Gas Turbine

Table of Contents
GAS TURBINES AND TURBOCOMPRESSORS FOR LNG SERVICE

by
Cyrus B. Meher-Homji
Bechtel Fellow and Senior Principal Engineer
Bechtel Corporation
Houston, Texas
Terryl Matthews
Senior Rotating Equipment Engineer
Shell Global Solutions
Houston, Texas
Antonio Pelagotti
Manager, LNG Compressor Design
GE Oil & Gas
Florence, Italy
and
Hans P. Weyermann
Principal Rotating Equipment Engineer
ConocoPhillips Company
Houston, Texas
Turbine Institutes Industrial and Cogeneration Committee. He is a
former member of the API Committee on Refinery Equipment and
sponsor for SOME, served on API Task Forces 613 and 677, a
former member of ASME B73 Committee, and a registered
Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.
Cyrus B. Meher-Homji is an Engineering

Fellow and Senior Principal Engineer at
Bechtel Corporation, in Houston, Texas. He
is assigned to the LNG Technology Group
and LNG Product Development Center.
Mr. Meher-Homji works on the development
of new concepts relating to LNG
turbomachinery and supports LNG
projects. His 27 years of industry experience
covers gas turbine and compressor
application and design, engine development, and troubleshooting.
Mr. Meher-Homji has a B.S. degree (Mechanical
Engineering) from Shivaji University, an M.E. degree from
Texas A&M University, and an M.B.A. degree from the
University of Houston. He is a registered Professional Engineer
in the State of Texas, a Fellow of ASME, life member of AIAA,
and is active on several committees of ASMEs International Gas
Turbine Institute. He has several publications in the area of
turbomachinery engineering.
Antonio Pelagotti is Manager of LNG

Compressor Design for GE Oil & Gas
in Florence, Italy, where he oversees the
aerodynamic and rotordynamic design
of refrigeration centrifugal and axial
compressors. His work includes preliminary
selection, detailed aerodynamic and
rotordynamic design, computational fluid
dynamic analysis, stress analysis, and
stage optimization of large high Mach
number LNG compressors. He has worked on more than eight
world-scale LNG plants on the design, aerodynamic model testing,
performance testing and startup, and on the research and
development of high head 2D impellers.
Mr. Pelagotti has been with GE Oil & Gas Turbocompressor
group since 1999, and has worked as a Design Engineer, Field
Engineer, and Application Engineer. He has a B.S. and M.S. degree
(Mechanical Engineering) from the University of Florence.
Terryl Matthews is Senior Rotating

Equipment Engineer with Shell Global
Solutions (US) Inc., in Houston, Texas. He
retired in 2003 from Dow Chemical, Design
and Construction, after 30 years. His
responsibilities at Dow included equipment
selection, specifications, technical support,
mechanical and performance testing,
consulting, troubleshooting, and field
assistance in the area of rotating equipment.
After that, he was Principal Rotating
Equipment Specialist with Bechtel for four years.
Mr. Matthews holds a B.S. degree (Mechanical Engineering,
1972) from the University of Houston. He is author of six technical
papers, a member of ASME, the Ethylene Producers Conference
Rotating Machinery Subcommittee, and ASMEs International Gas
ABSTRACT
The international liquefied natural gas (LNG) trade is expanding
rapidly. Projects are being proposed worldwide to meet the
industry forecasted growth rate of 12 percent by the end of the
decade. LNG train designs in the coming years appear to fall
within three classes, having nominal capacities of approximately
3.5, 5.0, and 8.0 million tons per annum (MTPA). These designs
may coexist in the coming years, as individual projects choose
designs that closely match their gas supplies, sales, and other
logistical and economic constraints.
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116
PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-SIXTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM 2007
The most critical component of an LNG liquefaction facility is

the refrigeration compressors and their drivers. These represent a
significant expense and strongly influence overall plant performance
and production efficiency. The refrigeration compressors themselves
are complex and challenging to design due to high Mach numbers,
large volume flows, low inlet temperatures, and complex sidestream
mixing. Drivers for these plants include gas turbines that range in
size from 30 MW units to large Frame 9E gas turbines.
Aeroderivative engines have also been recently introduced. This
paper comprehensively covers the design, application, and
implementation considerations pertaining to both LNG plant drivers
and compressors. The paper does not focus on any particular LNG
process but just addresses turbomachinery design and application
aspects that are common to all processes. Topics cover key technical
design issues and complexities involved in the turbomachinery
selection, aeromechanical design, testing, and implementation. The
paper attempts to highlight the practical design compromises that
have to be made to obtain a robust solution from a mechanical and
aerodynamic standpoint.
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

OF LNG TECHNOLOGY
Liquefaction by chilling of the gas (it is this section that is the

focus of the paper).
Transportation from the liquefaction plant to the receiving
terminal by LNG tanker.
Regassification (at the receiving terminal in the receiving country).
Distribution of gas to users via pipeline.
LNG projects are extremely capital intensive. The liquefaction
plant can account for as much as 50 percent of the overall
project value and is, by far, the most expensive component of
the chain. The focus of this paper is on the turbomachinery that
is used to liquefy the natural gas. The liquefaction process is
shown generically in Figure 2. The refrigeration drivers and
compressors are exceedingly critical in terms of their impact on
plant performance and production efficiency. Depending on the
specific process technology utilized, the refrigerants can be
pure components or mixed refrigerants or a combination of
these. The refrigeration compressors represent among the most
complex and challenging compressor designs due to the high
Mach numbers, large volume flows, and low inlet temperatures
and complex sidestream flows.
The LNG Value Chain and LNG Market

The international liquefied natural gas (LNG) trade is expanding
at a rapid pace. The estimated consumption of natural gas in 2006
was over 100 trillion cubic feet (Tcf), which represents a 60 percent
increase over the past 20 years. By 2025 it is estimated that this
consumption will be around 156 Tcf and account for 25 percent of
the predicted world demand. Natural gas is brought to market
either by traditional pipeline or by an LNG supply chain. For short
distances between the natural gas source and the end user, pipelines
are more economical but as this distance increases, LNG becomes
more economically viable as shown in Figure 1. The crossover
point for an offshore pipeline would be even less due to the higher
construction costs. This figure is merely an indicative one and
project specific criteria and prevailing economics would have to be
applied on a case-by-case basis.
Figure 2. LNG Liquefaction Plant Block Diagram.

LNG Processes
The paper does not focus on any particular LNG process
technology but just on the turbomachinery aspects that are
common to all processes. To get a feel for the types of services
included, key processes available in the marketplace are
covered below.
The most commonly used LNG liquefaction processes (Shukri,
2004) over the past decade are:
APCI
Figure 1. LNG Versus Onshore Pipeline Economics (Indicative

Data Only).
Converting natural gas to LNG is accomplished by chilling and
liquefying the gas to a temperature of 160C (256F). When
liquefied, the natural gass volume is reduced to 1/600th of its
standard condition volume. This allows the efficient transportation
of gas using specialized LNG tankers. The size of a liquefaction
facility is usually stated in millions of tons per annum (MTPA).
One metric ton of LNG is equivalent to 52 million Btu of gas (54.8
GJ). Useful conversions relating to LNG energy are provided in
APPENDIX A.
The overall LNG supply chain includes:
Natural
gas production (wells) and transportation to the

liquefaction plant.
propane precooled mixed refrigerant and AP-XThis

process uses two or three fluids: mixed refrigerant (C1, C2, C3,
N2) and propane (commonly known as C3/MR), with nitrogen
being added as another loop for the AP-X process).
ConocoPhillips Optimized CascadeSM LNG processThis
process uses three refrigerants: propane, ethylene, and methane.
Each refrigerant has a parallel compression train.
Multifluid cascade processMFCP uses three mixed refrigerants
for precooling, liquefaction, subcooling; all three are made up of
components selected from C1, C2, C3, N2.
Shell DMRDMR uses dual mixed refrigerant process. The
precooling is accomplished by a mixed refrigerant (mainly C2 and
C3) rather then pure C3.
LNG Market Activity
As described by Houston (2007), the LNG industry has entered
a transformational phase where, in recent years, the rate of growth
has increased with a growth of 13 percent per annum expected
through 2015. The LNG industry evolution over time and projections
to 2015 are shown in Figure 3. A detailed review of the LNG
industry can be found in Harris and Law (2007), and Houston
(2007). An overview of the industry from 1989 to 2007 has been
made by Glass and Lowe (2007).
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use gas turbines as their power outputs, efficiencies, and overall

efficiency have been steadily improving. Over the past decade,
there is also an interest in an all electric drive solution for LNG
with one plant being currently implemented. The general evolution
of the market is indicated in Figure 5.
Figure 3. Growth and Projections of the LNG Industry. (Houston,

2007, Courtesy BG Group)
While there were only three new grass roots LNG plants in the
1980s, the 1990s saw the startup of six new grass roots projects in
Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Nigeria, and Trinidad. In addition, several
existing facilities were revamped and expanded. Grass roots plants
have been started up or are shortly to be started in Egypt, Australia,
Equatorial Guinea, Indonesia, Norway, Russia, and Qatar. New
projects are being developed in Nigeria, Angola, Qatar, and other
locations. LNG train designs in the coming decade appear to fall
within three categories, having nominal capacities of approximately
3.5, 5.0, and 8.0 MTPA capacities. These designs may coexist in
the coming years, as different individuals choose the size, which
matches their gas supplies, sales, and other logistical and economic
constraints. Designs suggested for even larger capacities of 10 to
12 MTPA may be found in Kaart, et al. (2007). Details on the
evolution of the LNG market may be found in Avidan, et al. (2002,
2003), and Wood and Mokhatab (2007).
As the LNG trade increases owners keep looking for ways to
lower costs by benefitting from economies of scale. As plant
capacities grow, this effort has concentrated on building larger
single LNG train plants. LNG train size has been increasing from
a typical 1.5 MTPA in the 1970s to a typical 2.5 MTPA design in
the mid 1990s as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Increase in LNG Plant Sizes over Time.
LNG PLANT DRIVER OPTIONS

LNG Driver Choices Available
The three types of drivers available for LNG refrigeration compressors are:
Steam turbines
Gas turbines
Electric motors
Prior to 1989, LNG plants utilized steam turbine drivers. As
steam turbines could be designed and sized to uniquely fit specific
power requirements, they were initially very popular. The worlds
first plant to use gas turbines was a plant in Kenai, Alaska (in
1969), that utilized six Frame 5 drivers. Currently the trend is to
Figure 5. Evolution of Drivers for LNG Refrigeration

Compressors.
Gas turbines are now the established driver of choice in the LNG
industry and have several advantages over steam turbines.
These include:
Smaller plot space.

Generally shorter delivery time.
Lower transportation costs.
Lower installation costs.
Lower foundation costs.
No need for expensive boiler feed water treatment.
No need for cooling water.
Driver Selection Criteria
There are several key criteria that have to be considered in the
selection of a driver:
Driver power capabilityThe power developed by the driver

must be appropriate for the worst case situation. In the case of a gas
turbine this would take into account the highest ambient temperature,
and a level of performance degradation. Typically conservative
power margins are applied but this is an area that needs careful
consideration especially with the application of dry low NOx or
dry low emission machines. This will be discussed in detail in the
gas turbine section.
Reliability and availability experienceThis is obviously a very
important criterion, as the viability of the LNG plant is a strong
function of the availability of the refrigeration equipment. Gas
turbine vendors have extensive historical data relating to reliability
and availability. The reliability takes into account forced outages,
while the availability parameter includes scheduled maintenance
and the planned maintenance schedules.
Capital costThe competitiveness and viability of an LNG
project are very sensitive to the installed cost of the liquefaction
facility, consequently the capital cost of the driver-compressor
block is of critical importance. The cost of power generation for the
facility must be also considered in an integrated fashion as the
selection of driver type (single or dual shaft) will impact power
generation requirements.
Technical issuesThese include the operating speed of the driver,
driver speed variability, starting torque capability, and controllability.
LNG Plant Thermal Efficiency
ConsiderationsImpact on Turbomachinery
With the increased emphasis on limiting global warming, and as
fuel costs increase, the issue of overall thermal efficiency of the
LNG facility has become more important. The thermal efficiency
of an LNG facility depends on numerous factors such as gas
composition, inlet pressure and temperature, and even more
obscure factors such as the location of the loading dock relative to
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the liquefaction process. Gas turbine selection, the use of waste

heat recovery, ship vapor recovery, and self-generation versus
purchased power all have a significant effect on the overall thermal
efficiency of the LNG process. Process flexibility and stability
of operation are issues of paramount importance and must be
incorporated into the considerations regarding thermal efficiency
as the value of a highly efficient process is diminished if plant
reliability and availability are sacrificed.
Yates (2002) has provided a detailed treatment of the design
lifecycle and environmental factors that impact plant thermal
efficiency, such as feed gas characteristics, feed gas conditioning,
and the LNG liquefaction cycle itself. Some of the key elements of
this discussion are provided below.
A common consideration in evaluating competing LNG
technologies is the difference in thermal efficiency. The evaluation
of thermal efficiency tends to be elusive and subjective in that each
project introduces its own unique characteristics that determine its
optimum thermal efficiency based on the strongest economic and
environmental merits for the project. Different technologies or
plant designs cannot be compared on thermal efficiency without
understanding and compensating for the unique differences of
each project.
The definition of thermal efficiency also has proven to be
subjective depending on whether an entire plant, an isolated
system, or item of equipment is being compared. Thermal
efficiency, or train efficiency, has been expressed as the ratio of
the total higher heating value (HHV) of the products to the total
HHV of the feed. The use of this definition fails to recognize
the other forms of thermodynamic work or energy actually
consumed by the process. For example, if purchased power and
electric motors are used for refrigeration and flashed gas
compression, this definition would not account for the work
done by these motors. When evaluating the benefits of
achieving a high thermal efficiency with a specific LNG plant
design, a true accounting of all of the energy being consumed
in the process must be considered.
Turndown capabilities of an LNG process (the ability to
operate at part load conditions) also need to be considered
when thermal efficiency and lifecycle comparisons are being
made. Thermal efficiency comparisons are typically based on
the process operating at design conditions. In an actual plant
environment, this design point is elusive and an operator is
always trying to attain an optimal point where the plant will
operate at its peak performance under prevailing conditions.
As the temperature changes during the day, impacting the
performance of the air coolers, the turbines, or the process fluid
and equipment, the operator needs to continually adjust plant
parameters to achieve optimal performance. Designing a plant
to allow an operator to continually achieve this optimum
performance point will impact the overall thermal efficiency of
the plant and lifecycle costs.
The efficiency of an LNG process is dependent on many
features. The two most significant ones are the efficiency of
heat exchange and the turbomachinery efficiency. The heat
exchange efficiency is a function of the process configuration
and selection of the individual heat exchangers, which sets
temperature approaches. The turbomachinery efficiency
depends on the compressor and gas turbine efficiencies.
The maturity of liquefaction processes on the market has
now approached a point where changes in duty curve no longer
represent the greatest impact. Two developments that have a
significant impact on efficiency are the improvement in
liquefaction compressor efficiency and the availability of high
efficiency gas turbine drivers. Compressor efficiencies are well
in excess of 80 percent and high efficiency gas turbines are
available with simple cycle thermal efficiencies of above 40
percent. A detailed treatment of LNG plant process efficiency
has been made by Ransbarger (2007).
Environmental Greenhouse Gas Considerations

From the discussion above, one can see that the selection
of the gas turbine plays an important role in the efficiency,
greenhouse gas emissions, and flexibility under various
operating conditions.
Where high fuel costs are expected, the selection of a high
efficiency driver becomes a strong criterion in the lifecycle cost
evaluation. However, LNG projects are developed to monetize
stranded gas reserves, where the low-cost fuel has favored
heavy duty gas turbines. This situation is however changing and
the value of gas is now growing. Further, in situations where the
gas is pipeline or otherwise constrained, there is a clear benefit
in consuming less fuel for a given amount of refrigeration
power. In such cases, a high efficiency gas turbine solution
where the saved fuel can be converted into LNG production can
result in large benefits.
Aeroderivative gas turbines achieve significantly higher
thermal efficiencies than industrial gas turbines as shown in
Figure 6. This figure shows the engines thermal efficiency
versus specific work (kW per unit air mass flow) for commonly
used engines used for LNG service. The higher efficiency of an
aeroderivative can result in a 3 percent or greater increase in
overall plant thermal efficiency. Further, there is a significant
improvement in plant availability as a result of the ability to
completely change out a gas generator (or even a complete
turbine) within 48 hours versus 14 or more days
that would be required for a major overhaul of a heavy duty
gas turbine.
Figure 6. Map of ISO Thermal Efficiency Versus Specific Work of

Commonly Used Frame Drivers and Aeroderivative Engines.
If a high efficiency gas turbine is utilized, the improvement in
thermal efficiency results directly in a reduction of specific fuel
required per unit of LNG production. This reduction in fuel
consumption results in a reduction in CO2 emissions. This impact
is depicted in Figure 7, which shows relative CO2 emissions for
various drivers. A similar beneficial greenhouse gas reduction
comes from the use of waste heat recovery for various heating
requirements within the plant. The use of this heat recovery
eliminates greenhouse gas emissions that would have been released
had gas fired equipment been used. The result of using waste heat
recovery equipment can result in a reduction in greenhouse gases
by approximately 9 percent of the total emissions without the
installation of this equipment. A treatment of efficiency and
emissions in the context of base load LNG plants has been made
by Nelson, et al. (2001).
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Figure 9. Trend of Gas Turbine Specific Work and Output.

