.Kaaria Karwitha Joy
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ABSTRACT
This paper analyzes the role of the government in establishing green ICT within organizations. Looking at the practices
currently adopted by governments, this paper identifies some of the most important areas through which the low carbon value
added by new technologies could be increased. Drawing on evidence from other countries around the world, practitioners and
from the academic community we can see that there are similarities between the approaches taken by a number of
governments, but we can also see that this area of activity will need to be context-specific as well. As we move forward, areas of
focus will become more obvious for particular countries and regions, where they have a unique role to play and can add more
value. We achieve this by adopting two approaches. One is by investigating what other countries have done as regards to
entrenching green ICT in their countries, second was by an analysis of the Kenyan context which took a case of the Kenyan
governments ministry of Information Communication Technology (ICT) and the national environmental management
Authority (NEMA) to find out the extent of government support for businesses and the implementation of Green ICT within the
core functions and departments of the organization. Data collection was then carried out within two major ICT consumer
companies to find out the level of green ICT adoption within them and the way forward, as well as gauge the level of user
awareness on green ICT concepts. The paper concludes by making recommendations which could help the government to
invest more on green ICT, develop a green ICT policy to guide in green ICT adoption and support for organizations
implementation of green ICT.
1.INTRODUCTION
The potential to make our factories, office buildings, transport systems and energy use much more efficient by the
utilization of information and communications technologies (ICTs), has been increasingly acknowledged and
quantified during the past five years [1]. An increasing number of governments are seeing ICTs as a critical component
of their strategies for tackling environmental problems. Governments have widely acknowledged the important
contribution of ICTs in reducing CO2 emission and energy consumption in households [2]. ICT is the critical enabler
that will allow governments to take advantage of the opportunities in todays hyper-connected, integrated and
information-rich world to create responsive 21st century State Services. The future for government ICT is envisaged as
information-centric rather than the technology-centric model of today, transcending agency boundaries to deliver
smarter customer-centered services [3].
From simple data input and processing tasks in an organization, to communication via mobile devices through
manufacturing, product design and engineering, transport control and management systems through accounting and
finance functions, the enabling role of ICT cannot be underestimated. ICT permeates every level of an organization and
government. Its integrating and enabling capability of individual, business and government functions makes it one of
the most essential technologies of our times. Unfortunately, progress in Information communication Technology (ICT)
Page 120
comes at a price as ICT is a major user of energy and natural resources. It is also estimated that ICT contributes about
2-3% of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [4]. Reducing this ICT environmental footprint is the major aim of
green IT/ICT. And hence, every effort should be made to reduce the environmental footprint of ICT in our economies.
The integrating and enabling role of ICT also provides an avenue where ICT can be applied as a solution to reduce the
environmental footprint of other economic and social factors. This is estimated to about 97/98%. This concept is
referred to as green Information systems (green IS), or greening by IT. Hence green IS aims to apply the innovative
power of IT as a solution to the global environmental pollution and GHG emissions [5]. Consider this, major economic
drivers such as transport, energy, manufacturing, and construction contribute heavily to the environmental pollution.
How therefore can we apply ICT in these areas for a better cleaner environment? Various terms from green
construction, green manufacturing, green energy and green transport have been coined.
Consider the case for green construction for example. In 2009 When the United Nations outgrew the office
accommodation at its 140-acre Gigiri compound in Nairobi, it was clear that they needed a building and any new
building had to meet several challenges head-on. It needed to be energy and water efficient, to reduce and recycle, and
to maximize sustainability without compromising the quality of the working environment [6]. The chief head of
facilities describes the building as a showcase for sustainability and a huge enhancement of the working environment.
