TOPIC 1.

LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION: ORAL AND

WRITTEN LANGUAGE. FACTORS THAT DEFINE A
COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION: TRANSMITTER,
RECEIVER, FUNCTIONS AND CONTEXT.

1. Introduction. Linguistic theories.

2. Language as communication
3. Comparison of oral and written language
4. Oral language
4.1. Characteristics of oral language.
4.2. Aspects
and
development
of
oral
language.
Linguistic
and
extralinguistic
resources.
4.3. Methodology
of
oral
language.
Methodological principles, main forms and
techniques
of
oral
communication,
assessment of oral language.

5. Written language. Methodology and assessment

6. Factors that define a communicative situation
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.

What is communication?
Elements of communication.
Means of communication.
Functions of the communicative act.

7. Conclusion
8. Bibliography.

1. Introduction. Linguistic theories.

Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics as a
science was initiated in 1916 by Saussure with the Cours de linguistique
gnrale. According to him, we must distinguish between language and a
language. Language is the human capacity for acquiring and using complex
systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such
a system. There are two more terms: natural and artificial language. Natural
languages are native languages, like Spanish or English, whereas artificial
language refers to languages created for a special purpose, like traffic signs.
Modern linguistics began to develop in the 18th century, reaching the
"golden age of philology" in the 19th century. The first half of the 20th
century was marked by the structuralist school, based on the work of
Ferdinand de Saussure in Europe and Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield
in the United States. The 1960s saw the rise of many new fields in
linguistics, such as Noam Chomsky's generative grammar, William Labov's
sociolinguistics, Michael Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and also
modern psycholinguistics.

2. Language as communication.
Human language is unique because it relies entirely on social convention
and learning. Linguists estimate that there are about 6000 different
languages spoken in the world today. The languages that are most spoken in
the world today are Mandarin Chinese, Hindi, English and Spanish. English is
far more worldwide in its distribution; it is the official language in 52
countries and it is the most useful language for international travel. In
addition, it is the language of diplomacy and the dominant language in
electronic communication.
Human language is open-ended and productive, meaning that it allows
humans to produce an infinite set of utterances from a finite set of elements
and to create new words and sentences. This is possible because human
language is based on a dual code, where a finite number of meaningless
elements (e.g. sounds, letters or gestures) can be combined to form units of
meaning (words and sentences). Furthermore, the symbols and grammatical
rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary, meaning that the
system can only be acquired through social interaction. The known systems
of communication used by animals, on the other hand, can only express a
finite number of utterances that are mostly genetically transmitted.
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken
language is more fundamental than written language. This is because:

Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of

producing and hearing it, while there have been many cultures and
speech communities that lack written communication.
Speech evolved before human beings invented writing.
People learn to speak and process spoken language more easily and
much earlier than writing.

Nonetheless, linguists agree that the study of written language is worthwhile

and valuable.

3. Comparison of oral and written language.

Oral language
Immensely ancient.
Transient unless recorded.
Universal human capability.
Daily communicative means.
Dynamic interaction.
More subjective.
The speaker has direct influence on
the listener.
Takes
place
quickly
and
automatically.
Meaning is determined by the
context.
Resources:
- Articulation of sounds.
- Pauses.
- Accent, intonation, rhythm.
- Words for reinforcement.
- Ellipsis.
- Speed, pitch.
- Body gestures.
Genres:
- Dialogue.
- Interview, survey.
- Dramatization.
- Monologue.
- Conference.
Evaluation:
- Pronunciation.
- Means: recording.

4. Oral language.
3

Written language
Comparatively recent.
Permanent.
Cultural invention.
Communicative
means
when
language fails.
No immediate feedback.
More objective.
The writer has indirect influence on
the reader.
There is time for correction and
reflection.
Meaning is provided by the text.
Resources:
- Handwriting and spelling.
- Paragraphs.
- Underlining.
- Punctuation sings.
- Separation of sentences.
- The picture.
- Typeface/ font.
Genres:
- Written conversation.
- Test.
- Letter, email.
- Narration.
- Report.
Evaluation:
- Spelling.
- Means: written composition.

Traditionally, from the educative point of view, oral language was considered
less important than written language because it is automatically acquired by
the child. It is not until 1970 that the childs linguistic competence will be
the basis for progressive perfection of oral language. The command of oral
language is fundamental for the later acquisition of written language.