Figure 7. Relative CO2 Emissions from Different Classes of
Gas Turbines.
Combined cycle drivers provide an attractive design alternative for
an LNG plant and have been studied but not implemented
as of yet. Qualls and Hunter (2003) described how a combined cycle
successfully reduces capital costs and increases thermal
efficiency. This approach would include the use of mechanical drive
gas turbines with heat recovery and mechanical drive steam turbines.
The thermal efficiency of this approach is superior to most simple
cycle plants. The main advantage of the combined cycle drivers is the
reduction in fuel consumption by increasing cycle efficiency. Figure
8 (Tekumalla, et al., 2007) demonstrates the value of converting fuel
gas savings into LNG for a 5.0 MTPA LNG plant.
Selection Considerations
A wide range of factors goes into the selection of a gas turbine
driver. Key considerations include:
LNG Plant Production and Thermal
Efficiency-Driver Efficiency and Reliability
LNG production is directly linked to refrigeration power and
overall fuel consumption. CO2 emissions are directly linked to the
gas turbines thermal efficiency. Depending on how the project
values fuel, this can be a significant issue. The use of a variable
area second-stage nozzle (located between the high pressure gas
generator turbine and the low pressure power turbine) in the case
of a two shaft gas turbine allows the area and hence the backpressure
on the high pressure turbine to be modulated thus allowing the
enthalpy drop between the two turbines to be controlled. This result
is better part load efficiency and better control of speed with
sudden load swings.
Multiple Shaft Versus Single Shaft Gas Turbines
Figure 8. Value of converting Fuel Gas Savings into LNG.

(Courtesy Tekumalia, et al., 2007)
GAS TURBINE DRIVERS

Mechanical Drive Gas Turbines
There are a wide range of gas turbines available on the market
today that have been applied for pipeline and power generation
service. For LNG service, the envelope is currently bracketed by
the Frame 9E gas turbine in terms of power, and by aeroderivative
engines for high simple cycle thermal efficiency. Salient parameters of
some key gas turbines that could be used as LNG drivers are presented
in Table 1. The concept of gas turbine specific power is a valuable one
in evaluating gas turbines as several operational parameters are linked
to this. A general trend of specific power versus power level is shown
in Figure 9. The general trend as power increases is for higher specific
powers. Aeroderivative engines have a higher specific power compared
to their heavy duty counterparts.
Table 1. Salient Parameters of Gas Turbine Drivers.
Gas TurbineISO Rated Thermal
Power, kW Eff, %
PGT25+G4
HSPT
Frame 5D
Frame 5E
Frame 6B
LM6000
Frame 7EA
Frame 9E
LMS100
Pressure
Rati o
34,328
41.3
32,580
31,998
42,910
44,261
86,701
129,401
100,000
29.4
36
33
42.8
33
34.4
44
Ai r Fl ow Number of Output
Rate
Shafts
Shaft
Kg/Sec
Speed
24.4
10.8
17
12.2
29
12.6
12.7
40
88.43
141.36
102
140.9
128
296
412
207
2
2
2
1
6100
4670
6100
5111
2
1
1
3
3600
3600
3000
3000/
0 360
Gas turbines that have traditionally been used for power generation
application are typically single shaft machines with a limited speed
range. Drivers such as the Frame 6, Frame 7, and Frame 9 fall into
this category. These machines are incapable of starting up a large
compressor string without the help of large variable speed drive
starter motors. Split shaft machines may be heavy duty (such as the
Frame 5D) or aeroderivative engines such as the LM2500+ that
have free power turbines that allow very high startup torques. Some
larger drivers such as the LM6000 are multispool machines, but
with no free power turbine, that still exhibit a large speed range and
excellent startup torque capability. The configurations of a single
and split shaft gas turbine are shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Single Shaft and Split Shaft Gas Turbine

Configurations.
In a gas turbine engine, the operating point is defined by the
match between the compressor and the turbine. A match point is
simply a set of operating conditions (pressures, temperatures, and
flows) where the compressor and turbine can work in unison and
in equilibrium.
Matching is based on the compatibilities of flow, work, and
speed. This means:
The compressor work must match the work output of the turbine
that drives it. In aeroderivative engines, the gas generator turbine
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drives the compressor. In the case of a three-spool engine, the low

pressure turbine work must match the low pressure compressor
work and the high pressure turbine the high pressure compressor
work. In a single shaft gas turbine such as the Frame 6B, 7EA, or
9E, the turbine work must equal the sum of the output and the gas
turbine axial compressor work.
The flow rates must be compatible because gas turbines are
continuous flow machines. Air bleeds and fuel flow must be taken
into account.
The speeds of the compressor and its driving turbine must, by
definition, be the same. In multiple spool engines, the free spools
must be in equilibrium.
In the case of a single shaft gas turbine used for power generation,
the operating point at a given temperature is along a corrected
speed line as the mechanical speed is locked to the grid. After
attaining full speed no load conditions (FSNL) the turbine is
loaded by increasing fuel flow (i.e., increasing turbine inlet
temperature) causing the operating point to move up the speed line.
When these machines are applied to LNG compressor drives, there
is a small speed range of approximately 5 percent available. In the
case of a split shaft gas turbine such as the Frame 5D or LM2500+
load changes involve changes in the speed of the gas generator
spool and therefore the trajectory of operating points is not along a
constant speed line. With split shaft or multispool gas turbines,
significant speed flexibility exists.
In the case of the turbine map, the flow chokes at a certain
expansion ratio (for a given turbine inlet temperature) and
thereafter the turbine flow function (m T/P) stays flat. The
swallowing capacity of the gas turbine is Mach number limited and
therefore a function of the turbine inlet temperature. Most gas
turbines run choked with a choked nozzle and this defines the
operating point on the compressor characteristic. Thus, for a given
speed, the compressor operating pressure ratio can be calculated
from the turbine resistance. This calculation requires an iterative
computation knowing both the turbine and compressor maps.
Obviously as the flow is choked, the quantum of flow will be
defined by the turbine inlet temperature (due to the influence of
temperature on the Mach number).
The optimum operation at design conditions will be obtained
with a certain hot effective nozzle area. For a power turbine to
match a gas generator, the overall turbine effective area has to be
equivalent to the hot effective nozzle area. Variations in effective
area from the standard will modify performance. If the effective
area is oversized by 1 percent, the gas generator cycle temperature
is reduced at constant gas generator speed and a power reduction of
between 2 and 4 percent is typical. If the effective area is undersize
by 1 percent, the gas generator speed is reduced at constant
temperature and a similar reduction in power occurs (Blauser and
Gulati, 1984).
In mechanical drive split shaft gas turbines there is an optimal
power turbine speed (optimal U/C ratio). Operating away from this
speed will result in a loss in terms of power and efficiency. The
power turbine optimal speed is a function of ambient temperature.
Assuming the design is for International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) conditions, as the ambient temperature
increases the power turbine optimal speed drops. If adjustment of
turbine geometry is available (variable power turbine inlet vanes)
then the effect can be mitigated resulting in a flatter efficiency curve.
Details on gas turbine matching may be found in Saravanamuttoo,
et al. (2001), Kurz and Brun (2000), and Meher-Homji, et al. (2001).
Details on gas turbine performance are available in Walsh and
Fletcher (1998).
Aeroderivative and Heavy Duty Gas Turbines
Both heavy duty and aeroderiviative engines have their applications
as LNG drivers and to some extent the selection is dependant on
the LNG process technology. Some technologies favor single train
larger machines while others may favor redundant smaller

machines. Both types of drivers can be successfully used in LNG
applications. Fundamentally, aeroderivative units tend to operate at
higher pressure ratios and firing temperatures as indicated in
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Differentiation between Heavy Duty and Aeroderivative

Gas Turbines.
While a perception exists that heavy duty machines are more
rugged, extensive mechanical drive experience with aeroderivatives
(both offshore and onshore) have shown that good availabilities
have been obtained even under hostile operating conditions. Site
maintenance of aeroderivatives is more complex with engines
typically being shipped to an authorized repair depot for service.
On the other hand, heavy duty units can be maintained in situ,
though the time required to remove the engine and perform the
overhaul is considerably longer than that of an aeroderivative
engine. The high power to weight ratio of an aeroderivative engine
may be of importance in the event a floating LNG facility is
being planned.
GT Site Performance
Capacity and Efficiency
Gas-turbine (GT) ratings are traditionally established with a
single operating point at ISO ambient conditions. ISO conditions
are defined as a temperature of 60F (15C) zero inlet and exhaust
losses and consider a relative humidity of 60 percent and allow that
the maximum continuous speed is at least 105 percent of nominal
rated speed.
During selection of a gas turbine all site conditions have to be
taken into account as the plant performance will be dependant on
the site temperatures predominantly.
Speed Range and Transient Characteristics
While two shaft gas turbines have an inherent speed range
(typically 70 to 105 percent), single shaft gas turbines have a very
limited range typically around 5 percent. The speed range of the
MS6001B for example, is bounded on the high end by encroachment
limits on first-stage compressor blading resonance conditions
and at the low end by third-stage turbine bucket resonance
conditions. The MS7001EA upper end limit is determined by the
stress-temperature design life criteria for the turbine section
buckets, while the lower-end limit is determined by compressor
stall margin. Compressor stall margin considerations also preclude
continuous operation on either machine at any lower speed points
(Ekstrom and Garrison, 1994).
Startup and Shutdown Issues
While split shaft turbines have excellent torque-speed
characteristics allowing easy startup of compressor strings, the
larger single shaft gas turbines are very limited in startup torque
and consequently a starter motor has to be utilized.
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Typically two shaft gas turbines will allow a rapid startup due to
the torque capability of the engine. With a single shaft driver,
depressurization of the compressor string is typically required to
enable a startup. This can be avoided by the use of very large starter
motors as has been done on a Frame 9E project (Saulsibury, et al.,
2007) that allow startup under full settle out pressure conditions.
Most plants utilizing single shaft units do however have to depressurize prior to start.
Load Coupling Selection
The coupling must support the LNG train rotordynamics and
torsional analysis and also accommodate thermal growth misalignment as the turbine heats up. The coupling between the gas turbine
and the driven equipment must meet several requirements. First it
must continuously transmit the required full-load torque and comfortably withstand the transient peak torques associated with upset
conditions. It may also be required to transmit or isolate thrust
loads and must accommodate alignment shifts due to thermal
growths. The coupling has to complement the torsional and lateral
rotordynamics of the full LNG string.
Accessory Systems
The selection of accessory systems is of critical importance in
terms of the operational reliability of the LNG Plant. A machine
such as the Frame 5D will utilize its own mineral oil system for the
compressors. In the case of large gas turbine drivers such as the
Frame 7 or Frame 9, independent API 614 (1999) lube oil systems
can be utilized to service both the gas turbine and driven
equipment. With aeroderivative engines, the gas generator utilizes
a synthetic oil system, and the power turbine and remaining driven
equipment would have their own mineral oil system.
EmissionsWater and Steam Injection and DLN/DLE
While emission requirements are project and site specific, the
general trend is to limiting NOx emissions. This can be done by the
use of lean head end combustor for certain gas turbines or by water
injection, or by the utilization of dry low combustor technology
known as DLN (dry low NOx) for the frame units and DLE (dry
low emission) for the aeroderivative units. The general trend is for
plants to have dry control technologies, but fuel considerations
(fuel switching, and Wobbe numbers) may impact this decision.
121
Design Information for Mechanical

Drive Gas Turbines Used in LNG Service
Some of the salient design features of commonly used gas
turbines in the LNG sector are described here.
Frame 5D Gas Turbine
The Frame 5D is a heavy duty two shaft gas turbine that has been
widely applied as a driver for LNG plants. Some of the salient
design features include:
32 MW, thermal efficiency = 29.5 percent

17-stage axial compressor; pressure ratio 10.8:1
Air flow rate = 310 lb/sec
Reverse flow, multichamber (can-annular) combustion system
(12 chambers)
Single-stage gas generator turbine
Single-stage power turbine (4670 rpm rated speed) with
variable nozzles
Two baseplate configurations (gas turbine flange-to-flange unit
and auxiliary system), integrated enclosure is with the baseplate
Standard configuration: 49 by 10 by 12 ft (15 by 3.2 by 3.8 m);
weight 110 tons
Combustors: DLN combustion system available (DLN-1) or
lean head end combustors can also be used
The Frame 5D is shown in Figure 12. The Frame 5D machine is an

uprate of the Frame 5C, and utilizes a Frame 6B axial compressor.
The gas generator rotor and single-stage gas generator turbine (the
high pressure turbine) are shown in Figure 13. The machine has
variable power turbine nozzles between the high pressure turbine and
the power turbine. When the variable-stage nozzle is opened, the
backpressure on the high pressure turbine is lowered, resulting in
greater energy utilized across the high pressure turbine. The ability to
modulate the enthalpy drop between the gas generator turbine and the
power turbine of this engine results in good part load efficiency and
a better control of speed with sudden load changes.
Typical Gas Turbine Configurations

Some typical configurations utilizing a range of gas turbines
including Frame 5, 7EA, and 9E are provided below. Very often
combinations of drivers are used such as a Frame 7EA and a Frame 6B.
Configurations using mixed refrigerantsConfigurations here
include either two Frame 7EA machines or one Frame 6B and

one Frame 7EA. For example a Frame 6 would drive a propane
compressor, while the Frame 7EA would drive a mixed refrigerant
compressor resulting in a 3 to 4 MTPA plant. The gas turbines
would have starter-helper variable speed drive motors. In some
variations of this configuration one could have two Frame 7EA
turbines: one driving mixed refrigerant compressors and the other
Frame 7EA driving a propane and a stage of mixed refrigerant.
In some cases, the refrigerants would include propane, mixed
refrigerant, and nitrogen. For example a plant using three Frame 9E
units with large helper motors driving propane, mixed refrigerant,
and nitrogen to produce approximately 8 MTPA.
Configurations utilizing pure refrigerantsA typical configuration
here would be six Frame 5D or six LM2500+ gas turbines in a
2+2+2 configuration driving propane, ethylene, and methane
compressors, respectively. Such configurations can derive 3 to 4
MTPA and larger plants have been developed using additional
drivers. Alternatively, heavy duty drivers can also be used (2
Frame 7 + 2 Frame 6) to derive larger outputs.
Figure 12. Layout of a Frame 5D Gas Turbine.
Figure 13. Frame 5D High Pressure Rotor (Axial Compressor and