The new building he notes:
But the new building takes environmental sustainability to a new level. Solar panels cover the roof space, automated
low energy lighting illuminates workspaces, and energy efficient computers sit on desks. Rainwater is collected from
the roofs to feed the fountains and ponds at the four entrances and sewage is treated in a state-of-the-art aeration system
and recycled to irrigate the beautifully landscaped compound. Water saving lavatories, a central atrium and light wells
in every office zone, together with an inventive design that maximizes cooling natural airflow through the building, all
contribute further to sustainability. And far from compromising the working environment, the new building and its
environmentally responsible features are acknowledged to be a huge enhancement of the surroundings and comfort in
which its new occupants work. [6]
What this demonstrates is that there is always a more environmental friendly way of doing things. Truth is that
investing in environmental friendly systems comes at an initial cost, but in the long run the cost is lower for both the
business and for the environment [7]. The use of ICT to build a low carbon future for our governments and societies
offers a unique opportunity. Keeping up to date with technological developments and its ability to support innovation
will deliver environmental, societal and economic benefits for both present and future generations [1].
Government agencies therefore should lead by example by setting a target in reducing use of materials and establishing
necessary procedures, such as introducing travel substitution and more videoconferencing; create right financial
incentives to encourage the development of private sector specialized in green products and services; encourage green
ICT procurement by the public and private sectors and Raise awareness on market potentials for green ICT among the
private sector companies [8]
Research questions
The study comprised of 3 research questions
1.What global trends as regards green computing public policy exists
2.What areas does the current ICT policy in Kenya cover as regards green ICT
3.What is the current status of green computing implementation in Kenya
2.METHODOLOGY
To be able to answer the research questions appropriately, this research employed the following methodology
Questionnaire administered to employees of two heavy ICT consumer companies in Kenya.
Interviews a group of 4 respondents participated in 20-minute in-depth interview. These individuals included a
manager of a leading supermarket in the country, a bank manager, a ministry of Information communication
Technology (ICT) in Kenya official and a National environmental management Authority (NEMA) official.
Document Review: this included previous research especially documents relating to green computing from other
countries to identify what they have done and highlight issues that Kenya as a country can adopt. A review of Kenyan
government policy documents to find out the extent of government involvement in green computing was also done.
In both questionnaires and interviews, respondents were asked to outline the Green ICT adoption states within their
companies, and to describe the role and support the government was playing in facilitating the adoption of Green IT, as
well as their organizations outlook, attitudes, and reasons. They were also questioned about the state of environmental
issues and action in their business practices and within the government, organizational culture as regards best
environmental practices, the state of ICT in the country and the way forward. Data analysis was done based on the
collected data. It comprised of the current state of green computing in Kenya, global trends in green computing and the
organization view of green computing
Page 121
3.LITERATURE REVIEW
Government and sustainability
Many governments are introducing aggressive environmental policy, encompassing everything from greenhouse gas
reduction and natural resource protection to clean power initiatives and incentives for energy efficiency [9]. The threat
posed by uncontrolled environmental usage has amplified the role of the government in facilitating proper usage of the
environment and management of the limited natural resources. According to research, a more resource efficient and
Green Economy provides the framework for a stronger and more sustainable business approach, at the heart of which
lies the necessity to ensure sustained financial growth over the long-term. A Green Economy requires step changes in
resource efficiency, investment in clean technologies, the development of alternative products, services and materials,
and the ability to obtain value from unavoidable waste [10]. This means that enhancemenent of environmental friendly
business practices goes behold the question of governments trying to legislate to a drive by organization trying to find
better ways of doing business, cutting on their operation costs, offering more environmental friendly products and
services to their customers which in the long learn gives these businesses a competitive advantage [11].
A number of government and non governmental institutions are providing guidelines for implementation of green ICT
[12]. This means that the government has a lead role in providing the necessary legislative frameworks that are
essential to guide organizational implementation of green ICTs. It should be noted that the core drivers of green ICT
implementation are factors external and internal to the organization. These include and are not limited to government
legislation, customer demands, competitors, technological changes and a desire to lower costs [13] [14]. At the same
time, the recognition by organizations that greening their operations (green IT) is not a cost [13] of doing business but
rather it can be a means by which organizations can be able to lower the cost of production [10] [7] will push many
firms to adopt green ICT.
It should be noted that this paper considers green IS and green IT to be two different concepts within the same context.
