A comprehensive note on International

Financial Markets.
Contents
A comprehensive note on International Financial Markets.........1
Introduction:..............................................................................3
Classifications:...........................................................................3
Motives for Using International Financial Market....................3
Foreign Exchange Market..........................................................4
History of Foreign Exchange...................................................4
Gold Standard.....................................................................4
Agreements on Fixed Exchange Rates................................5
Floating Exchange Rate System..........................................5
Foreign Exchange Transaction................................................5
Spot Market.........................................................................5
Spot Market Structure.........................................................5
Use of the Dollar in the Spot Market...................................5
Spot Market Liquidity..........................................................6
Attributes of Banks That Provide Foreign Exchange............6
Foreign Exchange Quotations.................................................6
Bid/Ask Spread of Banks.....................................................6
Interpreting Foreign Exchange Quotations..........................7
Direct versus Indirect Quotations........................................7
Cross Exchange Rates.........................................................7
Forward, Futures, and Options Markets........................................7
Forward Contracts...............................................................7
Currency Futures Contracts.................................................7
Currency Options Contracts................................................8
International Money Market.......................................................8
European Money Market......................................................8

Asian Money Market............................................................8

Single European Act............................................................9
International Credit Market........................................................9
Syndicated Loans..............................................................10
International Bond Market.......................................................10
Eurobond Market.....................................................................10
Features of Eurobonds.......................................................10
Denominations..................................................................11
Underwriting Process........................................................11
Secondary Market.............................................................11
International Stock Markets.....................................................11
Issuance of Stock in Foreign Markets...................................11
Impact of the Euro.............................................................12
Issuance of Foreign Stock in the United States.................12
American Depository Receipts..........................................12
Investing in Foreign Stock Markets.......................................12
How Financial Markets Facilitate MNC Functions......................12
Conclusion............................................................................... 13
References...............................................................................14

Introduction:
International Financial Market is an area of financial economics
that deals with monetary interactions between two or more
countries, concerning itself with topics such as currency
exchange rates, international monetary systems, foreign direct
investment, and issues of international financial management
including political risk and foreign exchange risk inherent in
managing MNCs. International Finance research concerns itself
with macroeconomics, dealing with economies as a whole
rather than individual markets. Due to growth in international
business over the last 30 years, various international financial
markets have been developed.

Classifications:

Foreign Exchange Market,

International Money Market,

International Credit Market,

International Bond Market, and

International Stock Markets

Motives for Using International Financial Market

The markets for real or financial assets are prevented from
complete integration by barriers such as tax differentials,
tariffs, quotas, labor immobility, communication costs, cultural
differences, and financial reporting differences.Yet, these
barriers can also create unique opportunities for specific
geographic markets that will attract foreign investors.

Investors invest in foreign markets:

to take advantage of favorable economic

conditions;

when they expect foreign currencies to appreciate

against their own; and to reap the benefits of
international diversification

Creditors provide credit in foreign markets:

to capitalize on higher foreign interest rates;

when they expect foreign currencies to appreciate

against their own; and

To reap the benefits of international

diversification.

Borrowers borrow in foreign markets:

to capitalize on lower foreign interest rates; and

When they expect foreign currencies to depreciate

against their own.

Foreign Exchange Market

The foreign exchange market allows currencies to be
exchanged in order to facilitate international trade or financial
transactions. Large commercial banks serve this market by
holding inventories of each currency, so that they can
accommodate requests by individuals or MNCs. Individuals rely
on the foreign exchange market when they travel to foreign
countries. People from the United States exchange dollars for
Mexican pesos when they visit Mexico or euros when they visit
Italy, or Japanese yen when they visit Japan. Some MNCs based
in the United States exchange dollars for Mexican pesos when
they purchase supplies in Mexico that are denominated in
pesos, or euros when they purchase supplies from Italy that are
denominated in euros.

History of Foreign Exchange

The system used for exchanging foreign currencies has evolved
from the gold standard, to an agreement on fixed exchange
rates, to a floating rate system.