High Pressure Turbine).
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122
LM2500+ (PGT25+) Aeroderivative Engine

This 31.3 MW ISO engine has been successfully implemented in
an LNG facility in Australia, being the worlds first application of
a high efficiency aeroderivative engine in LNG service. The
evolution of this engine is shown in Figure 14. The engine is
derived from the LM2500 engine, by increasing its airflow and
pressure ratio by 23 percent. The airflow increase was derived by
adding a zero-stage transonic stage to the axial flow compressor.
Salient design features of this engine include:
design. The power turbine is attached to the gas generator by a

transition duct that also serves to direct the exhaust gases from
the gas generator into the stage one turbine nozzles. Output
power is transmitted to the load by means of a coupling adapter
on the aft end of the power turbine rotor shaft. The HSPT
operates at a speed of 6100 rpm with an operating speed range
of 3050 to 6400 rpm. The high speed two-stage power turbine
can be operated over a cubic load curve for mechanical drive
applications.
The PGT25+ has an engine-mounted accessory drive
gearbox for starting the unit and supplying power for critical
accessories. Power is extracted through a radial drive shaft at
the forward end of the compressor. Drive pads are provided for
accessories, including the lube and scavenge pump, the starter,
and the variable-geometry control. An overview of the engine
including the HSPT is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 14. Evolution of the LM2500 Engine. (Courtesy GE Energy)
17-stage axial compressor; PR 23:1

Annular combustion chamber (30 fuel nozzles)
Two-stage gas generator turbine
Two-stage high speed power turbine (6100 rpm)
The gas generator, power turbine, and auxiliary system are
mounted on a single baseplate
The enclosure is integrated with the baseplate for easy maintenance
Standard configuration: 21 by 12 by 13 ft (6.5 by 3.6 by 3.9 m);
weight 38 tons
Dry low emission (DLE) combustion system or steam or water
injection systems for NOx abatement
The compressor is a 17-stage axial flow design with variablegeometry compressor inlet guide vanes that direct air at the
optimum flow angle, and variable stator vanes to ensure ease of
starting and smooth, efficient operation over the entire engine
operating range. As reported by Wadia, et al. (2002), the axial
flow compressor operates at a pressure ratio of 23:1 and has a
transonic blisk (integral blades and disk) as the zero-stage. The
zero-stage operates at a stage pressure ratio of 1.43:1 and an
inlet tip relative Mach number of 1.19. The LM2500+ airflow
rate is 84.5 kg/sec at a gas generator speed of 9586 rpm. The
axial compressor has a polytropic efficiency of 91 percent.
The engine is provided with a single annular combustor
(SAC) with coated combustor dome and liner similar to those
used in flight applications. The single annular combustor
features a through-flow, venturi swirler to provide a uniform
exit temperature profile and distribution. This combustor configuration features individually replaceable fuel nozzles, a
full-machined-ring liner for long life, and an yttrium stabilized
zirconium thermal barrier coating to improve hot corrosive
resistance.
The PGT25+ high pressure turbine (gas generator turbine or
HPT) is a high efficiency air-cooled, two-stage design. The
HPT section consists of the rotor and the first and second stage
HPT nozzle assemblies. The HPT nozzles direct the hot gas
from the combustor onto the turbine blades at the optimum
angle and velocity. The high pressure turbine extracts energy
from the gas stream to drive the axial flow compressor to which
it is mechanically coupled.
The PGT25+ gas generator is aerodynamically coupled to a
high efficiency high speed power turbine. The high speed power
turbine (HSPT) is a cantilever-supported two-stage rotor
Figure 15 Overview of the PGT25+ Gas Turbine. (Courtesy GE

Energy)
A critical factor in any LNG operation is the life cycle cost
that is impacted in part by the maintenance cycle and engine
availability. Aeroderivative engines have several features that
facilitate on condition maintenance. Numerous borescope
ports allow on-station, internal inspections to determine the
condition of internal components, thereby increasing the interval
between scheduled, periodic removal of engines. When the
condition of the internal components of the affected module has
deteriorated to such an extent that continued operation is not
practical, the maintenance program calls for exchange of that
module. This allows on condition maintenance, rather than
strict time-based maintenance.
The PGT25+ is designed to allow for onsite, rapid exchange of
major modules within the gas turbine. Onsite component removal
and replacement can be accomplished in less than 100 man hours.
The complete gas generator unit can be replaced and be back
online within 48 hours. The hot-section repair interval for the
aeroderivative is 25,000 hours on natural gas. However, water
injection for NOx control shortens this interval to 16,000 hours to
20,000 hours depending on the NOx target level.
Upgrades of the PGT25+
An advantage of using aeroderivative engines for LNG service
is that they can be uprated to newer variants, generally within
the same space constraints, and this is a useful feature for future
debottlenecking. The LM2500+G4 is the newest member of the
LM2500 family of aeroderivative engines. The engine retains the
basic design of the LM2500+ but increases the power capability by
approximately 10 percent without sacrificing hot section life. The
modification increases the power capability of the engine by
increasing the airflow, improving the materials, and increasing the
internal cooling. The number of compressor and turbine stages, the
majority of the airfoils and the combustor designs remain
unchanged from the LM2500+. The LM2500+ G4 engine is shown
in Figure 16. Details of this variant are presented by Badeer (2005).
The growth in power of this variant compared to the base engine is
shown in Figure 17.
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123
Frame 7EA Gas Turbine

The Frame 7EA has been extensively used for mechanical drive
service. It is rated at 86 MW and a thermal efficiency of 33 percent
and operates at a pressure ratio of 12:5:1. The air mass flow rate is
296 kg/sec. The machine has an output speed of 3600 rpm. An
overview of the machine is shown in Figure 19.
Figure 16. The Uprated LM2500+ G4 EngineDLE Variant.

(Courtesy GE Energy)
Figure 19. Overview of the Frame 7EA Gas Turbine.
Figure 17. Growth of the LM2500+G4 Variant. (Courtesy GE Energy)

Frame 6B Single Shaft Gas Turbine
The Frame 6B is a power generation machine rated at
approximately 44 MW and a thermal efficiency of 33 percent and
has been widely used in mechanical drive service. The output
speed of this machine is 5111 rpm. An overview of this machine is
shown in Figure 18. Some of the salient design features include:
Figure 18. Overview of the Frame 6B Gas Turbine.
Hot end drive

Two bearing machine
Axial compressor 17 stages (12:1 pressure ratio), air flow rate
= 310 lb/sec
Inlet guide vanes (IGVs)
Bolted construction
10 can annular chambers
25 ppm NOx (15 percent O2) with gas fuel
Three-stage turbine
Bolted construction
Advanced materials
Enhanced cooling
Standard or DLN1 combustors
Hot end drive

Three bearing machine
Axial compressor 17 stages (12.6:1 pressure ratio), air flow rate
= 653 lb/sec
IGVs
Bolted construction
14 combustors
25 ppm NOx (15 percent O2) with gas fuel
Three-stage turbine
Bolted construction
Advanced materials
Enhanced cooling
Standard or DLN1 combustors
Output speed 3600 rpm
Frame 9E Gas Turbine
The Frame 9E is a scaled up 50 Hz version of the Frame 7. It is
rated at 129 MW and a thermal efficiency of 34.4 percent and
operates at a pressure ratio of 12.7:1. The air mass flow rate is 413
kg/sec. The machine has an output speed of 3000 rpm, which is an
advantage for the propane compressor service as a slower speed
helps in dealing with Mach number limitations of the compressor
as will be discussed in the compressor section ahead.
The first application of Frame 9E machines for LNG service are
currently underway with string tests being completed. Details on
this application may be found in Saulisbury, et al. (2007), including
an extensive design review process to qualify this engine for
mechanical drive service.
A view of the Frame 9E driver is provided in Figure 20. Some
salient features of this driver are:
Figure 20. Overview of the Frame 9E Gas Turbine.
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124
17-stage axial flow compressor (12.7:1 ratio)

16 though-bolt connection
Variable IGV
First seven stages, corrosion resistant material/coating
Radial inlet casing
Hot end drivethree bearings
3000 rpm speed
14 combustion chambers
X + TBC
Combustion liner in Hastelloy
Transition piece in Nimonic 263 + TBC
Standard combustor or DLN1 available
Three-stage turbine, first two stages air-cooled
An analysis and simulation of 91 gas turbines were conducted to

evaluate the sensitivity to ambient temperature in terms of the net
work ratio of the engines. The net work ratio is defined as the output
of the gas turbine divided by the total turbine work (i.e., the output
+ axial compressor work). Results of these simulations are shown
in Figure 22 (Chaker and Meher-Homji, 2007). This graph shows
that units with lower net work ratios (such as the aeroderivatives)
tend to have a greater sensitivity to ambient temperature.
Effect of Site Conditions on GT

Performance with Respect to LNG Drivers
It is important to understand the effects of site conditions on gas
turbine performance as they directly will impact the LNG production
rate. Site conditions that have to be considered (Meher-Homji, et
al., 2001) include:
Effect of ambient temperature

Effect of altitude (i.e., pressure)
Inlet filter pressure losses
Exhaust system pressure losses
Ambient humidity effects
Influence in changes in fuel heating value
Influence of Ambient Temperature
This is a factor of major importance for LNG driver applications
as LNG production is linked to refrigeration driver power. Unless
a gas turbine inlet cooling technique is used, there is little that can
be done regarding the ambient temperature. Inlet cooling techniques
might include traditional refrigeration chilling, inlet evaporative
cooling by use media, or inlet fogging. Turbine output is a strong
function of the ambient air temperature with power output
dropping by 0.54 to 0.9 percent for every 1C rise in ambient
temperature (0.3 to 0.5 percent per 1F). Gas turbines can experience
power output drops of around 14 to 20 percent when ambient
temperatures increase from 15C (59F) to 35C (95F). There is
also a concurrent heat rate increase of about 5 percent.
Aeroderivative gas turbines exhibit even a greater sensitivity to
ambient temperature conditions. A representation of the power
boost capability for given inlet cooling potential for different types
of gas turbines is shown in Figure 21. The drop in performance due
to high ambient temperatures can be further aggravated with gas
turbine recoverable and unrecoverable performance deterioration
due to several factors as presented in Meher-Homji, et al. (2001).
Figure 21. Power Boost Due to Inlet Cooling for Frame and
Aeroderivative Engines.
Figure 22. Power Drop in Percent/ C Versus Net Work Ratio for 91
Gas Turbines Simulated. (Courtesy Chaker and Meher-Homji, 2007)
The impact of inlet temperature on the salient parameters of a
Frame 7EA in simple cycle operation is provided in Table 2. This
table depicts the change in key parameters as inlet ambient
temperatures are varied from 10 to 40C (50 to 104F). The table is
based on the turbine operating at 100 percent rating, in an inferred
turbine inlet temperature (TIT) control mode, control curve limit,
inlet loss of 10 millibar (.145 psi) and exhaust losses of 12.45
millibar (.181 psi). The table shows the compressor work and
turbine work, and also the compressor and turbine specific work
variation. It is the relationship between the two specific works that
results in the drop in output at higher temperatures. The situation is
shown graphically in Figure 23.
Table 2. Operating Parameter of a Frame 7EA Gas Turbine Showing
Effect of Ambient Temperature. (Chaker and Meher-Homji, 2007)
T amb
qC
Output Ma, CDP

kW
kg/sec Bar
PR
Sp.
Heat Rate,
Comp
KJ/kW hr Wc, kW Wk
Wt
kW
Sp.
Turb
Wk
10
88,041
298
12.9
12.9
10,790
107,344
360.
197,426
651
15
20
85,215
82,431
292
286
12.64
12.38
12.64
12.38
10,867
10,945
105,264
102,989
360
360
192,481
187,385
647
644
25
79,730
280
12.11
12.11
11,029
100,717
360
182,377
641
30
76,954
273
11.84
11.84
11,130
98,428
360
177,277
638
35
74,136
267
11.56
11.56
11,245
96,106
361
172,104
635
40
71,311
260
11.29
11.29
11,374
93,757
361
166,896
631
Figure 23. Change in Compressor and Turbine Work Referenced to

Reference Value at Compressor Inlet Temperature (CIT) = 10 C
(50F). (Chaker and Meher-Homji, 2007)
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Large single shaft gas turbines such as the Frame 7EA and
Frame 9 exhibit a significant drop in power when the speed drops
below the design speed (3600 rpm for the Frame 7EA and 3000
rpm for the Frame 9E). While this is of importance for power
generation applications, the application of large single shaft
machines for mechanical drive applications is even more
important. This is because the reduced corrected speed Ncorr
(defined as N/T) of the shaft reduces the volumetric flow through
the machine. The effect is further compounded at high ambient
temperatures where the denominator of the corrected speed term
grows as T increases, thus further decreasing the corrected speed.
Normally at constant speed, the volumetric flow through a gas
turbine (at constant IGV settings) is fixed.
Influence of Altitude (i.e., Ambient Pressure)
High altitude reduces the air density and consequently the
mass flow rate resulting in a drop in power with increasing
altitude. As a rule of thumb, the power drop is approximately 3
to 4 percent per 1000 ft altitude. There is also a drop in mass flow
rate similar in magnitude to the loss of power. Nothing can be
done about this loss other than supercharging the gas turbine
inlet with a blower, a solution that is not popular in practice. Most
LNG plants however are located at sea level so altitude is not a
significant factor.
Influence of Inlet Filter Pressure Losses
This is an important parameter as it is controllable to some
extent and will affect turbine engine performance. The pressure
drop across the inlet filter reduces the density to the inlet of the gas
turbine thus reducing the mass flow rate. The lower pressure at the
turbine inlet implies a lower expansion ratio across the turbine and
a consequent elevation in exhaust gas temperature.
As a rule of thumb, a 1 inch water gauge inlet pressure loss will
cause a 0.4 percent drop in power and a 0.12 percent increase in
heat rate. Ambient temperature, relative humidity, and climatic
conditions such as fog and smog will strongly impact compressor
fouling. In some cases, turbines have been known to trip due to
excessive backpressure caused due to morning fogs. In other cases,
sandstorms have also been known to create high differential
pressure conditions.
Influence of Exhaust System Pressure Losses
An increase in the backpressure due to excessive stack losses or
the presence of silencers causes a backpressure on the turbine
section, which decreases the expansion ratio across the turbine.
This drop in expansion ratio results in an increased exhaust gas
temperature (EGT). As a rule of thumb, a 1 inch water gauge
exhaust pressure loss will cause a 0.15 percent drop in power and
a 0.12 percent increase in heat rate.
Influence of Ambient Humidity
As a practical matter, the effect of ambient humidity is very
small and is dependent on the control philosophy. For most
performance deterioration evaluations, it can be neglected. A gas
turbine operating at fixed firing temperature would produce more
power with high humidity. This is because of the increased Cp
value due to the presence of the water. However, the situation is not
so straightforward due to control system complexities.
In the case of two shaft gas turbines, as a general rule, humid air
is lighter than the dry air, so the compressor gets unloaded and will
tend to speed up (assuming parity of other parameters). Further, the
specific heat of wet air is higher than that of dry air, so the available
specific enthalpy at the turbine inlet, at assuming the same inlet
temperature, will be higher for wet air. The impacts of the control
system and a corrected parameter control approach for several
parameters including off-design operation in terms of power
turbine speed has been presented by Casoni, et al. (2004).
125
Influence in Changes in Fuel Heating Value