We adopt the argument of [5] [15] [16] [13] that Green IT is a component of green IS. Green IT (greening IT) focuses
on the energy efficiency and equipment utilization of computers and related systems. Green IT aims at reducing the
carbon footprint of IT. Green IS in contrast tries to find the innovative ways in which computers and information
systems can be used to reduce the environmental footprint caused by other factors outside IT. Energy efficiency means
using less to provide the same service whereas carbon footprint is defined by [4] as the measure of the environmental
impact of an individual or organizations lifestyle or operations measured in terms of units of carbon dioxide produced
The UK government was one of the first governments to seriously take steps to green its ICT in 2009. The Greening
Government ICT strategy of the UK government sets out the first steps of the government to reduce its carbon footprint.
We are the first government in the world to look at our ICT in this way and we want to see changes taking place
immediately. We want to see best green practice throughout government - computers switched off overnight, printers
defaulting to duplex, data centers efficiently cooled. The good news is that we are not alone in aiming for these goals.
There is already a great deal of activity in departments and within industry and we will be working with our suppliers
to ensure that action is taken immediately. [17] to show the impact of simple green ICT strategies, the report notes
that turning off just one computer overnight can save 235kg of CO2 in a year. Over the whole estate the potential is
enormous turning off 500,000 computers at night would have the same effect as taking 40,000 cars off the road. This
therefore shows that there should be no excuse for not adopting green ICT measures and underpins the potential
environmental savings within the ICT sector.
In 2011 March, the UK government launched the greening government commitment to ensure that by 2015 the
government will have made substantial reductions in waste generation, water use and greenhouse gas emissions [18]
with a vision to provide a cost effective and energy efficient ICT estate, which is fully exploited, with reduced
environmental impacts to enable new and sustainable ways of working for the public sector. The Greening
Government: ICT strategy describes how government ICT will contribute to those commitments and deliver financial
savings in addition to efficient, green practices. It sets out the green ICT commitments and actions that central
government departments, their agencies and arms length bodies, will take over the next four years. Aligning with the
Governments transparency and efficiency agenda, it recognizes the importance of clear reporting against them and sets
out how government will measure progress by departments, and aggregating this to give a whole of government report
on an annual basis. The strategy sets out how ICT can be exploited to assist the government in achieving the Greening
Government Commitments, in a set of Green ICT commitments and environment. It defines how these commitments
can be met through the adoption of green ICT principles and practices across the Government ICT Strategy and in its
design, delivery and implementation phases as shown in figure 1 below.
Page 122
Page 123
The transition to a Green Economy is not an easy path however. It is characterized by step changes in resource
efficiency and a shift in emphasis from shareholder value to stakeholder value. Some companies, and perhaps whole
industries, will not survive the transition. Success over the long term will require new skills, diverse collaborations,
continuous innovation, investments with uncertain returns, and a change in what the market values. Companies, like
governments, will need to choose wisely if they are to capitalize on the opportunities it brings [10]. What this means is
that these benefits are not a clear cut thing and hence organizations should evaluate their readiness for green ICT
before adoption. Models to access green ICT readiness already exist as proposed by [22] [23].
6.DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
State of Green Economy in Kenya
The Kenyan Government has implemented electronic systems in various State Departments and other state-owned
institutions. These include national tax systems, immigration information system, legal information system, the
integrated financial management system and education system. Most of these systems are to be found in the National
Page 124
Treasury, Kenya Revenue Authority, Home Affairs State Department and Immigration Office. In addition, information
is manually exchanged by and between departments and institutions using fax, e-mail and electronic media [25]. The
Kenya ICT master plan identifies ICT as a critical tool in Kenyas vision of a knowledge based economy, which aims at
shifting the current industrial development path towards innovation where creation, adoption, adaptation and use of
knowledge as the key source of economic growth.
In a green assessment report of the Kenyan economy, United Nations Environmental programmes (UNEP) notes that
Kenya has one of the most dynamic economies in Africa, yet it is facing a number of pressing economic,
environmental and social challenges. From climate change and natural resource depletion to high poverty rates and
rising unemployment, the country is addressing these concerns through its commitment to a low-carbon and resourceefficient development pathway. The report continues to argue that Kenya has adopted several green economy-related
approaches and policies, which include implementing renewable energy feed-in tariffs in 2008, embedding sustainable
natural resource utilization into its 2010 Constitution and mainstreaming green economy in its Second Medium Term
Plan [26]. However, the report continues to note that there is still untapped potential to pursue a development pathway
that will create green jobs, accelerate poverty reduction, support sustainable growth and restore environmental health
and quality. This point to the fact that we cannot be able to separate the social well being of a people, businesses and
economy without considering the well being of our environment.