Gold StandardFrom 1876 to 1913, exchange rates were

dictated by the gold standard. Each currency was convertible
into gold at a specified rate. Each country used gold to back its

currency.When World War I began in 1914, the gold standard

was suspended. Some countries reverted to the gold standard
in the 1920s but abandoned it as a result of a banking panic in
the United States and Europe during the Great Depression. In
the 1930s, some countries attempted to peg their currency to
the dollar or the British pound, but there were frequent
revisions. As a result of the instability in the foreign exchange
market and the severe restrictions on international
transactions during this period, the volume of international
trade declined.

Agreements on Fixed Exchange Rates In 1944, an international agreement (known as the Bretton Woods Agreement)
called for fixed exchange rates between currencies. This
agreement lasted until 1971. During this period, governments
would intervene to prevent exchange rates from moving more
than 1 percent above or below their initially established levels.
By 1971, the U.S. dollar appeared to be overvalued; the foreign
demand for U.S. dollars was substantially less than the supply
of dollars for sale (to be exchanged for other currencies).
Representatives from the major nations met to discuss this dilemma. As a result of this conference, which led to the
Smithsonian Agreement, the U.S. dollar was devalued relative
to the other major currencies.

Floating Exchange Rate System Even after the Smithsonian

Agreement, governments still had difficulty maintaining
exchange rates within the stated boundaries. By March 1973,
the more widely traded currencies were allowed to fluctuate in
accordance with market forces, and the official boundaries
were eliminated.

Foreign Exchange Transaction Foreign Exchange Market

should not be thought of as a specific building or location
where traders exchange currencies. Companies normally
exchange one currency for another through a commercial bank
over a telecommunications network.

Spot Market The most common type of foreign exchange

transaction is for immediate exchange at the so-called Spot
Market. The market where these transactions occur is known as
the spot market. The average daily foreign exchange trading
by banks around the world now exceeds $1.5 trillion. The
average daily foreign exchange trading in the United States
alone exceeds $200 billion.

Spot Market Structure Hundreds of banks facilitate foreign

exchange transactions, but the top 20 handle about 50 percent

of the transactions. Banks in London, New York, and Tokyo, the
three largest foreign exchange trading centers, conduct much
of the foreign exchange trading. Yet, many foreign exchange

transactions occur outside these trading centers.

If a bank begins to experience a shortage in a particular foreign
currency, it can purchase that currency from other banks. This
trading between banks occurs in what is often referred to as
the interbank market. Within this market, banks can obtain
quotes, or they can contact brokers who sometimes act as
intermediaries, matching one bank desiring to sell a given
currency with another bank desiring to buy that currency.
About 10 foreign exchange brokerage firms handle much of the
interbank transaction volume.
Other intermediaries also serve the foreign exchange market.

Use of the Dollar in the Spot Market Many foreign

transactions do not require an exchange of currencies but allow
a given currency to cross country borders. For example, the
U.S. dollar is commonly accepted as a medium of exchange by
merchants in many countries.

Spot Market Liquidity The spot market for each currency can
be described by its liquidity, which reflects the level of trading
activity. The more willing buyers and sellers there are, the
more liquid a market is. The spot markets for heavily traded
currencies such as the euro, the British pound, and the
Japanese yen are very liquid. Conversely, the spot markets for
currencies of less developed countries are less liquid.

Attributes of Banks That Provide Foreign Exchange

The following characteristics of banks are important to customers in
need of foreign exchange.

Competitiveness of quote. A savings of 1centper unit on

an order of one million units of currency is worth
$10,000.

Special relationship with the bank. The bank may offer

cash management services or be willing to make a
special effort to obtain even hard-to-find foreign currencies for the corporation.
Speed of execution. Banks may vary in the efficiency
with which they handle an order. A corporation needing
the currency will prefer a bank that conducts the
transaction promptly and handles any paperwork
properly.
Advice about current market conditions. Some banks
may provide assessments of foreign economies and
relevant activities in the international financial environment that relate to corporate customers.

Forecasting advice. Some banks may provide forecasts

of the future state of foreign economies and the future
value of exchange rates.