Gas turbines operate on a wide range of gaseous and liquid fuels.
A useful number to understand the effect of gaseous fuel is the
Wobbe number defined as:
Some original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) define a

temperature compensated (or modified) Wobbe number by
including the fuel temperature in R as a multiplier to the specific
gravity (SG) term in the denominator. Fuel with significant heavy
hydrocarbons present will have a higher Wobbe number while the
presence of inerts such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide will lower
the Wobbe number.
In general, the use of low Btu fuel (i.e., low lower heating
value [LHV]) will cause an increase in power because of the
extra mass flow through the turbine. A secondary effect is that
the increased turbine mass flow causes an increase in pressure
ratio. Changes in heating value become significant in gas
turbines that operate on multiple fuels in that the effects on
performance have to be distinguished from deterioration. A
treatment of performance impact due to variations in fuel
heating value is made by Cloyd and Harris (1995). With DLN
combustors, the rate of change of Wobbe number must be
carefully evaluated when switching fuels.
Gas Turbine Performance Deterioration
In sizing and evaluating any LNG driver, it is important to
consider and understand the issue of gas turbine performance
deterioration. Typically, units are sized with a certain percent (e.g.,
6 or 7 percent) reserved for deterioration. The causes of gas turbine
deterioration fall essentially into two categories: performance
degradation and mechanical degradation with performance
degradation being the more significant.
A further classification of performance deterioration into
recoverable and unrecoverable deterioration can also be made:
Recoverable deteriorationCan be removed by actions during

operation of the gas turbine.
Unrecoverable deteriorationCan be recovered by an overhaul
but not during operation.
Permanent deteriorationResidual deterioration present even
after a major overhaul.
A detailed treatment of performance degradation is made by
Kurz and Brun (2000) and Meher-Homji, et al. (2001).
Performance retention action has to be taken in a scientific
manner and often has to be tailored to the specific gas turbine
under consideration. There are always some projects where a
pronouncement is made that efficiency is not of importance
because fuel is free. This is a mistaken notion because
there is always an opportunity cost associated with excessive
fuel usage, for example, under certain conditions of supply
limitation, minimizing the fuel usage can result in increased
LNG product.
Turbine and Compressor Losses
Efficiency is one of the most important parameters for gas
turbines, fundamentally because the net output is the difference
between turbine output and the work consumed in the compressor.
With the ratio of compressor work to total turbine work being
approximately 0.5, clearly component efficiencies are of
critical importance and will create a large change in gas turbine
output. The deterioration of efficiency in the compressor
and turbine is of critical importance from a performance
retention standpoint.
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126
With advances in gas turbine technology, it is common to

find compressor and turbine efficiencies at 90 percent and
above. An excellent review of turbomachinery losses is made
by Denton (1993).
The three forms of losses can be conveniently classified as:
Profile lossesProfile losses are the losses generated in the

blade boundary layer well away from the end walls.
Endwall lossesAlso referred to as secondary losses these
losses arise partly from the secondary flows generated when the
annulus boundary layers pass through the blade row.
Tip leakage lossesThese arise from the leakage of the flow
over the tips of rotor blades and the hub clearance of the stator
blades. The losses depend on whether the blades are shrouded
or unshrouded.
usually involve the ingestion of sea salt, desert regions attract dry
sand and dust particles, and a variety of fertilizer chemicals may be
ingested in agricultural areas.
Compressor foulants are often classified as being oil soluble,
water soluble, or water wettable, but experience has shown that
they typically are a combination of these types. For example,
although sea salt is essentially water soluble, its retention within
the compressor may be significantly influenced by trace quantities
of oil and grease. In this case, the use of water alone for washing
may not be sufficient, and a chemical detergent would be required
for effective compressor cleaning. The susceptibility of a gas
turbine axial flow compressor to fouling is controlled by the
following major factors (Stalder, 1998):
While these are often considered as discrete losses, the loss

mechanisms are really interrelated.
Dirt Deposits and Fouling
Deposits form mainly on the compressor blading causing loss of
flow capacity and efficiency and this mechanism is a predominant
form of recoverable deterioration. Fouling deterioration is
described by Meher-Homji (1990). The turbine section can also
foul. The effects of fouling are a drop in output and a worsening of
heat rate. There are several peripheral problems that may be created
such as cooling hole blockage, imbalance, blade root lockup, and
hot corrosion. Because this is a topic of major importance, it will
be treated in a dedicated section ahead.
A simulation to indicate the effect of compressor fouling using
consumer available proprietary software has been made considering
a 39.6 MW ISO Frame 6B in simple cycle configuration. Natural
gas (21,518 Btu/lb) has been considered and typical inlet and outlet
pressure drops (4 and 5 inch WG) for simple cycle were considered.
The machine has an ISO pressure ratio of 11.8:1 and a mass flow
rate of 304 lb/sec. The firing temperature is 2020F.
The simulation was run at an ambient temperature of 59F, and
imposing deterioration in the following sequence:
Step 1: New and clean, mass flow drop = 0 percent, compressor

efficiency drop = 0 percent
Step 2: Mass flow drop = 1 percent, compressor efficiency drop
= 0.833 percent
= 1.67 percent
= 2.5 percent
= 3.33 percent
= 4.167 percent
= 5 percent
The output and heat rate variation with the deterioration steps is
shown in Figure 24. The output at the end of the seventh deterioration
step has dropped 5.5 MW while the heat rate has increased by 850
Btu/kW hr. The change in mass flow rate, compressor discharge
pressure, and compressor discharge temperature corresponding to
the simulated deterioration steps is shown in Figure 25. The drop
in efficiency causes the compressor discharge temperature to
increase by approximately 19F and the compressor discharge
pressure to drop by 10 psia.
The type of foulants entering the compressor varies widely from
site to site. Deposits of oil and grease are commonly found in
industrial locations as a result of local emissions from refineries
and petrochemical plants. These types of deposits act as glue and
entrap other materials entering the compressor. Coastal locations
Figure 24. Output and Heat Rate Deterioration with Successive

Levels of Compressor Fouling.
Figure 25. Changes in Mass Flow, Compressor Discharge Pressure,

and Temperature with Successive Levels of Compressor Fouling.
Gas turbine design parameters

Location of the plant and the environment
Plant design and layout
Atmospheric parameters
Plant maintenance practices
The rate of compressor fouling deterioration and foulant type are
strongly affected by predominant wind directions. Factors that
must be taken into account include:
Orientation and elevation of air inlet ducts.

Location of water cooling towers or air-to-air heat exchangers.
Possibility of gas turbine exhaust recirculation into the air inlet.
Orientation of lube oil breathers and vapor extractors.
Location of highways and adjacent plants that can contribute to
the fouling problem.
CFD predictions can be used to understand the phenomenon

especially in grass roots installations. Other important plant design
Table of Contents
parameters that affect the rate of compressor fouling are the

selection of appropriate air inlet filtration systems (self-cleaning,
depth loading, etc.), the selection of filter media, the number of
filtration stages, weather louvers, inertial separators, and mist
eliminators. Design parameters such as the air face velocity
through the filters, filter loading, and their behavior under high
humidity and high pressure drops are also critical.
Erosion
Erosion changes airfoil shape, contours, and surface finish. This
typically does not pose a major problem to land-based turbines due
to the air filtration system present.
Increases in Clearances in
Vanes, Blades, and Seals, I.E., Wear
Wear is a significant problem especially during the early stages
of engine operation. It can be caused by thermal growth problems
and centrifugal growth. Tip clearance increase of blading is a
serious cause of deterioration as it reduces the stage efficiency. Tip
stalls can also be caused by combinations of blade tip erosion and
consequent loss of clearance. Increase in clearances is a form of
unrecoverable deterioration.
Hot Section Problems
This can include detached liners, cracks, or unbalanced nozzles
and is a form of unrecoverable deterioration. Problems of this
nature may, in most instances, be detected by means of evaluation
of exhaust gas temperature (or interturbine temperature) spreads.
Problems such as hot section corrosion, erosion, and fouling also
exist and may be recoverable during a refurbishment.
Other Sources of Deterioration
In addition to the items mentioned above, other sources of
deterioration include:
Excessive increase in inlet filter differential pressure.

Excessive backpressurethis can be of importance when heat
recovery steam generators (HRSGs) are present.
Increased mechanical losses (gearboxes, bearings, couplings, etc.).
Internal losses.
Stator nozzle plugging (or turbine fouling).
Overboard leakage.
Change in high pressure flow function (m T/P).
Details on gas turbine degradation and detection methods are
presented by Saranavanamuttoo and Lakshminarasimha (1985),
and Diakunchak (1991, 1993). Modeling details of gas turbine
performance deterioration may be found in Lakshminarasimha, et
al., 1994.
Nonrecoverable Deterioration
Unrecoverable performance deterioration is the residual
deterioration that will exist and detract from gas turbine performance
even after the gas turbine has been washed and cleaned. Damage
that occurs to the flow path due to erosion, corrosion, and
increased tip and seal clearances or due to distortion of the casing
itself will contribute to this.
During a major overhaul, deteriorated gas turbine components
are cleaned or replaced, and airfoils are recoated (compressor and
turbine section as needed) and tip and seal clearances restored as
close as possible to the initial condition. Even after the overhaul,
however, there will be some performance loss due to:
Casing distortion.
Increased flow path surface roughness.
Airfoil untwist.
Increased leakage areas.
127
While this holds true for heavy duty gas turbines, aeroderivative
engines can be returned to a zero hour condition typically after a
major overhaul at 50,000 hours.
Mechanical Degradation
Causes of mechanical degradation include wear in bearings and
seals, coupling problems, excessive vibration and noise, or
problems in the lube oil system. Probably the most common
indicator of mechanical degradation has been vibration. It is most
important to note that several problems that manifest themselves as
vibration may in fact have underlying causes that are aerodynamic
(or performance) related in nature.
Bearing problems are often caused by low oil pressure
(malfunction in pump or leaks), line blockage, and excessive loads
due to factors such as misalignment. The lube oil supply pressure
and scavenge temperatures can be measured and correlated to a
parameter such as rotor speed. The expected pattern during speed
changes can be noted and subsequent checks made during transients.
Combustor fuel nozzles can at times plug up. There can be
several causes for this such as coking, erosion, and misassembly.
Temperature distortions can create a host of problems in the hot
section. Severe temperature distortions can create serious dynamic
loads on blading, possibly inducing fatigue problems. The pattern
of the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) spreads can be monitored
during transient conditions to indicate nozzle problems. Blade
failures that can be induced by performance and mechanical
factors have been detailed by Meher-Homji and Gabriles (1998).
Gas Turbine Operating Environment,
Filtration, and Compressor Washing
As air passes through the intake and filtration system, it
proceeds at a very low velocity with filter face velocities being
typically around 3 m/sec (9.84 ft/sec). As it approaches the
compressor face, the air accelerates to a high velocity (0.5 to 0.8
Mach number). This results in a significant static temperature
reduction. The saturation air temperature also drops. If the relative
humidity is high enough, it is possible that the static air temperature
falls below the saturation air temperature. This causes condensation
of water vapor, which is a common occurrence in most gas turbines
when ambient relative humidity is high.
Filters tend to unload salt (leeching effect) under high ambient
humidity conditions and this is a factor that is often neglected. It is
this factor that causes the sudden fouling of compressors during
periods of ambient fog. Particles then form nuclei for the water
droplets and start to adhere to the blading. As the air progresses to
the rear compressor stages, it gets hotter and drier, and typically
causes less fouling in the rear stages.
Stalder and Sire (2001) have conducted detailed analytical and
experimental work on salt percolation through gas turbine air
filters and some of the salient observations and results are
presented below.
The ingestion of airborne sea salt through a filter can result in

high temperature corrosion damage. With the high temperature
engines available today, this is of significant importance as turbine
manufacturers limit the total amount of salt entering the engine to
low values such as 0.2 to 0.5 ppmw. Total contaminants that enter
the engine must be calculated based on airflow, water injection
flow, and fuel flow. The total contaminant entering the engine is
given by:
TCL = I f + [I air A/ F ] + [I w W / F ] + [I S S/ F ]
where,
TCL
If
Iair
Iw
= Total contaminant level, ppmw

= Contaminant level in the fuel, ppmw
= Contaminant level in the air, ppmw
= Contaminant level in the injection water, ppmw
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128
Istm
A/F
S/F
W/F
= Contaminant level in the injection steam, ppmw

= Air to fuel ratio for the gas turbine
= Steam to fuel ratio
= Water to fuel ratio
With regard to limits of airborne contaminants, the following
guidelines are provided: Maximum allowable level of NaCl in

treated air is 0.01 ppmw (which is equivalent to 0.03 ppmw Na in
the fuel assuming an air to fuel ratio of 75). Some specifications
set an airborne limit for Na + K + V + Pb not to exceed 0.005
ppmw. Specific OEM requirements should be considered, as this is
dependant on blade metallurgy, coating technology, and cooling
approach. The performance of filters in limiting ingress of salt is
therefore extremely important.
Studies performed on used filters indicate that percolation of
salt laden water can occur in both surface and depth loading types
of filters. The mechanism is supported by the presence of dissolved
acid gases (SOx and NOx) found in industrial environments.
The large area of the air filter media may also act as a reaction site
for various chemical processes and reactions. The real challenge is
to determine the efficiency of the media under real life operational
conditions where aggressive gases may exist in the environment.
Optimal selection of filter media is of supreme importance and
the system must be tailored to climatic conditions.
Good filtration must be coupled with a carefully planned
online and offline washing regime to minimize salt deposits on
compressor airfoils.
Further details relating to compressor fouling and washing may be
found in Meher-Homji and Bromley (2004).
Gas Turbine Design Reviews
As the size of the LNG market grows, the trend toward larger gas
turbines implies that new gas turbines need to be considered for
compressor driver duty. While the LNG industry has conventionally
been very conservative, the high investment costs and drive toward
more efficient plants have induced the need to consider newer gas
turbines. For example aeroderivative engines and large Frame 9Es
have recently been introduced. There are other potential engines
on the market that could also be considered. Typically, potential
users, process licensors, and engineer, procure, and construct
groups (EPCs) will conduct detailed design reviews of engines to
evaluate design, operations, and maintenance issues. While most
vendors consider much of this information proprietary, they are
usually willing to share it during meetings after the signing of
appropriate confidentiality agreements. Issues that should be
investigated include:
Aeromechanical Design Review
Obtain detailed design informationscaling used for design,

past vintages used for new engine, etc.
Design modifications/package modifications for the proposed
engine.
Review of engine test data.
Startup torque capabilitiestorque versus power turbine
speed curves.
Mechanical and aero design review.
Blade aeromechanical design including blade Campbell
diagrams, stress levels, etc.
Reliability availabilitity and maintainability (RAM) analyses
conducted during designRAM factors.
Ability to water wash online.
Inlet distortion limits.
Thrust balance issues.
History of DLN/DLE combustor stability problems, design
solutions and results, stability and operability. DLN/DLE

combustor tuning requirements. Cold weather considerations for
DLN/DLE if appropriate.
Control philosophy of engine for mechanical drive.

Rotordynamics and vibration at variable speed operation
presence of modes in speed range and the severity, unbalance

sensitivity, sensitivity to internal alignment, sensor locations, 1
rev sensitivities, vendor quality assurance (QA) acceptance levels,
vibration limits, etc.
Balancing criteria and sensitivity at different criticals including
regions of unbalance sensitivity.
NOx levels and other emission levels.
Drop load capability and step load change capacity especially
for DLN/DLE (lean extinction).
Part load operation for DLN/DLE.
Discussion of power augmentation approaches.
Fuel issues, variations, and control for both DLE and non DLE.
Water wash requirements, procedureson and offline.
Bearings.
Maintainability issues/borescope ports, etc.
Installation and design checklists criteria, etc.
Condition monitoring equipment available.
Lube oil debris monitoring package in the case of roller/ball
bearings.
Review of capability to startup compressor strings.
Ability to handle rapid drop loadcompressor in surge or
full recycle.
Inlet system design review.
Specs for air/water/fuel.
Component materials and coatings used. (Options available
if any.)
Ongoing technical programs on the mechanical drive/power
generation.
Obtain list of service bulletins/service letters, etc.
Detailed review of all auxiliary systems.
Operability and O&M Review
Discussion with end users of the engine or similar engines.