Efforts by Kenya have been driven by a number of pressing economic, environmental and social concerns such as the
increasing rural to urban migration need for job creation for youth, and degradation of valuable ecosystems. In response
to this, the government has established key policies and programmes for a green economy including:
Developing a national climate change response strategy and action plan, and seeks to embrace a low-carbon
development pathway that is inclusive and equitable, and contributes to its global competitiveness.
Through the Greening Kenya Initiative (GKI), the government has developed a database on green economy activities,
which highlights efforts on the manufacturing of eco-friendly materials, tree planting, organic farming, fish farming,
renewable energy, eco-labeling, solid waste management and environmental management, among others.
The countrys long-term development blueprint, Vision 2030, launched in 2008, aims to transform the country into an
industrialized, middle-income country, providing a high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure
environment [27].
The Constitution of Kenya 2010, in Article 42, recognizes a healthy and clean environment as a right and calls for
sustainable exploitation, utilization, management and conservation of the environment and natural resources [28] [26].
The government of Kenya Medium-Term Plan (2013-2017) which has endorsed the development of a comprehensive
national green economy strategy [25]. It is important to note that lack of a government green ICT strategy has been
identified as one of the major reasons for the slow adoption of green ICT within the country by this research.
The UNEP report [26] concludes that countrys Green economy-related investments in the agriculture, energy,
manufacturing and transport sectors could help lower energy consumption and carbon emissions. While CO2
emissions are projected to increase from 12 million tonnes per year in 2012 to 24.35 million tonnes per year in 2030 in
the agriculture and energy sector alone, under a green economy scenario, emissions would be approximately nine per
cent lower than BAU investment scenario (26.7 million tonnes).
Page 125
Page 126
Page 127
In Kenya for example, various regulatory frameworks have been put in place by the government to help in the
protection of the environment. Industrial leaders contend that the government has been supportful as far as legislative
measures are concerned. As noted above, a majority of the respondents seemed to agree that the government plays a key
role in the implementation of green ICT. Some of these key legislations include article 42 of the Kenyan constitution
which states that every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment which includes the right to have the
environment protected for the benefit of present and future generations and article 70 which guarantees a clean
environment as a claimable right by any member who feels that his rights to a clean environment have been infringed.
This article states that if a person alleges that a right to a clean and healthy environment recognized and protected
under article 42 has been, is being or is likely to be denied, violated, infringed or threatened, the person may apply to a
court for redress [28]. Other policies in Kenya include the controlled substances regulations, EIA regulations and the
environmental management and coordination act of 1999 which established a number of environmental regulatory
institutions such as NEMA, provincial and district environmental committees and the public complaints committee. It
is also important to note that the ICT authority in Kenya proposes the development of a green ICT implementation
strategy in Kenya [25]
In some countries, tax-based policies specifically aimed at reducing greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions alongside
technology and other policies have helped to weaken the link between GHG emissions and GDP (high confidence). In a
large group of countries, fuel taxes (although not necessarily designed for the purpose of mitigation) have effects that
are akin to sectoral carbon taxes [2]. Some mitigation policies raise the prices for some energy services and could
hamper the ability of societies to expand access to modern energy services to underserved populations (low confidence).
These potential adverse side-effects can be avoided with the adoption of complementary policies (medium confidence).
Most notably, about 1.3 billion people worldwide do not have access to electricity and about 3 billion are dependent on
traditional solid fuels for cooking and heating with severe adverse effects on health, ecosystems and development.
Providing access to modern energy services is an important sustainable development objective.