Foreign Exchange Quotations

Bid/Ask Spread of Banks
Commercial banks charge fees for conducting foreign
exchange transactions. At any given point in time, a banks bid
(buy) quote for a foreign currency will be less than its ask (sell)
quote.
bid/ask spread =ask rate bid rate
ask rate

Interpreting Foreign Exchange Quotations

Exchange rate quotations for widely traded currencies are
frequently listed in the news media on a daily basis.

Direct versus Indirect Quotations the quotations of

exchange rates for currencies normally reflect the ask prices
for large transactions. Since exchange rates change throughout
the day, the exchange rates quoted in a newspaper reflect only
one specific point in time during the day. Quotations that
represent the value of a foreign currency in dollars (number of
dollars per currency) are referred to as direct quotations.
Conversely, quotations that represent the number of units of a
foreign currency per dollar are referred to as indirect
quotations.

Cross Exchange Rates

A cross exchange rate reflects the amount of one foreign
currency per unit of another foreign currency.
Value of 1 unit of currency A in units of currency B =value of
currency A in $
value of
currency B in $

Forward, Futures, and Options Markets

Forward Contracts In addition to the spot market, a forward

market for currencies enables an MNC to lock in the exchange

rate (called a forward rate) at which it will buy or sell a
currency. A forward contract specifies the amount of a particular currency that will be purchased or sold by the MNC at a
specified future point in time and at a specified exchange rate.
Commercial banks accommodate the MNCs that desire forward
contracts. MNCs commonly use the forward market to hedge
future payments that they expect to make or receive in a
foreign currency. The liquidity of the forward market varies
among currencies. The forward market for euros is very liquid
because many MNCs take forward positions to hedge their
future payments in euros.

Currency Futures Contracts Futures contracts are somewhat

similar to forward contracts except that they are sold on an

exchange whereas forward contracts are offered by
commercial banks. A currency futures contract specifies a standard volume of a particular currency to be exchanged on a
specific settlement date. Some MNCs involved in international
trade use the currency futures markets to hedge their
positions.

Currency Options Contracts Currency options contracts can

be classified as calls or puts. A currency call option provides

the right to buy a specific currency at a specific price (called
the strike price or exercise price) within a specific period of
time. It is used to hedge future payables. A currency put option
provides the right to sell a specific currency at a specific price
within a specific period of time. It is used to hedge future
receivables.
Currency call and put options can be purchased on an
exchange. They offer more flexibility than forward or futures
contracts because they do not require any obligation. That is,
the firm can elect not to exercise the option.

International Money Market

The international money market includes large banks in
countries around the world. Two other important components
of the international money market are the European money
market and the Asian money market.

European Money Market

The origins of the European money market can be traced to the
Eurocurrency market that developed during the 1960s and
1970s. As MNCs expanded their operations during that period,
international financial intermediation emerged to
accommodate their needs. Because the U.S. dollar was widely
used even by foreign countries as a medium for international
trade, there was a consistent need for dollars in Europe and
elsewhere. To conduct international trade with European
countries, corporations in the United States deposited U.S.
dollars in European banks. The banks were willing to accept the
deposits because they could lend the dollars to corporate
customers based in Europe. These dollar deposits in banks in
Europe (and on other continents as well) came to be known as
Eurodollars, and the market for Eurodollars came to be known
as the Eurocurrency market.

Asian Money Market Like the European money market, the

Asian money market originated as a market involving mostly
dollar-denominated deposits. Hence, it was originally known as
the Asian dollar market. Like the European money market, the
Asian money market originated as a market involving mostly
dollar-denominated deposits. Hence, it was originally known as
the Asian dollar market.

Single European Act

One of the most significant events affecting international
banking was the Single European Act, which was phased in by
1992 throughout the European Union (EU) countries. The
following are some of the more relevant provisions of the
Single European Act for the banking industry:Capital can flow
freely throughout Europe.Banks can offer a wide variety of
lending, leasing, and securities activities in the EU.Regulations
regarding competition, mergers, and taxes are similar
throughout the EU.A bank established in any one of the EU
countries has the right to expand into any or all of the other EU
countries.