Operational problems and solutions.
Experience with trips (forced outages) and their duration.
Experience with recoverable and nonrecoverable deterioration.
Have any parts had to be replaced prematurelyshrouds,
liners, etc.
Issues with gearbox, scavenge pumps, and other auxiliaries.
Issues with hydraulic starters if appropriate.
Stall or surge issues.
Variable geometry schedule problems.
Ongoing issues with DLN/DLE combustors.
Catastrophic failure history.
Tip rubs on hot shutdowns, etc.
Details on operating hours, maintenance history.
Spare engine availability, rotable section availability in the case
of aeroderivative engines.
Maintenance philosophymaintenance intervals with and
without contractual service agreements (CSA).
Long-term service agreements (LTSA)/(CSA) discussions.
Historical maintenance costs.
Spare parts philosophy.
Vendors repair facilities availabilityand proximity to the
proposed application.
Availability of remote monitoring and diagnostic capability.
LNG String Startup with Single
and Split Shaft Gas Turbines
With two shaft or multispool gas turbines, starting an LNG
compressor string even at settle out pressure (SOP) is not an issue.
A two shaft turbine has very high torque capability at low speed.
With a single shaft gas turbine, however, starting a large compressor
string presents a significant problem calling for the application of
large starter motors and depressurization of the string in order to
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limit the size of the starter motor. Details on startup and motor
sizing as applied to single shaft gas turbines is presented in Heckel
and Davis (1998).
In the normal starting sequence of a gas turbine after the
accessories systems are activated, the gas turbine is brought to
crank speed for three to six minutes while unfired to allow
fresh air to purge through the inlet and exhaust systems. The
purge time depends on the equipment configuration and local
operating practices and has the purpose of removing any
possibly explosive gas-air mixtures from the system. The
duration of this purge can be longer for units with HRSGs.
Then the gas turbine is allowed to coast down to optimal firing
speed, the starting device (typically a motor and torque
converter) is reactivated, the igniters are activated, fuel is
admitted to the combustion chambers, flame is confirmed, and
a one-minute warm-up period is observed. The fuel flow is
then increased on a programmed scheduled basis while the gas
turbine and train accelerate to 92 percent of rated speed. At
that point the compressor bleed valves are opened, the inlet
guide vanes are opened to the normal operating range, and the
gas turbine is ready to accept load at a predefined ramp rate.
When a single-shaft generator-drive gas turbine goes through
the startup cycle, it has the benefit of merely driving an
unloaded generator. The generator main circuit breaker is open
and the friction, windage, and inertia of the two-pole generator
rotor are relatively low. Therefore, a modestly-sized starting
motor (or other starting means) can bring the gas turbine to the
self-sustaining speed of about 60 percent, and then a very
slight net available torque from the gas turbine takes over and
continues to accelerate the set to the empowerment point of
about 92 percent speed. The net available torque always
exceeds the load torque imposed by the generator (Ekstrom
and Garrison, 1994).
With a single-shaft gas-turbine driving an LNG compressor
string, there is the need to significantly unload the driven
equipment during the startup process or provide much greater
starting assistance in order to get to the 92 percent (speed)
where the gas turbine can contribute significant power.
Consequently the starting system has to accommodate system
inertia, gas turbine windage loads, and the refrigeration
compressor aerodynamic load that is a function of the
compressor speed, gas density, and process conditions.
Typically a single shaft frame machine will have a large
variable frequency drive (VFD) motor that could range from 6
MW to 30 MW that would accelerate the string.
129
Figure 26. NOx Production and Flame Temperature Versus

Equivalence Ratio.
At an equivalence ratio of one, the stoichiometric flame
conditions are reached. The flame temperature is highest at this
point and NOx levels peak. At equivalence ratios less than 1, the
combustor operates in a lean zone. At the values greater than 1, the
combustor is fuel rich. All gas turbine combustors are designed
to operate in the lean region. As can be seen in the figure, thermal
NOx production rises very rapidly as the stoichiometric flame
temperature is reached. Away from this point, thermal NOx
production decreases rapidly. This theory then provides the
mechanism of thermal NOx control.
For some gas turbine drivers, lean head end (LHE) combustors
can be used to reduce NOx levels by 15 to 30 percent. An example
of this is the LHE combustor for the Frame 5 gas turbine shown in
Figure 27. The lean head combustor has additional holes allowing
more air to be introduced at the head end thus leaning out the flame
zone and shortening flame length (thus reducing residence time).
DLN/DLE Considerations for

Mechanical Drive Gas Turbines
Several of the gas turbines in LNG service currently are
equipped with DLN combustors. Water injection may have to
be used under situations where fuels exist that cannot be
accommodated by dry technologies, but, in general, the trend is
toward the application of dry combustors. Currently the technology
applied for Frame 5, Frame 6B, and Frame 7E and 9E units in
mechanical drive service are DLN-1 combustors capable of
deriving 25 ppmv NOx.
An excellent overview of combustor technology is provided by
Correa (1998), Davis and Black (2000), and Pavri and Moore
(2001). The mechanism on thermal NOx production was first
postulated by Yakov B. Zeldovich and is indicated in Figure 26,
which shows the flame temperature as a function of equivalence
ratio. The equivalence ratio is a measure of fuel-to-air ratio in the
combustor normalized by stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio. In
other words:
Equivalence Ratio = (FAR ) / ( FARstoichiometric )
Figure 27. Lean Head End Combustor.

The DLN-1 two-staged premix combustor commonly used on
single shaft LNG drivers is shown in Figure 28. The combustion
system includes four major components: fuel injection system,
liner, venturi, and cap/centerbody assembly. The combustion
system operates in four distinct modes, illustrated in Figure 29. The
six primary nozzles are shown in Figure 30 and the secondary
nozzle in Figure 31. Collectively, these components form two
stages in the combustor. In the premixed mode, the first stage
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130
thoroughly premixes the fuel and air and delivers a uniform, lean,
unburned fuel-air mixture to the second stage. Uniform mixing is
important to avoid any hot spots. The operating modes are as follows:
Figure 28. Layout of DLN-1 Combustor.
Lean-LeanIn this mode, fuel is supplied to both the primary
and secondary nozzles and a flame will exist in both the primary and
secondary stages. This mode of operation is used for intermediate
loads between two preselected combustion reference temperatures
(the specific load percent depends on if inlet bleed heating is
provided or not).
SecondaryIn this transient mode, fuel is supplied to the
secondary nozzle only resulting in a flame in the secondary zone
only. This mode is a transition state between lean-lean and premix
modes and this mode is needed to extinguish the flame in the
primary zone, before fuel is reintroduced into what becomes the
primary premixing zone.
PremixIn this final mode, fuel is supplied to both primary
and secondary nozzles, but the flame is in the secondary stage
only and the primary section is used for premixing only. This
mode of operation is achieved at and near the combustion
reference temperature design point and results in low NOx. In this
final mode over 80 percent of the fuel goes into the premix
primary region and the remaining goes into the secondary.
A different approach is used in the annular combustors of an
aeroderivative engine such as the LM2500 or the LM6000 where
annular combustors exist. The LM gas turbines also use lean
premixed combustion with fuel staging to maintain the narrow
flame temperature window. A representation of the combustor
showing a few nozzles is shown in Figure 32.
Figure 29. Modes of Operation of DLN-1 System.
Figure 32. DLE Combustor-LM Aeroderivative Annular Combustor.

Gas Turbine Power Augmentation
Figure 30. Primary Fuel Nozzles.
LNG production is highly dependent on the power capability of

the gas turbine drivers. Industrial gas turbines lose approximately
0.7 percent of their power for every 1C rise in ambient temperature.
This effect is more pronounced in aeroderivative gas turbines due
to their higher specific work where the sensitivity can increase to
well over 1 percent per C. The impact of ambient temperature on
the PGT25+ power and air flow is depicted in Figure 33.
Figure 31. Secondary Fuel Nozzles.
PrimaryIn this mode, fuel is supplied to the primary nozzles
only and a diffusion flame exists in the primary stage only. This
mode of operation is used to ignite, accelerate, and operate the
machine over low- to mid-loads, up to a preselected combustion
reference temperature.
Figure 33. Variations in Power Output and Air Flow Rate for a
PGT25+ Gas Turbine. (Courtesy Meher-Homji, et al., 2007)
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Some of the key advantages of power augmentation are that it

boosts LNG production, improves the thermal efficiency of the gas
turbine, and results in lower CO2 emissions. Power augmentation
can be by evaporative cooling or inlet chilling.
An example of the application of evaporative cooling applied to
an LNG plant (Meher-Homji, et al., 2007) is presented here. There
is considerable evaporative cooling potential available especially
during the periods of high ambient temperatures as the relative
humidity tends to drop as the temperature increases. The average
daily temperature profile at Darwin is shown in Figure 34. The
relationship of relative humidity and dry bulb temperature is shown
in Figure 35. Details regarding evaporative cooling potential may
be found in Chaker and Meher-Homji (2006 and 2007). An
overview of evaporative media cooling is provided in Johnson
(1988) and McNeilly (2000).
131
coincident wet bulb temperature. Drift eliminators are utilized to

protect the downstream inlet system components from water
damage, caused by carryover of large water droplets.
The presence of a media type evaporative cooler inherently
creates a pressure drop that reduces turbine output. For most gas
turbines, media thickness of 12 inches will result in a pressure
drop of approximately 0.5 to 1 inch water. Increases in inlet duct
differential pressure will cause a reduction of compressor mass
flow and engine operating pressure. The large inlet temperature
drop derived from evaporative cooling more than compensates
for the small drop in performance due to the additional pressure
drop. Details on media evaporative coolers may be found in
Johnson (1988).
Inlet temperature drops of around 10C (18F) have been achieved
at a Darwin, Australia, LNG plant, which results in a power boost of
around 8 to 10 percent. A graph showing calculated compressor inlet
temperatures (CITs) with the evaporative cooler for a typical
summer month of January is shown in Figure 36.
Figure 34. Temperature Profile Over Time of Day for 12 Months in

Darwin. (Courtesy Meher-Homji, et al., 2007)
Figure 36. Calculated CIT Due to Evaporative Cooling over a
Summer Month. (Courtesy Meher-Homji, et al., 2007)
Future LNG Drivers
Figure 35. Relative Humidity Versus Dry Bulb Temperature,

Darwin. (Courtesy Meher-Homji, et al., 2007)
There are several interesting potential future gas turbine engines

that could be utilized for LNG drives. These include the LM6000
and the LMS100 engine.
The LM6000 depicted in Figure 37 is a 44 MW driver, operating
at a pressure ratio of 29:1, with an exhaust mass flow rate of 128
kg/sec. This engine is a two-spool gas turbine with the load driven
by the low speed spool. The low speed spool is mounted inside the
high speed spool enabling the two spools to turn at different
speeds. The output speed of this machine is 3600 rpm.
Media-based evaporative coolers use a corrugated media over

which water is passed. The media material is placed in the gas
turbine air flow path within the air filter house and is wetted via
water distribution headers. The construction of the media allows
water to penetrate through it and any nonevaporated water returns
to a catch basin. The media provides sufficient airflow channels for
efficient heat transfer and minimal pressure drop. As the gas
turbine airflow passes over the media, the air stream absorbs
moisture (evaporated water) and heat content in the air stream is
given up to the wetted media resulting in a lower compressor inlet
temperature. A typical evaporative cooler effectiveness range is 85
percent to 90 percent, and is defined as follows:
Effectiveness = (T1DB T 2 DB ) / (T1DB T 2WB )
where,
T1DB
T2DB
T2WB
= Entering air dry bulb temperature

= Leaving air dry bulb temperature
= Leaving air wet bulb temperature
Effectiveness is the measure of how close the evaporative cooler

is capable of lowering the inlet air dry bulb temperature to the
Figure 37. The LM6000 Gas Turbine, Rated at 44 MW, and a

Thermal Efficiency of 42 Percent.
The LM6000 gas turbine makes extensive use of variable
geometry to achieve a large operating envelope. The variable
geometry includes the variable inlet guide vanes, variable bypass
valves, and the variable stator vanes in the engine compressor
with each system independently controlled. The gas turbine
consists of five major componentsa five-stage low pressure
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132
compressor, a 14-stage high pressure compressor, an annular

combustor, a two-stage high pressure turbine, and a five-stage
low pressure turbine. The low pressure turbine drives the low
pressure compressor and the load. The engine is available in both
water injected and DLE configurations. Details may be found in
Montgomery (2003). The engine is qualified as a variable speed
mechanical drive unit (50 to 105 percent speed) and has been
extensively tested both for variable speed operation and for its
startup torque capability.
The LMS 100 (Reale, 2003) is a relatively new engine but has
future promise as a large LNG driver with a nominal ISO power
output of 100 MW and a thermal efficiency of 44 percent. A layout
of the gas turbine is shown in Figure 38. The compressor is an
intercooled design, operating at a pressure ratio of 40:1 and an
exhaust flow rate of 460 lb/sec. As mentioned, at this time this
engine has just recently been introduced into service but has
potential for future LNG projects.
Figure 39. Axial Flow Compressor Used in LNG Service.
Figure 40. Horizontally Split LNG Centrifugal Compresser.

Figure 38. The LMS-100 Gas Turbine, Rated at 100 MW, and a
Thermal Efficiency of 44 Percent.
LNG COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGY

Compressors Used in LNG Service
The design of LNG compressors involving large casing sizes,
optimized impeller designs, high inlet relative Mach numbers,
3D flows, and the complexities of sidestream mixing requires
that a careful evaluation of the specific design and experience be
made. Depending on the process technology used, the refrigerants
may be pure components such as propane, ethylene, and
methane, or mixed refrigerants, or some combination of these.
The propane compressor is the most challenging machine in
terms of flow coefficient and inlet relative Mach number. The
design complexities, risks, and compromises involved in the
selection and design of refrigeration compressors will be covered
in this section.
Because of the dynamic nature of the LNG market, with
several process design variants being studied and optimized,
process optimization has to be done in cooperation with the
compressor designer to ensure that compressor selections are
aerodynamically and mechanically robust while meeting process
performance and operability requirements. This is an iterative
process involving the compressor designer, the process licensors,
and the EPC team.
Compressor Technology Milestones

LNG compressors can be extremely large, with centrifugal
impeller diameters in the range of 1300 to 2000 mm (51 to 79
inches). A large 1750 mm (5.7 ft) diameter impeller is shown in
Figure 41. These 3D shrouded impellers can be produced on five-axis
milling machines from a single piece forging as shown in Figure
42. Internal compressor casing diameters can be up to 4000 mm
(13.1 ft) for horizontally split compressors and 2600 mm (8.5 ft)
for barrel designs. A large horizontally split casing is shown in
Figure 43. Inlet flows for centrifugal compressors can reach
300,000 m3/h. Shaft length can be 7400 mm (24.3 ft) with a weight
of 7.5 tons, and bearing spans can be on the order of 5.5 m (16.4
ft), which require a shaft of suitable diameter at the bearings and
end seals. Dry gas seals can have internal diameters of 350 mm
(1.14 ft) and journal bearing sizes can be as high as 320 mm (1.1
ft). A representation of the current technology limits for large LNG
compressors is provided in Table 3.
Compressor Configurations and

Compressor Technology Milestones
Compression of large flows of gas can be accomplished by the use
of either axial compressors, which are more suited to lower pressure
ratios, or centrifugal compressors that enable higher pressure ratios.
Some LNG processes use both axial and centrifugal compressors
while others utilize only centrifugal compressors. A multistage axial
flow compressor is shown in Figure 39 and a typical horizontally
split centrifugal compressor is shown in Figure 40.
Figure 41. Large 1750 mm (5.7 Ft) Diameter 3D Centrifugal Impeller.
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133
services are accomplished in a radially split (barrel compressor),

which has less stringent limitation as regards maximum allowable
working pressure. A large barrel compressor is shown in Figure 45.
Figure 42. Five Axis Milling of Centrifugal Impeller.
Figure 44. Flow Versus Discharge Pressure for Different Types

of Compressors.
Figure 43. Large Horizontally Split Casing.