10.CONCLUSION
It is our inherent that the government has an important role in promoting green IS. In the case of Kenya, it is our clear
that the government needs to raise awareness about green ICT by compiling green ICT products and solutions database,
consulting businesses and international organizations such as UNEP on green ICT, and acknowledging and inspiring
companies with green ICT award. From our findings and even with support from other academic literature, the level of
ICT awareness in Kenya and a majority of African countries is fairly low [30] [32].
It is clear that Kenya has made some great strides in greening its economy: from the adoption of geothermal, solar and
wind energy to afforestation through to the provision of proper legislations to govern environmental management.
However, in terms of green ICT, very little seems to have been done. And even where policies are in place, only a few
of all government programmes and industry association initiatives have measurable targets and indicators to measure
whether these targets are being achieved. For example, within the ICT master plan for 2014-2017, the only statement
that touches on green ICT is found on page 39 Environmental protection and conservation - All institutions involved
in ICT Master Plan implementation to adhere to the green ICT concept by environmentally friendly equipments that
are cheaper and easy to implement and ensuring there is no e-waste dumping. This statement is to a large extent vague
as very little in terms of policy exist to provide guidelines on green ICT within the Kenyan government. This puts the
government on the spot in terms of providing guidelines for green ICT eight years since green ICT was identified as a
major strategic technology in 2008. These findings reinforce an earlier research in the UK where private businesses
accused the government of being a late adopter. Overall, much more needs doing to develop and apply clear and
measurable policies and initiatives to improve environmental performance of ICTs, and to apply ICTs across the
economy to tackle the challenges of global warming and environmental degradation. In particular, policies and
initiatives can encourage improvement of environmental performance along the entire ICT life cycle and promote
On a global scale, the west seems to have made great strides with a number of countries having already developed their
green ICT strategies/policies. These include Germany, UK, Uruguay, Newzealand, Denmark and Estonia among
others.
11.RECOMMENDATIONS
Clarifying the advantage of green ICT by reviewing and developing green ICT auditing and evaluation methodology,
doing follow-up study of greenness of green ICT solutions, and disseminating the best practice of evaluation of
greenness of green ICT is an essential undertaking of every government. This may include developing a country policy
for green ICT that can be implemented at government level and adopted within the private enterprises.
Advancing cooperation by initiating public-private partnership in developing and implementing exemplary green ICT
solutions, greening ICT and other technology clusters, and clarifying the limits of cooperation. Increasing funding by
conditioning public procurements, grants, investments on greenness and use of green technology, including green ICT,
Page 128
and allocating resources for public-private partnership projects for developing green ICT solutions will go a long way
in stamping the effectiveness and benefits of green ICT in the economy.
Raising awareness of green ICT in the country especially among organizations will be essential. Providing essential
policy guidelines specifically targeting the broader green ICT practices is critical to the operations of the organization.
Organizations too need to realize the economic potential of green IT.
ICT needs to be separated from other sustainability mechanisms and addressed by governments individually if efforts
without bundling it together with other environmental protection areas. This is because green ICT is a multifaceted tool
that tries to reduce the environmental footprint of ICT as well as provide solutions to other environmental pollution
agents.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] KAREN, ANDERTON; SUBASKAR, SITSABESHAN. ICTs for Sustainable Energy Partnership. GREENING
GOVERNMENT THROUGH ICT: INSIGHTS FROM EUROPE. THE CLIMATE GROUP DESSC, LONDON,
2013.
[2] OECD. TOWARDS GREEN ICT STRATEGIES: ASSESSING POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES ON ICT AND
THE ENVIRONMENT. ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
(OECD), Denmark, 2009.
[3] GOVERNMENT OF NEWZEALAND. Government ICT Strategy and Action Plan to 2017. GOVERNMENT OF
NEWZEALAND, NEWZEALAND, 2013.
[4] ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTING MACHINERY (ACM). Green Computing. Communication of the association
for computing machinery, united states, 2008.
[5] Boudreau, Marie-Claude, Chen, Adela, and Huber, Mark. Green IS: Building Sustainable Business Practices.
University of Georgia: A Global text Project (2007), 1-17.
[6] UNEP. Building for the future. Nairobi, 2011.