International Credit Market

Multinational corporations and domestic firms sometimes
obtain medium-term funds through term loans from local
financial institutions or through the issuance of notes (mediumterm debt obligations) in their local markets. However, MNCs
also have access to medium-term funds through banks located
in foreign markets. Loans of one year or longer extended by
banks to MNCs or government agencies in Europe are
commonly called Euro credits or Euro credit loans. These loans
are provided in the so- called Euro credit market. The loans can
be denominated in dollars or many other currencies and
commonly have a maturity of 5 years.

Because banks accept short-term deposits and sometimes

provide longer-term loans, their asset and liability maturities do
not match. This can adversely affect a banks performance
during periods of rising interest rates, since the bank may have
locked in a rate on its longer-term loans while the rate it pays
on short-term deposits is rising over time. To avoid this risk,
banks commonly use floating rate loans. The loan rate floats in
accordance with the movement of some market interest rate,
such as the London Interbank Offer Rate (LIBOR), which is the
rate commonly charged for loans between banks.

The international credit market is well developed in Asia and is

developing in South America. Periodically, some regions are
affected by an economic crisis, which increases the credit risk.

Syndicated Loans
Sometimes a single bank is unwilling or unable to lend the amount needed by a particular corporation or government agency. In this case, a syndicate of banks may be
organized. Each bank within the syndicate participates in the lending. A lead bank is
responsible for negotiating terms with the borrower. Then the lead bank organizes a
group of banks to underwrite the loans.

International Bond Market

Although MNCs, like domestic firms, can obtain long-term debt by issuing bonds in
their local markets, MNCs can also access long-term funds in foreign markets. MNCs
may choose to issue bonds in the international bond markets for three reasons.
First, issuers recognize that they may be able to attract a stronger demand by
issuing their bonds in a particular foreign country rather than in their home country.
Second, MNCs may prefer to finance a specific foreign project in a particu lar
currency and therefore may attempt to obtain funds where that currency is widely
used. Third, financing in a foreign currency with a lower interest rate may enable an
MNC to reduce its cost of financing, although it may be exposed to exchange rate
risk. Institutional investors such as commercial banks, mutual funds, insurance
companies, and pension funds from many countries are major participants in the
international bond market. Some institutional investors prefer to invest in
international bond markets rather than their respective local markets when they can
earn a higher return on bonds denominated in foreign currencies.
International bonds are typically classified as either foreign bonds or Eurobonds. A
foreign bond is issued by a borrower foreign to the country where the bond is
placed. For example, a U.S. corporation may issue a bond denominated in Japanese
yen, which is sold to investors in Japan. The currency denominating each type of
bond is determined by the country where it is sold. These foreign bonds are
sometimes specifically referred to as parallel bonds.

Eurobond Market
Eurobonds are bonds that are sold in countries other than the country of the
currency denominating the bonds. The emergence of the Eurobond market was
partially the result of the Interest Equalization Tax (IET) imposed by the U.S.
government in 1963 to discourage U.S. investors from investing in foreign
securities. Thus, non-U.S. borrowers that historically had sold foreign securities to
U.S. investors began to look elsewhere for funds. Further impetus to the markets
growth came in 1984 when the U.S. government abolished a withholding tax that it
had formerly imposed on some non-U.S. investors and allowed U.S. corporations to
issue bearer bonds directly to non-U.S. investors.
Eurobonds have become very popular as a means of attracting funds, perhaps in
part because they circumvent registration requirements.

Features of Eurobonds
Eurobonds have several distinctive features. They are usually issued in bearer form,
which means that there are no records kept regarding ownership. Coupon payments
are made yearly. Some Eurobonds carry a convertibility clause allowing them to be
converted into a specified number of shares of common stock. Some Eurobonds,
called floating rate notes (FRNs), have a variable rate provision that adjusts the
coupon rate over time according to prevailing market rates.

Denominations

Eurobonds are commonly denominated in a number of currencies. Although the U.S.

dollar is used most often, denominating 70 to 75 percent of Eurobonds, the euro will
likely also be used to a significant extent in the future. Recently, some firms have
issued debt denominated in Japanese yen to take advantage of Japans extremely
low interest rates.

Underwriting Process.
Eurobonds are underwritten by a multinational syndicate of investment banks and
simultaneously placed in many countries, providing a wide spectrum of fund sources
to tap.