4.1. Characteristics of oral language.

We have to treat phonic and prosodic features of speech (rhythm and
intonation). The learning process is more complicated because it is produced
quickly and automatically. Besides, oral communication is more complex
because the listener is present and s/he has a direct influence on the other
interlocutor. Oral communication is full of interferences and the efficiency of
communication will depend mainly on the confidence and personality of the
interlocutors, as well as affective features, like friendliness, respect,
aggressiveness

4.2. Aspects and development of oral language.

Oral language is made up of four components: the phonological, semantic,
syntactic and pragmatic components. In social situations, speakers use
these four components together.
-

The phonological component involves the rules for combining sounds.

Native speakers are not aware of these rules, but they know and can
use them.
The semantic component is made up of morphemes, the smallest
units of meaning that can be combined with each other to make up
words and sentences.
The syntactic component consists of the rules to combine morphemes
into sentences.
The pragmatic component is the ability to speak appropriately in
different situations.

The development of oral language is one of the childs most natural and
impressive accomplishments. Human beings are born to speak; children
learn the rules of the language used in their environment without formal
instruction. Language occurs through an interaction among people,
environment, and the children own thinking abilities.
In general, children say their first words between 12 and 18 months of age.
They begin to use complex sentences by the age of 4 to 5 years.
In order to develop linguistic abilities we need to apply linguistic and
extralinguistic resources.
-

Linguistic resources.
a) Phonemic and orthoepic resources. The aim of teaching these
items is the correct pronunciation, intonation and the emphasis

that the communicative act requires. Among them we find

articulation of sounds, pause, accent, intonation and rhythm.
b) Lexical, semantic and morphosyntactic resources. The students
should be able to use rich and adequate vocabulary. Besides, they
should know the usage of words of reinforcement, onomatopoeias,
the economy of syntactic elements, ellipsis, etc.
Extralinguistic resources. Gestures and body language gain great
significance when producing oral messages. Nonverbal cues
substitute for, contradict or emphasize verbal messages, and
certainly the flow of conversation is regulated nonverbally. That is one
of the reasons for using dramatization in the classroom.

4.3. Methodology for teaching oral language.

The aim of teaching oral language is the students fluent production of
spoken language, but first they need to develop the ability of understanding.

4.3.1. Methodological principles.

-

Principle of activity. Students should practice every day from the first
levels on.
Principle of socialization. It is important to use group dynamics to
facilitate students interaction and participation.
Principle of individualization. The teacher must find out each
students characteristics and deal with them specifically to favour
his/her qualities.
Principle of motivation. The first aim at school should be to motivate
starting from the childs interests and experiences (referential
principle), creating an adequate atmosphere.

4.3.2. Main forms and techniques of oral communication.

-

There are two big groups to practice communication:

Practice of dialogues.
a) Conversation. It refers to the continuous exchange of the roles of
speaker and listener. The free or spontaneous conversation refers
to an informal exchange of opinions and ideas about a topic. On
the other hand, the polemic conversation or discussion is a kind of
conversation where different points of view are confronted.
b) Dramatization. It does not only include oral expression, but also
gestures and body language. Students are very motivated while
practicing expression, dialogue, fluency, imagination and
creativity.
c) Interview and survey. They are directed towards the search of
information; one interlocutor asks and the other answers.
d) Telephone conversation. In this case the voice substitutes any
gesture that we could take advantage of in a face-to-face
conversation. The voice may transmit feelings and impressions,
therefore, the students should take care of the tone, rhythm and
pronunciation.
e) Role-play. It refers to the changing of one's behaviour to assume a
role. This way, students rehearse situations in preparation for a

future performance and they improve their speaking abilities

within a role.
Practice of monologues.
a) Narration. It presents connected events in form of short stories,
and the writer communicates directly to the reader.
b) Exposition or explanation. It has to be well organized and show
linguistic fluency to explain something to the listeners.

4.3.3. Assessment of oral language.

Evaluation is continuous and formative. It will be individual. The process of
assessment includes three levels:
-

Diagnostic of the difficulties and mistakes. It is necessary to register

the message by means of taking notes or recording.
Correction. Each student corrects his/her intervention and the
classmates. Therefore, all pupils must know the aims to be reached
and the items to be evaluated.
Activities of reinforcement and extension. When programming these
tasks, we should only include one or two aspects until the item is
achieved.

5. Written language.
A written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing
system (signs or symbols). It is an invention that must be taught to children.
Written language has some specific characteristics.
Although written and oral language use the same code, they have quite
different norms and rules. When we write we use a kind of monologue and
the reader is not present, so there is a lack of reaction (feedback) that
impedes us to change our discourse immediately.
Another characteristic is the lack of paralinguistic features like gestures or
body language. The greatest part of other elements like accent, intonation
and rhythm do not appear in written language either. They are only
represented by punctuation marks. It does not count on situational context
either, so the writer must substitute it by linguistic content. It is important
for students to assure oral expression before starting to work with the
written language.
In conclusion, written language is by far less expressive than oral language.
Learning written expression is a difficult task that requires specific
techniques and activities. From the logical and structural point of view,
written language is better organized as it allows continuous reflection and
revision, thus written language must be taught.
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5.1. Methodology of written language.