Table 3. Current State-of-the-Art Technology Boundary for
LNG Compressors.
CASING
Weight of Barrel, tons
Inner Casing Diameter, mm
SHAFT
Length, mm
Bearing Span
Amplification Factor
Log Dec
Dry Gas Seal Dia
Journal Bearing Dia
IMPELLER
Inlet Relative Mach Number
Inlet Relative Mach Number
Machine Mach Number
Machiner Mach Number
Head Coefficient
Head Per Impeller
Impeller Diameter
COUPLING
Size
Power Transmitted
120 tons
3600 mm
More than 7000mm
More than 5800 mm
Greater than 5
Greater than 0.1
350 mm
320 mm
1.05 model test
0.94 full scale
1.24 Model test
1.20 full scale
Higher than 0.54
More than 4000 m
Upto 2000 mm
350
mm
145 MW
Most of the LNG compressor casings are low pressure horizontally

split designs. Per API 617 (2002), when a relief valve is not
specified, the maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of
the casing is 1.25 times the maximum discharge pressure.
Sometimes, off-design process conditions can exceed this 1.25
times maximum discharge pressure. This can potentially cause
problems with large horizontally split compressor casings and
may exceed the suppliers casing joint bolting experience. These
off-design process conditions should be reviewed with the
compressor designer. A diagram showing typical discharge
pressures versus flow rates for different types of compressor
configurations is shown in Figure 44. Higher pressure refrigeration
Figure 45. Large Barrel Type LNG Compresser.

Horizontally Split and Barrel Designs
Propane (precooling) refrigeration service is usually accommodated
in one or two horizontally split compressor casings. The propane
compressor is the most challenging machine in terms of flow
coefficient and inlet relative Mach number. The low inlet temperature
and high molecular weight (mole weight of 44 for propane)
combined with large sidestream flow, require a precise fluid dynamic
design of the gas path and particular attention to rotordynamics.
Mixed refrigerant service, which handles large capacities at low
temperatures, requires the solution of many technical manufacturing
and assembly issues. Mixed refrigerant service is typically
implemented in two or three pressure levels in two or three
compressors (horizontally split and barrel).
Other refrigeration services are often facilitated by one compressor
casing in a back-to-back or compound arrangement. Particular
attention has to be given to rotordynamics, due to the high pressure
ratio and consequent large number of impellers (and long rotor
length) generally associated with this.
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134
For refrigeration services that require high pressure ratios, a three

casing solution is typically used. The last casing is a barrel type
compressor, while the first and second are horizontally split. These
compressors do not generally present technical challenges other
than those normally related to trains involving multiple large units.
Subcooling service can be accomplished by two or three casings
(horizontally split and/or barrel design). The critical aspect of this
service is the low temperature material selection requirements.
Double Flow Compressors
As LNG plant capacities increase, centrifugal compressor casings
can become very large. At times, to minimize compressor casing
size, a double-flow arrangement can be used. The inlet flow enters
the casing via two nozzles, passes through each individual section
of the compressor, and joins at the final diffuser exiting the
casing through a single nozzle. The advantage of the double-flow
arrangement is that the same casing size can accommodate a large
volume flow. Losses in the flow paths through a double-flow
compressor must be identical. In practice, this is difficult to
achieve and the sensitivity is a function of the total head level.
The lower the head level, the more closely the flow paths in the
compressor should be the same. Another considerable advantage of
a double flow compressor design is that an optimum speed match
can be derived with the next stage casing. Double flow compressors
have a limitation on the number of stages and therefore on pressure
ratio, and this can lead to an additional casing being required for
higher pressure ratios.
A double flow compressor is essentially two parallel compressors
in a single compressor casing. Perfectly manufactured impellers
are needed to duplicate performance for the two parallel process
stages. It is essential that the internal flow paths be identical, and
also crucial that the inlet piping be well designed to assure
balanced volume flow rates to each section. A double flow
compressor layout is shown in Figure 46, with a photograph of the
horizontally split casing and impeller being depicted in Figure 47.
Back-to-Back LNG Compressor Designs

Another compressor arrangement used for LNG centrifugal
compressors is a back-to-back arrangement. The compressor inlet
flow enters one end of the compressor and is removed part way
through the compressor, is reintroduced at the opposite end, and then
exits near the center. A schematic of a back-to-back configuration is
shown in Figure 48 and a back-to-back compressor is shown in
Figure 49. This arrangement also allows for process cooling during
the compression process, thus improving efficiency. It also can
reduce the net rotor thrust, which may allow the use of a smaller
thrust bearing compared to a conventional arrangement with a
balance drum. An evaluation of the cross leakage between the two
discharge nozzles separated by a center seal should be compared to
the balance drum leakage in the conventional arrangement. If a
damper seal is used, then the location of this seal at the rotor
midspan is good from a damping perspective.
Figure 48. Schematic of a Back-to-Back Compressor.
Figure 46. Double Flow Compressor Schematic.
Figure 49. Back-to-Back Barrel Compressor.
Figure 47. Double Flow Compressor Casing and Rotor.
Another area requiring careful attention in a back-to-back

compressor design is the rotordynamics. The center seal in this
arrangement is at the midspan of the rotor. This seal is typically a
labyrinth type design, and the large pressure drop across this seal
and the interaction of the gas flow in the small seal clearance
spaces produce considerable destabilizing excitation forces. Since
these forces are produced at or near the rotor midspan, which
coincides with the point of maximum rotor deflection, their effect
on rotor stability is maximized (unless a damper seal design is used).
For the conventional straight-through compressor arrangement, the
balance piston is located closer to a bearing centerline and is often
considered to have less of an influence on rotor stability compared
to a midspan located back-to-back center seal. If this center seal
causes the rotordynamics to be unstable or exhibit a low or negative
log decrement, then other types of center seal designs to reduce
aerodynamic excitation such as the use of shunt holes or swirl
brakes can be investigated. If these designs are insufficient to
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suppress an instability then other type seals such as a honeycomb or

hole pattern seals may be required. The compressor manufacturer
experience with all of these designs should be carefully reviewed. A
typical shunt hole design for a back-to-back compressor is shown in
Figure 50 and a honeycomb design is shown in Figure 51.
Figure 53. Centrifugal Compressor Map, Variable Speed.

Auxiliary Compressors
Figure 50. Shunt Holes typical for a Back-to-Back Compressor.
Figure 51. Honeycomb Seals.

Axial Flow Compressors
For large plants, the use of axial compressors provides high
efficiency and operational advantages. The number of axial stages
range between 14 and 15, to comply with the required pressure
ratio. These machines require careful design of rotor and stator
blading, accurate analysis of startup procedures, and precise
evaluation of off-design operating conditions. Variable guide vanes
are typically used to control the compressor. Particular attention
should be paid to the linkages of these inlet guide vanes and
avoid resonance of the group (blade plus linkage) to extend their
operability and maintenance intervals. By its inherent design and
the use of IGVs, the axial flow compressor can operate with a large
operating range. Maps for an axial flow compressor and centrifugal
compressor are shown in Figures 52 and 53, respectively.
Besides the main refrigerant compressors there are other smaller

compressors for auxiliary duties in an LNG plant. The number and
size of these compressors depend on the LNG process and, in some
cases, on feed gas conditions. Some of these compressor services
might include feed gas booster compressors, CO2 compressors,
end flash compressors, and boil off gas (BOG) compressors.
The BOG compressors are usually installed close to the LNG
tank, in order to recover gas vapors that boil off from the LNG tank.
The BOG is usually driven by an electric motor, and the compressor
may be a horizontally split machine or an integral compressor
design. The most critical aspect of this compressor is the very low
operating temperature (120/161C [184/256F]) and the
design aspects associated with it in terms of materials, dry gas
seals, inlet guide vanes, and, in the case of some integral type
compressors, diffuser guide vanes.
End flash service can be accommodated with an electric motor
driven horizontally split compressor with a gear box and barrel
compressor as needed.
Centrifugal Compressor Design and Performance
Design fundamentals and terminology for centrifugal compressors
can be found in Aungier (2000), Japikse (1996), and Cumpsty
(1989), while application aspects are covered by Brown (1997).
The behavior of a compressor stage can be characterized in
terms of parameters that specify its operating conditions as well as
its performance. The dimensionless representation makes it
possible to disregard the actual dimensions of the machine and its
real operating conditions (flow rate and speed of rotation) and is
thus more general as compared to the use of dimensional quantities.
Parameters commonly used to describe the performance of
centrifugal compressors include:
Machine Mach Number
The Mach number, MU, is defined as the ratio between the machine
tip speed and the velocity of sound at the reference conditions:
U
Mu = 2
a0
where,
U2
A0
= Impeller peripheral speed

= Speed of sound at Inlet conditions
Flow Coefficient
The inlet flow coefficient for a centrifugal compressor is defined
as follows:
4Q
1 =
D2 U 2
Figure 52. Axial Compressor MapFixed Speed with IGV.
where,
Q
D
U
= Volume flow
= Impeller tip diameter
= Impeller tip speed
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136
Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number, Re, is defined as the ratio between
inertial forces and viscous forces, evaluated in relation to assigned
reference conditions. For centrifugal machines the following
formulation is frequently used:
Re =
where,
b2
0
U2
00
U 2 b2 00
= Impeller exit width

= Viscosity at the inlet conditions
= Impeller tip speed.
= Gas density at inlet conditions
Impeller Work Coefficient

The impeller imparts energy to the working fluid to raise the
total enthalpy and the impeller work coefficient is defined as:
=
where,
T01 and T02
Cp
U2
h
u22
C p (T02 T01 )
u22
= Total inlet and outlet temperature

= Specific heat
= Impeller tip speed
Machine Mach Number and Inlet Relative Mach Number
Polytropic Efficiency
The polytropic efficiency is given by:
p2
k 1 log p1
p =
T
k
log T2
1
where,
k
P2 and P1
T2 and T1
A 2D impeller has a basically constant blade angle from disk to

shroud along the leading edge of the blade. It can therefore only
match the incidence angle at one point on the leading edge, and has
an increasingly mismatched leading edge flow field in moving
toward the disk or shroud from that point. However, as 2D
impellers are typically used for low flow coefficients (smaller inlet
flow areas), this effect is not severe. In a high flow high inlet eye
diameter 3D impeller, the blade angles along the leading edge may
be varied from disk to shroud to match the incoming flow field and
obtain optimum incidence angles. However, this typically occurs at
the impellers design flow rate, and any increase or decrease in flow
rate will result in nonoptimal incidence and lower performance.
The efficiency of an impeller is a function of the inlet flow
coefficient. As the flow coefficient increases, there is an increase
in impeller efficiency. While it would seem that only 3D impellers
should be used due to their higher efficiency, it generally means a
large stage spacing (axial length), which will result in a longer
compressor that could increase rotordynamic complexity and cost.
Consequently 3D impellers are typically used only for the first or
first few impellers unless an incoming sidestream calls for a high
flow coefficient stage further down the machine. High flow and
high efficiency design staging may require reduced speeds due to
higher stress levels encountered. The compressor supplier and
designers experience in selecting various flow coefficient
impellers should be carefully reviewed.
= Cp/Cv
= Outlet and inlet pressure
= Outlet and inlet temperature
Head Coefficient
The head coefficient, , is defined as:
= p
2D and 3 D Impellers
Impeller flow coefficient and geometry are related Lower flow
coefficients correspond to shrouded, two dimensional (2D)
impeller geometry. Higher flow coefficients correspond to
shrouded, three dimensional (3D) impeller geometry as shown in
Figure 54. For very high flow coefficients, an axial flow blade
design is utilized. LNG centrifugal compressors typically use a
combination of 2D and 3D impellers.
Figure 54. Typical Geometry for Different Impeller Types.
As flow increases, the impeller eye diameter also increases, and

because of the high molecular weight of some refrigerants such
as propane (MW = 44) and low inlet temperatures, high Mach
conditions often exist for these compressors. Mach number is
generally defined as the ratio between gas speed and the speed of
sound. In centrifugal compressor applications two Mach numbers
commonly referred to are the peripheral Mach number (Mu) and
the inlet relative Mach number (M1rs). The peripheral Mach
number (also known as machine Mach number) is commonly used
because it is easily calculated and gives a rough indication about
the criticality of the stage, and provides a benchmark for the
impeller exit velocity into the diffuser. The inlet relative Mach
number is much more important and gives an indication of the gas
behavior at the impeller eye. It is based on the inlet relative velocity
at the shroud as shown in Figure 55. It is very important to
carefully evaluate different manufacturers calculations of inlet
relative Mach numbers, taking into consideration the location of
measurement and other details. Some manufactures use the mean
or root-mean-square (rms) diameter, while others use the tip as the
reference location. Sorokes and Kopko (2007) have provided
a valuable paper covering this important area that helps users
understand the issues involved when making comparisons between
compressor designs.
Figure 55. Representation of Velocity Triangle for Inlet Relative

Mach Number (Mr1s = W1S /a0).
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137
The change in operating envelope as the Mach numbers change

is shown in Figure 56. Shock waves within a compressor impeller
are shown in Figure 57. This sonic condition (Mach number = 1)
for an impeller designed for subsonic flow constitutes a
stonewall barrier to any further flow increase, which shortens the
operating envelope.
Figure 59. Inlet Relative Mach Number Versus Flow Coefficient.

Figure 56. Effect on Operating Range of Different Peripheral and
Inlet Relative Mach Numbers.
A ratio of the two Mach numbers can be also used to verify the
stiffness of the impeller as shown in Figure 60. A high ratio
means that the external diameter is close to tip diameter, the gas
has no space to develop a smooth radial flow, and it reduces the
operating range. The introduction of mixed flow impellers (Figure
61) can overcome this issue.
Figure 57. Shock Waves Inside Compressor.