Secondary Market
Eurobonds also have a secondary market. The market makers are in many cases the
same underwriters who sell the primary issues.

International Stock Markets

MNCs and domestic firms commonly obtain long-term funding by issuing stock locally. Yet, MNCs can also attract funds from foreign investors by issuing stock in international markets.

Issuance of Stock in Foreign Markets

Some U.S. firms issue stock in foreign markets to enhance their global image. The
existence of various markets for new issues provides corporations in need of equity
with a choice.

The locations of an MNCs operations can influence the decision about where to
place its stock, as the MNC may desire a country where it is likely to generate
enough future cash flows to cover dividend payments. The stocks of some U.S.based MNCs are widely traded on numerous stock exchanges around the world. This
enables non- U.S. investors easy access to some U.S. stocks.
MNCs need to have their stock listed on an exchange in any country where they
issue shares. Investors in a foreign country are only willing to purchase stock if they
can easily sell their holdings of the stock locally in the secondary market.

Impact of the Euro

The recent conversion of many European countries to a single currency (the euro)
has resulted in more stock offerings in Europe by U.S.- and European-based MNCs.

Issuance of Foreign Stock in the United States

Non-U.S. corporations that need large amounts of funds sometimes issue stock in
the United States (these are called Yankee stock offerings) due to the liquidity of the
new- issues market there. In other words, a foreign corporation may be more likely
to sell an entire issue of stock in the U.S. market, whereas in other, smaller markets,
the entire issue may not necessarily sell.
When a non-U.S. firm issues stock in its own country, its shareholder base is quite
limited, as a few large institutional investors may own most of the shares. By is suing stock in the United States, such a firm diversifies its shareholder base, which
can reduce share price volatility caused when large investors sell shares.

American Depository Receipts

Non-U.S. firms also obtain equity financing by using American depository receipts
(ADRs), which are certificates representing bundles of stock. The use of ADRs
circumvents some disclosure requirements imposed on stock offerings in the United
States, yet enables non-U.S. firms to tap the U.S. market for funds.

Investing in Foreign Stock Markets

Just as some MNCs issue stock outside their home country, many investors
purchase stocks outside of the home country. First, they may expect that economic
conditions will be very favorable in a particular country and invest in stocks of the
firms in that country. Second, investors may consider investing in stocks
denominated in currencies that they expect will strengthen over time, since that
would enhance the return on their investment. Third, some investors invest in
stocks of other countries as a means of diversifying their portfolio.

How Financial Markets Facilitate MNC Functions

The spot market, forward market, currency futures market, and currency options

market are all classified as foreign exchange markets. The first function is foreign
trade with business clients. Exports generate foreign cash inflows, while imports
require cash outflows. A second function is direct foreign investment, or the
acquisition of foreign real assets. This function requires cash outflows but generates
future inflows through remitted earnings back to the MNC parent or the sale of
these foreign assets. A third function is short-term investment or financing in foreign
securities. A fourth function is longer-term financing in the international bond or
stock markets. An MNCs parent may use international money or bond markets to
obtain funds at a lower cost than they can be obtained locally.

Conclusion
International financial markets undertake intermediation by transferring purchasing
power from lenders and investors to parties who desire to acquire assets that they
expect to yield future benefits. International financial transactions involve exchange
of assets between residents of different financial centers across national
boundaries. International financial centers are reservoirs of savings and transfer
them to their most efficient use irrespective of where the savings are generated.
Hence the financial markets reduce the cost of transactions and information. In
time, financial markets cover an increasingly important role in the financial saving
mediation of agents at an international as well as at a national level. In space,
agents have instruments at their disposal that have become increasingly more
complicated and specific. These instruments are utilized through the markets of
reference (stock market, bond market, currency market, derivatives market,
commodities market, money market) that are a fundamental part of the financial
market. Each market has its own characteristics that in turn define the contexts in
which agents operate on the basis of the risk associated to them.

References
Jeff Madura International Financial Management 9th Ed. 2008
http://www.bankpedia.org/index.php/en/106-english/i/23258-international-financialmarket-encyclopedia
https://subversion.american.edu/aisaac/notes/finmkt.pdf
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_market