We must teach written expression after having taught oral language. The
practice of written language helps us reinforce what has been learnt orally
before. We can distinguish three stages of activities:
-

Controlled practice. These techniques lack of communicative

functions, the students only organize a certain amount of linguistic
material correctly. Examples: to order logically presented scrambled
sentences, to substitute words or expressions that are given in a list
at random order, to choose alternative expressions, etc.
Guided or directed practice. In this stage, students have to choose
linguistic elements, to decide on the way of expressing ideas with the
help of the teachers orientations. With this kind of activities we
reinforce and consolidate the language learnt and also show the
students how to communicate by writing. For example, write their
own version of a model given and learning to write letters or emails.
These offer the student a direct utility of applying the foreign
language. There are some techniques to direct the students in this
process: complete gaps in a paragraph with sentences they find on
their own, link some sentences logically, use a series of pictures to
write a short essay, etc.
Free practice. The students have the opportunity to write with
minimal help from the teacher. It is convenient to use preparatory
exercises to express ideas, for example, read articles in magazines or
talk orally about an interesting topic. The students should also get
used to writing out a draft. To motivate the students, the topics
treated should be interesting for them.

5.2. Assessment of written language.

A good test must give us reliable indication of the students skills, should not
cause anxiety in the students, must consist on familiar activities, be
interesting, with different kind of activities to minimize boredom and it is
fixed at an appropriate level.
Suggested procedure when making a test:
7

Decide what kind of text it is going to be (multiple choices, fill-in

gaps).
Write a list of linguistic elements.
Think about the length, layout and format.
Find appropriate texts, sentences, etc.
Evaluate the sections according to the importance and time spent.
Write the questions.
Write the instructions and examples.
Decide on the marks.
Make a key.
After the test, analyze the result.

6. Factors
than
define
a
communicative
situation: transmitter, receiver, functions and
context.
6.1. What is communication?
Communication could be defined as any act by which one person gives to or
receives information from another person about that person's needs,
desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states.

6.2. Elements of communication.

One of the most famous communication models is in the work of Jakobson.
Six elements make this model up:
-

Code. It is an arbitrary, limited and extensive set of signs and signals

that are combined following previously established rules. The sender
and receiver must use the same code to make communication
possible.
Channel. It is the means by which the message (signs and signals) is
transmitted.
Emisor/ sender/ addresser, which encodes the message into signals.
Destination/ receiver/ addressee, which decodes (interprets) the
message from the signal.
Message. The content or information sent.
Context. The situation in which communication takes place.

There are other elements, like the source, noise and feedback, which also
form part of the communicative act. There are other barriers such as
anxiety.
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting
agents share a common set of signs and rules. These elements make up the
basic models of human communication. Examples:

6.3. Means of communication.

Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve
conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or nonlinguistic
forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes. Human
communication is mostly carried out by means of oral and written language;
however, there are others that may be used like: tactic (shaking hands),
visual (traffic lights), acoustic (sound the horn).

6.4. Functions of the communicative act.

Many linguists have tried to establish these functions. In the following, we
are going to summarize the most relevant ideas:
-

Referential or ideational: to convey messages, to express ideas.

Emotive: to communicate attitudes, feelings and emotions.
Interpersonal: to establish and maintain social relations, to influence
on peoples behavior, to get things done.
Poetic: to indulge in language, to create art.

7. Conclusion.
The purpose of learning any language should be to communicate
information from one person to another. That is why this topic is related to
the key competence linguistic communication.
To communicate, one person must put something out and another person
must take something in. This is called output and input. Consequently,
language consists of four skills: speaking and writing (output) and listening
and reading (input).
Learning to speak is a natural process, whereas somebody must teach us to
write. Modern technologies are having an important impact on language. To
some degree, the divisions between speaking and reading are disappearing,
but, as Spanish educational law underlines, students must learn to
communicate by using both means.

8. Bibliography.
The bibliography used for the elaboration of this topic is as follows:

Brown, G., and Yule, G., Teaching the Spoken Language, C.U.P. 1997.
Brumfit, C., Moon, J., and Tongue, R., Teaching English to Children,
Longman 1992.
Halliwell, S., Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. Longman,
1992.
Hockett, Charles F. (1960), The Origin of Speech, Scientific American,
203, 8997.
Hymes, D.H. (1976). Toward linguistic competence, 4, 217-239.

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