Inlet relative Mach numbers for these type impellers have been
validated up to values of 0.95. Model test activities have brought
inlet relative Mach number up to 1.06 with good performance at
design operating point but with a narrow operating range. This
problem can be overcome by introducing IGVs. IGVs can prerotate
(swirl) the flow approaching the impeller, thus reducing the relative
velocity vector and therefore the inlet relative Mach number. This
results in improved efficiency and a wider operating range. Plots of
flow coefficient versus peripheral Mach number and inlet relative
Mach numbers are shown in Figures 58 and 59, respectively.
Figure 60. Impeller Stiffness Map (Ratio of M1rs /Mu) on Ordinate.
Figure 61. Mixed Flow Impeller.
Figure 58. Peripheral Mach Number Versus Flow Coefficient.
The use of splitter vanes, wherein the inlet area is opened up,
results in a reduction in the inlet relative Mach number, but
arrangement does not allow for future compressor growth. Splitter
vanes are partial length vanes between adjacent full blades. The
splitter blades reduce the inlet blade metal blockage area at the
minimum passage area, and thus allows the impeller to pass a
greater flow rate prior to impeller choking. An impeller utilizing
splitter vanes is shown in Figure 62.
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For centrifugal compressors operating with high molecular

weights and low temperature gases, users and manufacturers have
traditionally tended to limit the head per impeller within the range
of 3200 to 3400 m (10,500 to 11,155 ft) based on considerations that
stages with high head could have a low pressure rise to surge and a
narrow operating range between the design point and surge. Current
experience shows it is possible to design centrifugal impellers with
heads in the range of 5000 to 6000 m (16,400 to 19,685 ft) keeping
satisfactory characteristics of flow stability and operating range.
High head is attained with the combination of high tip speeds
(allowed by higher strength materials) and high head coefficients
above 0.54. These head levels must be carefully evaluated prior to
implementation. Head per impeller and head coefficients in LNG
service are shown in Figures 63 and 64, respectively.
Design tradeoffs come into play here as lower head per

impeller means more impellers resulting in an increase in
bearing span, which could lead to rotordynamics issues. Higher
head per impeller requires increased rotational speed resulting
in operation at higher Mach number levels, which as stated
earlier can restrict the operating range and reduce efficiency.
High head coefficient stages provide a narrower operating
range and lower rise-to-surge. Low head impellers provide
much greater head rise-to-surge are easier to control and
provide a wider operating range.
High efficiency of large LNG compressors is an important
parameter. The efficiency of a centrifugal stage is a function of
capacity and head, and most impellers in LNG service fall in
the polytropic efficiency range of 82 to 86 percent. Further
improvements in efficiency over the short-term can be attained
by reducing internal impeller flow recirculation by utilizing
low-clearance abradable seals. The use of vaned diffusers on
the discharge of the centrifugal compressors in place of the
vaneless (free-vortex) can also improve efficiency. For axial
compressors, efficiency improvement can be attained by
reducing the radial clearances on the rotor blade tips by the
utilization of special seals.
As more impellers are added to the compressor, off-design
operation gets affected and stability inherently reduced. This
occurs because the individual impeller performance maps dictate
the overall surge point. The situation is further complicated by the
large side load flows and the complexities of uniform mixing at the
sidestream mixing plane. Impeller selection directly affects the
compressors overall operating range. Careful staging will allow
the designer to take advantage of each impellers best operating
range. A typical curve and limits for a centrifugal compressor stage
are shown in Figure 65.
Figure 63. Head (in Meters) per Impeller in LNG Applications

Versus Flow Coefficient. PR Represents Propane Service.
Figure 65. Typical Curve and Limits for a Centrifugal Compressor

Stage. Normalized Head and Efficiency Shown.
Figure 62. Centrifugal Compressor with Splitter Vanes.

Impeller Head Per Stage
Aerodynamic EfficiencyRange Considerations
Figure 64. Head Coefficient per Impeller in LNG Applications

Versus Flow Coefficient. PR Represents Propane Service.
The total stage efficiency is a function of impeller efficiency,

stator component efficiency, return channel efficiency, and exit
scroll efficiency, and all of these plays a part in the optimization of
the machine. In the case of sidestream machines that are typical in
LNG service, the way in which the side load flow is introduced and
the induced flow and temperature distributed are also very
important and the subject of much analytical and experimental
study. The injection volute design can be optimized for sidestream
mixing by going with radial injection rather than the traditional
tangential injection. The radial injection has much lower pressure
loss coefficient (approximately 0.6 instead of 2.7). The advantage
of tangential injection is the reduced space required and therefore
the reduced bearing span. Typical configurations for sidestream
injection are shown in Figure 66. The configuration on the left is
the tangential sidestream approach and the currently used radial
configuration is shown on the right.
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139
Computational Fluid Dynamics Studies
Figure 66. Tangential (Left) and Radial (Right) Sidestream

Injection Discharge Volute Configurations.
Compressor discharge systems can be optimized by changing from
constant section collectors to variable section collectors, which have
a much lower loss coefficient compared to constant section collectors.
The two designs are shown in Figure 67, and a variable section
discharge volute used in a model test is depicted in Figure 68.
Centrifugal compressors flow fields are among the most

complex in turbomachinery. They are characterized by strong 3D
effects, heavy viscous phenomena (producing separation and
wakes), and high secondary flows. Until around 1995 semiempirical
methods or simplified fluid dynamic models were the most
sophisticated tools available. Powerful computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) tools are available today to attack these problems
with complex models, but calculation accuracy is still an open issue.
Well-calibrated CFD tools can help during detailed engineering to
better predict nondimensional parameters and help to reduce
manufacturer design margins. CFD is also used to verify and
increase operating range. Details on CFD analysis may be found in
Bonaiuti, et al. (2003).
Specific aerodynamic CFD studies can be carried out on items
such as the impeller and return channel and on stator parts such as
the discharge scroll, inlet plenums, and sidestreams. Typically the
use of CFD allows the verification of predicted envelopes and
performance and also examination of blade loadings and the flow
separation. CFD can be done on single stages or on multiple stages.
A typical impeller grid is shown in Figure 69. Particle traces along
an impeller are shown in Figure 70, and indications of compressor
impeller stall are shown in Figure 71. Impeller choke is shown in
Figure 72.
Figure 67. Constant Section (Left) and Variable Section (Right)

Cross Sections.
Figure 69. Impeller Grid for CFD.
Figure 68. Variable Section Discharge Volute for Model Testing.
Figure 70. Particle Traces along Impeller.
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140
However, a constant Reynolds number would imply that viscosity

effects are the same. A comprehensive explanation of dynamic
similitude can be found in Key (1989).
Compressor Design Tradeoffs and Compromises
The design complexities, risks, and compromises involved in the
selection and design of large refrigeration compressors include
aerodynamic and mechanical issues and constraints. The final
compressor design involves several interrelated tradeoffs between
aerodynamics, rotordynamics, impeller stress, efficiency, and
operating range. Understanding the complexities requires an
appreciation of these interactions. It is not advisable to set absolute
limits on certain parameters as one might do for more traditional
compressors, and therefore a case-by-case study has to be made of
each compressor service. A valuable discussion of the tradeoffs
involved in compressor design is provided by Sorokes (2003).
Another excellent reference is chapter six of Japikse (1996), which
provides a qualitative graphical representation of design parameters
on the performance, operating range, and stress for centrifugal
compressors. Both these references are valuable in helping
engineers who are not aerodynamic specialists understand the
design compromises that are needed. A discussion of parameters
relating to refrigeration compressors is also made by Peters (1981).
Figure 71. Impeller Stall.
Figure 72. Impeller Choke.

It is important to note that a strong correlation with testing and
experience is still needed. Performance can be assessed through
CFD on a subcomponent basis, then coupled together by a
stacking code to obtain overall performance.
Scale Model Studies
Scale model testing is very useful for performance estimation
and validation of any computational tool. The geometry of the
stage is reproduced and the dynamic similarity is achieved as far as
it concerns the flow coefficient, the Mach number, and the density
ratio/volume reduction. Dimensionless coefficients are used for
design because they depend only on dimensionless parameters and
allow a generalized analysis.
A constant flow coefficient implies that relative flow angles are
the same. Mach number similarity means that perturbation velocity
effects are the same. A constant density ratio implies that the
specific volumes are the same resulting in similar velocity
triangles. For large machines, the Reynolds number is not critical.
Head Rise to Surge and

Operating Range (Surge to Choke Margin)
A positive continuous head rise to the compressor surge point at
constant speed is crucial to stable compressor operation and
reliable responsive process control. The achievable rise to surge is
directly influenced by the required compressor operating range.
The head rise to surge (HTRS) is a measure of the rise in the head
(at constant speed) when the operating point goes from the
operating point to the surge line. Other common terms related to
HRTS include pressure rise to surge and pressure ratio rise to
surge. In some cases, specifying a hard number such as 5 percent
may result in a reduced efficiency and also a reduced overload
capacity. Selecting a lower HRTS may result in a higher efficiency
and an increased operating margin. With refrigeration machines,
therefore, specification of excessive HRTS and surge margin
criteria may result in a moderate overload capacity.
The refrigeration process requires operation at nearly constant
discharge pressure due to condensing temperature. Either the
driver speed or suction pressure must reduce as flow moves toward
surge. Reduction of suction pressure below atmospheric pressure is
usually not desirable. Due to various aerodynamic laws, the surge
to stonewall/choke flow range for refrigeration service is less than
that seen on various other types of applications. Hence, imposition
of an excessive HRTS and/or surge margin criteria may result in
only minimal overload capacity. A recent application has shown a
compressor working well with HRTS below 2 percent on the
guarantee point and lower on alternate operating points.
Head per Section
This is an area where there is an interaction between mechanical
design and aerodynamic design. A larger number of impellers may
cause an excessively long shaft and thus a high critical speed ratio.
Fewer impellers per section would result in higher head per stage.
This, in turn, calls for higher speed operation at higher Mach
numbers. Operation at higher Mach numbers will cause a restriction
in operating range and cause the head rise curve to flatten, and may
reduce the efficiency. Further, as the flow reduces, either the driver
speed or suction pressure must be reduced.
Aerodynamic Mismatching of Stages
As more impellers are added to the compressor, off-design
operation gets effected and stability inherently reduces. This occurs
because the individual section performance maps dictate the
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141
overall surge point. The situation is further complicated by the

large sideload flows and the complexities of uniform mixing at the
sidestream mixing plane. Impellers must be carefully selected in
concert with the other impellers of the compressor section, and
interactions between different compressor stages must be well
understood to ensure that the overall compressor has an acceptable
operating range under both design and off-design conditions.
Careful staging will allow the designer to take advantage of each
impellers best operating range.
Rotordynamic Considerations
Rotordynamics play a very important role for large LNG
centrifugal compressors where the rotational speeds may be low
but where bearing spans can be very large (up to 5850 mm [19.2
ft]). In general these large rotors are quite rigid and have good
separation margins. API 617, Seventh Edition, (2002) stability
analysis (Level 2) must be always carried out and cross-checked
with manufacturer experience.
Rotor displacement, deflection, amplification factors, and
separation margins must be evaluated. Many LNG compressors
have drive through arrangements with large couplings on both
ends of the machine, and these overhung weights would affect the
rotordynamic model.
LNG compressor trains can include several compressor bodies,
the driver, possibly gears, and helper/starter motors resulting in
long strings with a multiple number of seals, bearings, and
couplings. A train torsional analysis should be performed in
accordance with the requirements of API 617 (2002).
Per API, when lateral or torsional natural frequencies cannot be
avoided by the necessary separation margins, then a stress
analysis should be performed to demonstrate that the resonances
have no adverse effect on the complete train. When synchronous
motors or motors with variable speed drives are included in the
train, additional steady-state and transient analysis should be
performed. The suppliers experience with this type analysis
should be carefully reviewed based on previous jobs with
compressors running in the field. To minimize stress concentration,
an integral flange on the motor may be specified. A torsiograph
connection can also be included on the appropriate equipment in
the train to enable checking the calculated torsional speeds during
a string test.
In addition to the traditional rotor bearing system forcing
functions that can cause vibration, there are a host of aerodynamically
induced destabilizing forces that can cause rotor instability
typically for high density fluid services. Gas forces act on the
rotor either as a forced excitation where the unsteadiness and
nonuniformity of the gas flow can create problems of rotating stall
or incipient surge. This can occur in either the diffuser (vaned
or vaneless) or at times in the inducer of the impeller. It typically
originates in the diffuser section. These can set up a host of
subsynchronous vibrations that can, under certain conditions, be
potentially unstable.
There are self-induced excitations that are the result of the
pressure distribution generated by the motion of the rotor itself
inside the close clearance areas (such as the internal seals). When
these forces overcome the damping, the rotor can become unstable
creating a serious operating problem. The balance piston seal is
often a contributor to this problem and the issue can become more
severe for back-to-back compressor configurations.
The risk of rotor instability can be evaluated by using several
empirical approaches where experience with operating machines
can be compared. There are curves available to evaluate the
propensity of the rotor to go unstable, and this evaluation would be
part of the design review conducted by the mechanical department.
Recent work done in the area of rotordynamic stability has been
presented by Bernocchi (2006). Some values derived by new tools
in terms of prediction are presented in Figure 73 for the log
decrement and Figure 74 for the amplification factor.
Figure 73. Stability Analysis of LNG Compressors.
Figure 74. Amplification Factors of LNG Compressors.

Large single shaft gas turbine drivers such as the Frame 7 and
Frame 9 or electric motors for motor driven LNG plants (some rated
at 65 MW) require the installation of large couplings and hubs.
Careful attention must be paid to hub hydraulic fitting, procedure,
and tools, in order to avoid any damage on the shaft ends.
Casing Stresses and Design
Casing stresses and sealing of horizontally split flanges, etc., are
very important considerations, especially for large LNG compressors,
often calling for finite element analysis as shown in Figure 75.
There are several designs available to deal with higher working
pressure requirements including the use of flat end casings. If
needed finite element analysis (FEA) can be used to:
Figure 75. Casing Finite Element Method (FEM) Analysis.
Verify equivalent stresses within the casing.

Evaluate contact pressures on horizontally split flanges.
Evaluate stresses at bolt hole locations.
It is also possible to verify and calibrate FEA models by strain
gauging casings during hydro tests.
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142
Dynamic Simulation
Piping and Nozzle Considerations
As reported by Valappil, et al. (2004a), dynamic simulation has

established itself as a valuable technology in the chemical process
industries. It is useful for a variety of purposes, including engineering
and process studies, control system studies, and applications in
day-to-day operations. Process modeling, either steady-state or
dynamic, can be carried out in the various stages of the LNG
process lifecycle. The benefits of integrating these modeling
activities have been realized in recent years. The dynamic model,
evolving with the various stages of a plant lifecycle, can be tailored
for various applications within the project lifecycle as shown in
Figure 76. The operability and profitability of the plant during its
life depend on good process and control system design. Dynamic
simulation helps to ensure that these aspects are considered early
in the plant design stage. This eliminates or reduces any costly
rework that may be needed later.
Compressor nozzle velocities should be carefully reviewed. For

new compressors, nozzle velocities should be limited to 34 to 37
m/sec (110 to 120 ft/sec) or less (depending on the molecular
weight) for any specified operating range. The higher the
molecular weight and the lower the temperature, the more these
values should be reduced. Higher nozzle velocities can translate
into higher pressure drops and more noise. Details on specifying
and evaluating parameter for compressors may be found in
Blahovec, et al. (1998), and piping related issues may be found in
Gresh (1992).
If the inlet piping for double flow machines is not well designed,
poor performance and premature surging will occur since each
section will be operating on a different performance curve
flow point, yielding different heads/discharge pressures and
different efficiencies. Keeping the inlet piping to each section of a
double-flow compressor identical can be accomplished with
different arrangements. Experience has shown that the preferred
arrangement uses a drum to split the flow. While a Y design with
a proper upstream straight run of pipe may be an acceptable design,
it should be noted that even a small discontinuity in the piping
upstream of the Y can cause the flow to shift to one leg of the
Y. A lower velocity will minimize this effect and result in an
improved flow distribution.
Figure 76. Use of Dynamic Simulation Through the Design and

Operations of an LNG Plant.
There are several benefits to be realized by using the dynamic
simulation in the various stages of an LNG project. These include
both design and operational benefits. On the process side, it is an
important tool for evaluating the antisurge control system for the
refrigeration compressors. The reliable protection of this
equipment is critical for long-term smooth operation of the LNG
plant. Also, dynamic simulation can be pivotal in the support of
sizing of specific key relief valves, and the overall relief system
and optimum selection of equipment sizes. LNG plants are also
characterized by extensive heat integration. The operational
implications (stability and startup) of which can be studied by
simulation. Further, the effect of external factors like ambient
conditions and compositional changes on the future plant operation
can be analyzed to further optimize the design.
Dynamic simulations are also fundamental to understand
compressor behavior during operation and also during transient
conditions such as trips and startup. Startup of LNG strings with
single shaft drivers often needs simulation to check the motor
sizing and dynamic behavior of the string. Dynamic simulation is
also helpful in defining antisurge philosophy, determining the
antisurge valve size, and defining safe shutdown schemes and
procedures. Details may be found in Valappil, et al. (2004a, 2004b).
Some typical dynamic simulation results are shown in Figure 77.
ELECTRIC DRIVE LNG

Interest in All Electric LNG Plants
There is increasing interest in the LNG marketplace for using
electric motors to drive LNG plant compressors as opposed to the
more traditional practice of using gas turbine drivers. This area has
been discussed in several papers including Martinez, et al. (2005),
Kleiner, et al., (2003), Hori and Hitoshi (2004), and Chellini
(2004). Electric LNG plants have some advantages but are more
expensive in terms of capital expense. The advantages include:
Potential for higher plant availability and lower compressor

driver life cycle costs.
Improved plant operational flexibility (by using full-rated power
variable frequency drives that allow compressor speed variation
and startup without depressurization.
Decoupling of plant production and ambient temperature.
Reduced maintenance costs and downtime for the motors and
the VFDs (as compared to gas turbines).
Possible reduction in plant air emissions (by replacement of the
gas turbine drivers with motors). However this would only hold if
a combined cycle were used for power generation.
Enhanced safety in the process area due to the absence of fuel gas.
The choice and cost of the associated power generation solution
can, however, significantly impact the economic viability of an
electric drive LNG plant, and an evaluation would have to be made
on a project specific basis.
Electric Motor Design and VFD Suppliers
Figure 77. Response of a Refrigeration Compressor in a Trip.