[7] Orsato, Renato J. Sustainability Strategies-when does it pay to be green. Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, 2009.
[8] PREMINDA FERNANDO,ATSUKO OKUDA. Green ICT: A Cool Factor in the Wake of Multiple meltdowns.
UNITED NATIONS ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMISSION FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (ESCAP),
2009.
[9] INFO-TECH RESEARCH GROUP. Green IT: Why mid size companies are investing now. IBM & Info-Tech
Research group, Toronto. Ontario, 2009.
[10] UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME (UNEP). The Business Case For The Green Economy.
Sustainable Return On Investments. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, 2012.
[11] Kevin, Njeru Mwiti, Kamau, john Wachira, Wanyembi, Gregory Wabuke, Dinda, Wilkister Atieno, and Njagi,
Kevin Murithi. ENTERPRISE LEVEL GREEN IS STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPING ECONOMIES: CASE OF
KENYA. Interational journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering and Management (IJAIEM), Volume 4,
Issue 1 (January 2015), 132-139.
[12] Molla, Alemayehu. GITAM: A Model for the Adoption of Green IT. In 19th Australasian Conference on
Information Systems (Melbourne Australia 2008), Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS), 658668.
[13] Njeru, Kevin Mwiti, Wachira, John Kamau, Geoffrey, Muchiri, Wanyembi, Gregory, and Waiithaka, Stephen. an
investigation on the applicability of Green IT concepts into Green IS. international Journal of Application or
Innovation in Engineering and Management (IJAIEM), 3, 12 (DECEMBER 2014), 198-204.
[14] Orsato, Renato J. Competitive Environmental Strategies: When Does it Pay to be Greeen? Califonia, 2006.
[15] Brooks, Stoney, Wang, Xuequn, and Sarker, Saonee. Unpacking Green IS: A review of existing Literature and
directions for the future. Springer (2012), 15-37.
[16] Chen, Adela, Boudreau, Marie-Claude, and Watson, Richard T. Information systems and ecological sustainability.
Emerald Insight (2008), 186-201.
[17] MINISTRY OF TRANSFORMATIONAL GOVERNMENT, UK. Greening Government ICT: Efficient,
Sustainable, Responsible. Ministry of Transformational Government, UK, London, 2008.
[18] HM GOVERNMENT. Greening Government: ICT Strategy. UK Government, London, 2011.
[19] Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner,
P. Eickemeier, B.Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlmer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.).
Summary for Policy Makers in climate change 2014. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental policy on climate change (IPCC),
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA., 2014.
[20] Collon, J D. Competitive Advantage through Information Technology. McGraw Hill, New York, 1996.
[21] Loeser, Fabian, Erek, Koray, Schmidt, Nils-Holger, Zarnekow, Ruediger, and Kolbe, Lutz K. Aligning Green IT
with Environmental Strategies: Development of a Conceptual Framework that Leverages Sustainability and Firm
Page 129
Competitiveness. (Detroit Michigan 2011), Proceedings of the Seventeenth Americas Conference on Information
Systems.
[22] Molla, Alemayehu, Cooper, Molla, and Pittayachawan, Saddhi. The Green IT Readiness (G-Readiness) of
Organizations: An Exploratory. Analysis of a Construct and Instrument. Communications of the Association for
Information Systems (2011), 67-96.
[23] Wabwoba, Franklin, Stanley, omuterema, wanyembi, Gregory W., and Omiemo, K. Green ICT Readiness Model
for Developing Economies: Case of Kenya. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications
(IJACSA) (2013), 51-65.
[24] Brooks, Stoney, Wang, Xuequn, and Sarker, Saonee. Unpacking Green IS: A Review of the Existing. Springer
(2012), 15-36.
[25] KENYA ICT AUTHORITY. THE KENYA NATIONAL ICT MASTER PLAN: TOWARDS A DIGITAL
KENYA. MINISTRY OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) KENYA, NAIROBI,
2014.
[26] UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME (UNEP). GREEN ECONOMY ASSESSMENT
REPORT: KENYA. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, 2014.
[27] GOVERNMENT OF KENYA. Sessional paper No.of 2012 on Kenya Vision 2030. Government of Kenya, Nairobi,
2012.
[28] GOVERNMENT OF KENYA. Constitution of Kenya. Kenya Government, Nairobi, 2010.
[29] ERNST & YOUNG. The role of green ICT in enabling smart growth in Estonia. Commissioned by Ministry of
Economic Affairs and Communications: Estonia, Tallinn, 2012.
[30] Wabwoba, Franklin, Wanyembi, Gregory W., Omuterema, Stanley, and Mutua, Stephen Makau. Pervasiveness of
green ICT awareness amongst Kenyan ICT personnel. International Journal of Application or Innovation in
Engineering and Management (IJAIEM) (2013), 93-104.
[31] Wabwoba, Franklin, Wanyembi, Gregory W., and Omuterema, Stanley. Barriers to Implementation of Green ICT
in Kenya. International Journal of Science and Technology (IJST) (2012), 823-836.
[32] Curry, Edward and Donnellan, Brian. Sustainable Information Systems and Green Metrics. John Wiley and Sons
limited (2012), 168-198.
[33] ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTING MACHINERY (ACM). Green Computing. Association for computing
Machinery (ACM), United States, 2008.
[34] ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTER MACHINERY (ACM). Green Computing. Association for Computer
Machinery, United States, 2011.
[35] Marie-Claude Boudreau, Adela Chen, Mark Huber. Green IS: Building Sustainable Business Practices. Ceport
Report: Global text (2008), 1-17.
[36] Melville, Nigel P. INFORMATION SYSTEMS INNOVATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY.
MIS QUARTERY (2010), 1-21.
[37] Olson, Eric G. Creating an enterprise-level green strategy. Journal of Business Strategy (2008), 22-30.
[38] IPCC. Fifth assessment Report of Climate Change by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Copenhagen, 2014.
[39] GOOGLE. Google's Green Computing: Efficiency at scale. Califonia, 2012.
[40] Johnson, Gerry and Scholes, Kevan. Exploring Corporate Strategy, 6th edition. Financial Times/Prentice Hall,
2002.
[41] Jenkin, Tracy A., Webster, Jane, and McShane, Lindsay. An agenda for green Information Technology and
Systems Research. Information and Organization (2011), 17-40.
[42] Loeser, Fabian, Erek, Koray, and Zarnekow, Ruediger. TOWARDS A TYPOLOGY OF GREEN IS
STRATEGIES: INSIGHTS FROM CASE STUDIES. In Thirty Third International Conference on Information
Systems, Orlando 2012 (ORLANDO 2012), International Conference on Information System, 1-19.
[43] MICROSOFT. Green Computing. The Architecture Journal #18, 2013.
[44] SUSTAINABLE BUSINESS OREGON. IT sector cuts CO2 emmissions by 32M metric tones. Portland Business
Journal, Oregon, 2010.
[45] CDW. Implementing Green I.T. Eleven Ways I.T. Can Lower Power Consumption, Reduce Costs & Eliminate
Waste. CDW-G, Illinois, 2007.
[46] Mann, Hanuv, Grant, Gerald, and Mann, Inder Jit Singh. Green IT: An Implementation Framework. In Americas
Conference on Information Systems (ACIS) (San Francisco 2009), Association for Information Systems Electronic
Library (AISeL), 1-11.
[47] Porter, Michael. competitive strategy. The academy of management journal (1980).
[48] SAFARICOM LIMITED. Safaricom UNCOP Report. Safaricom Limited, Nairobi-Kenya, 2011/2012.
[49] Mukunzi, Sichiri. Sustainable Green Energy - Safaricoms Experience. Safaricom Limited, Nairobi Kenya, 2011.
Page 130
Authors
Kevin Mwiti Njeru is a lecturer at Mount Kenya University in the Department of Information
Technology. He holds a Master of Science in Information Technology from Mount Kenya University
and a Bsc. Computer Science from Gretsa University. He has published a number of papers in Green
ICT/IS and His research interests include Green Computing, Information Systems, Computer
Networks, Databases, and Artificial intelligence.
Page 131