Surge Margins for the Three Stages Are Shown as the Machine
Speed Drops. (Courtesy Valappil, et al., 2004b)
The Frame 7EA ISO power rating is approximately 83 MW.

If one considers a 12 to 15 MW starter-helper motor, the size
of a single electric motor required to replace the gas turbine
starter-helper configuration can range from 95 to 100 MW. Given
the vast experiences in building large generators well over 100
MW, motors of this size are not considered new technology. In
essence, these motors can be built without employing new
designs or materials.
Suppliers indicate that two-pole motors equipped with variable
frequency drives are the most attractive and economical solution
for power ranges needed for large LNG drives. Motor suppliers
state that the two-pole motors can be built in general accordance
with API 546 (1997) standards and operate at high efficiencies.
Table of Contents
Issues to be addressed include:
The startup of the compressor train (ensuring adequate

torque-speed capability to allow appropriate acceleration with
minimal dwell time at the critical speeds).
Restart of the compressor train after a motor trip (time taken).
Range of operability (efficient turndown)there are limitations
generally imposed on the speed range of the motor and these are
typically rotordynamic constraints.
Torsional analysis of the full compressor train under startup
conditions, compressor transients such as surge, and electrical
transients such as power dips.
Interaction of torsional and lateral vibration. This could be
accentuated with the presence of a gearbox that may be needed to
optimize compressor operation.
Sensitivity of the motor to excitation of its critical speeds.
Effects imposed on the power system resulting from motor trips
(this is by far the most critical issue affecting the electrical system
stability), switch gear, and power distribution failure.
VFD
Availability and efficiency.
Induced low frequency harmonics.
Stable operation during a power disturbance.
Rapid speed response and range of variable speed (this is
usually constrained by the rotordynamics of the motor and this
requirement is linked very much to the process).
Operation at degraded levels of the VFD may present problems.
VFD configurations utilizing both load commutated inverter
(LCI) and gate commutated turn off thyristor (GCT) technology
are available.
The LCI is a conventional drive system that uses a low switching
(on/off) frequency device known as a thyristor. The GCT is a
more advanced drive system that uses the latest high switching
frequency device. The VFD provides a high degree of ride-through
capability when there is a supply voltage dip. The use of 12, 24,
or 30 pulse VFDs results in lower harmonics induced within
the network. A project specific evaluation must be made on a
case-by-case basis, with respect to the use of harmonic filters.
Further, the low torque ripple would help in the torsional design of
the motor-compressor string. Although a starter VFD would result
in a lower total installed cost, a Full VFD provides maximum
operating flexibility during start up, trips, electrical transients,
ambient swings, turndown, and is the generally accepted solution.
Supporting Power Plant Solution Considerations
Power plant configuration and sizing require a detailed analysis
in selecting a solution that best fits the need of the project. This is
perhaps the most critical aspect of implementing an all electric
solution, and a very detailed study would need to be done of
transient characteristics of the overall electrical system.
It is important that in evaluating the overall availability, the
availability of the electric supply system (grid or self generation)
be taken into account and built into the overall project
economic evaluation.
With a few exceptions, a long-term reliable and risk-free electric
supply in most of the countries where LNG plants may be built
would not be available for the quantum of power demand by an
LNG plant. Further, there may be considerable political risk and
uncertainty with regard to the cost of tariff and energy pricing over
the life of the LNG plant. Options for power plants might include:
Simple cycle power plantscareful consideration of the

robustness of the solution and a careful consideration of spared
capacity must be made taking into account DLN operability.
Combined cycle self generationagain careful tradeoffs
must be made regarding the configuration, redundancy, and
transient operability.
143
Across
the fence utility electric supply (preferably from a

reliable and economical supplier).
An inside the fence simple cycle power plant solution is the

least complicated to operate, but it has the shortest installation time
and lowest overall total installed cost (TIC) when compared to
a combined cycle plant. A combined cycle power plant is more
complicated to operate (high pressure steam system ranging from
800 to 1500 psi), requires greater attention to maintenance,
requires a larger plot plan and is greater in TIC than the simple
cycle solution. However, the combined cycle solution does benefit
from a much greater thermal efficiency (48 percent versus 33
percent) and comes in larger blocks of power.
To summarize, power plant reliability and availability are very
important to the success of an electrically driven LNG plant.
Consolidation of power can impact LNG plant availability because
of power instabilities due to generator trip, mechanical failures,
electrical faults, and transient events. These influences can be
mitigated by selecting a power plant that consists of multiple power
generation packages. A thorough investigation of the power plant
solution must be performed on a case-by-case basis, taking into
account: capital cost, operating cost and the stability of the system
to transient upsets. A comparison of simple and combined cycle
solutions is provided in Table 4.
Table 4. Comparisons of Simple Cycle and Combined Cycle Power
Plant Solutions.
Simple Cycle
Combined Cycle
x Lower thermal efficiency
x Higher thermal efficiency
x Lower initial CAPEX
x Higher Initial CAPEX
x Lower OPEX
x Higher OPEX
x Higher stability
x Lower Stability
x Small real estate requirement
x Large real estate requirement
x Simple to operate
x Complex to operate
x Shorter delivery
x Longer delivery
Issues to be Considered for an All Electric Solution

While an electric motor driven LNG plant is technically feasible,
careful attention is required when evaluating the project
economics. Key issues that have to be considered are:
Sensitivity of the project to capital expenditures (CAPEX).

Value being placed on the fuel gas.
CO2 emission considerations and possible credits.
Real estate availability for the LNG plant and power plant solution.
Export power considerations.
Load shedding philosophy in the event that power is also exported.
Implementation of an All Electric Solution
As reported by Hortig and Buerkle (2006), the first implementation
of an all electric LNG plant is at Snhvit, Norway. The train will
have three refrigeration compressors driven by variable speed
motors. This solution was supported by power generation from five
LM6000 gas turbines. All of the equipment was extensively string
tested including the three main refrigeration strings and the power
plant. The string tests comprised the electric equipment including
the high velocity switch gear, transformers, and controls.
TESTING OF LNG TURBOMACHINERY

Overview of Testing
Testing capabilities are a very important requirement in the LNG
business. Not only is it important to verify the performance of the
compressors, but also to verify the rotordynamic and aerodynamic
stability of the large and high horsepower compressors, and the
proper operation of the overall train of gas turbines, compressors,
and, where applicable, gears, and/or helper/starter motors.
Consideration should be given to a high speed balance of the
compressor rotors per API 617 (2002). LNG compressor impellers
Table of Contents
144
are usually large, and sometimes these large impellers will not take
a proper set on the shaft until they reach operating speed. If these
impellers are only low speed balanced, there is a possibility that,
when the impellers reach operating speed during the mechanical
test, they can move and change the balance of the rotor. This
could require rebalancing and possible schedule delays.
Testing can be broken into the following elements:
Scale model tests for aerodynamic performance

Mechanical run tests
ASME PTC-10 (1997) type tests for aerodynamic performance
verificationmay be Type 2 or Type 1
Full density testing to validate rotordynamic stability under load
String testsfor overall validation of the string and job components
In manufacture testingthis would include numerous tests and
checks as the components are manufactured and built as standard
part of the OEMs procedures.
The most beneficial test regime has to be selected based on

factors such as how proven the respective design configuration is,
evaluation of aerodynamic and rotordynamic risks, and by evaluating
and trading off performance risks and corrective actions with
project schedule.
Scale Model Tests for Compressor Aerothermal Behavior
Scale model testing is very useful for performance estimation and
validation of any computational tool. The geometry of the stage is
reproduced and dynamic similarity is achieved in terms of key
aerodynamic parameters such as the Mach number and flow
parameters. Some parameters such as the Reynolds number and
specific details, such as surface roughness effects, end wall flows,
and seal clearances, cannot be scaled but corrections can be applied
to deal with this. The scale model tests provide a good insurance as
to how the compressor will behave, and provides an opportunity to
modify design during the design process (the model test is
performed prior to impeller fabrication) as opposed to making
changes after noting problems during the PTC performance test.
Scaled model test activities can be carried out to better predict
the critical impeller stage that may be at the boundary of the
manufacturers experience. Model tests can be applied to the front
stage, intermediate stages (with or without sidestreams), or the last
stage. Typical arrangements for an intermediate stage model test are
shown in Figure 78. Several measurement sections are positioned
inside the channel equipped with pressure probes (Kiel, Cobra,
five-holes, static), temperature probes, and dynamic pressure
probes to identify stall/surge. Scaled model tests are very practical;
any performance issue can be easily identified and corrected.
Figure 79. Wind Tunnel Test.

Mechanical Run Tests
These are API 617 (2002) test specified and are essentially a
four hour endurance test run at full speed in a no-load condition.
This is done under vacuum with the inlet and discharge flanges
blanked off. Acceptable vibration characteristics including the
mechanical and electrical runout levels should be defined before
the equipment is purchased based on the recommendations of API
617 (2002) and the suppliers experience. Generally, the larger the
compressor, the lower the operating speed, and therefore the higher
the allowable peak-to-peak unfiltered vibration and the higher the
allowable electrical and mechanical runout. An unbalanced rotor
response test should be performed as part of the mechanical
running test per API 617 (2002). This unbalanced response test
should only be performed on the first rotor tested. The results of
the mechanical run including the unbalance response verification
test should be compared with those from the analytical model.
Spare compressor rotors should also be given a mechanical
run-test. Testing with the contract couplings is preferred. If this is
not practical, the mechanical running test should be performed
with couplings or simulators that have overhung moments within
10 percent of the contract couplings. Consideration should be
given to using the contract coupling guards if supplier experience
is problematic or coupling guard temperature calculations appear
high. API 671 (2002) recommends maximum coupling guard
temperatures of 71C (160F).
This is a test that has to be done on all compressor bodies
regardless of them being identical, as the rotordynamic/vibration
behavior is a function of the close clearances and assembly
procedures including balancing.
Performance Tests
Figure 78. Typical Arrangement for Intermediate Stage Model Test.

Wind tunnel activities (Figure 79) are also very important and
very easy to perform. The purpose is to test a stator part such as
volutes, sidestreams, or return channel.
The PTC type tests can be of several classes, but the

commonly applied tests are what are known as similitude tests,
(ASME PTC-10, 1977, Type 2) where the compressor is driven by
a shop driver (typically a steam turbine or a variable speed motor),
and then aerodynamic similitude is derived between the test
conditions and the site conditions. Details on shop testing are
provided in Colby (2005). This is a test always specified (unless the
compressor is identical to a pretested design). It is typically a test
conducted on one compressor of a specific service used in a
project. A typical indoor test bed is shown in Figure 80.
Table of Contents
145
problems with the compressor and the string test stand since the
compressor may need to be sent back to the shop for impeller or other
modifications. Performance testing in the string test configuration is
also conducted in accordance with ASME There are two methods for
determining the efficiency of the compressor. A torquemeter may be
used to measure the input into the compressor. The second and most
common method is the heat balance method where the work input is
measured via the enthalpy rise from inlet to discharge.
String Tests
Figure 80. Indoor Test Stand.

For LNG compressors, the test will be a Type 2 test on a
substitute gas. For performance testing a multistage compressor,
volume reduction is a critical parameter. The test volume reduction
must match the design volume reduction to be representative of the
compressor performance on the specified gas. The head coefficient
and efficiency of an impeller vary with the machine Mach number.
Therefore, performance testing is required to be conducted at a
Mach number relatively close to the design Mach number for each
stage. The Reynolds number relates to the boundary layer and
frictional losses of the medium in the flow path. Type 2 in-shop
performance tests are almost always conducted at a lower Reynolds
number than under specified conditions. The lower the Reynolds
number, the greater the frictional losses and lower the efficiency.
Most users do not allow the manufacturer to correct the test data
for the differences in Reynolds number. Minimum straight lengths
of inlet pipe are required for an accurate performance test, due to
establishing laminar flow into the impeller and depending on the
type of pressure, temperature, and flow devices. Equivalent
arrangements can be studied by the compressor manufacturer
and reduce the straight lengths. A minimum of five points,
including surge and overload, shall be taken at normal speed. For
variable-speed machines, additional points may be specified for
alternate process operating conditions, and two alternate speeds
to define the slope of the surge line and help the supplier in
determining where, in which stage, surge initiated. If the three
surge points are very close in flow coefficient, surge is initiated
early in the compressor, the first or second stage. A greater separation
between the three surge points would indicate surge to be initiated
in one of the later stages.
Compressors with intermediate specified process pressures (i.e.,
side-loads) should have individual sectional head (pressure)
tolerances as mutually agreed. Many compressor suppliers
have a standard tolerance of + or 2 percent on side-load head
(pressure), so if the owners process would prefer that a side-load
pressure (temperature) be lower or higher than design, this
direction should be furnished to the supplier upfront before they
begin their detailed impeller design. Performance testing is
especially important where there are two process services on the
same train, since any speed change to improve the performance
issue of one compressor service will also impact the performance
of the other compressor service. Performance testing is also
very important when there is a constant speed driver, since the
compressor speed cannot be increased or decreased to make up for
performance problems. This performance testing will be conducted
typically using only one contract rotor.
For some large LNG compressors, in-shop performance testing
is not possible, due to the size of available shop drivers. For this
situation, performance testing in a string test configuration is employed.
A disadvantage of this arrangement is that any performance
problems discovered during the string test may cause schedule
String tests are specified when there is concern about the overall
performance in terms of the turbomachinery train under consideration.
The test, if conducted under full load, full speed conditions, can
replicate actual operating conditions. As the job driver and control
system is used, many of the field startup problems can be minimized.
The string test verifies that the entire job components are correctly
designed and manufactured. The string test can be an expensive and
time-consuming test, adding several weeks (10 to 15 weeks). Cook
(1985) has covered the advantages of turbomachinery shop testing
compared to field corrections that might have to be made if problems
are discovered in the field.
This testing would include any applicable compressors, gas
turbines, gear units, gas seals, and associated buffer gas systems,
lube oil systems, and helper/starter motors. For large helper/starter
motors and variable frequency drives, where two identical motors
are purchased, consideration should be given to a back-to-back
motor test at the motor suppliers facility. Once again, any
problems discovered during the back-to-back test can be solved
more efficiently and timely at the suppliers factory.
The primary advantage of the string test is the ability to perform
a full load mechanical running test, and measure equipment
vibration and bearing temperatures at full load and full speed.
Machinery vibrations can be investigated in both the steady-state
and transient conditions. Equipment train alignment capability can
also be established. Besides the equipment, most auxiliaries are
used during the string test including inlet filters/ducting, lube
systems, couplings, coupling guards, control systems, electrical
motor systems, exhaust systems, dry gas seal buffer systems,
torquemeters, and vibration monitoring systems. Any fit up or
assembly problems can be resolved during the string test, which is
preferred over correcting these issues in remote field locations.
Auxiliary and control systems can be tuned, thus minimizing these
activities in the field. For extremely long compressor trains, with
several compressor bodies, a gas turbine driver, and large VFD
helper/starter motor, it can also be possible to measure torsional
critical speeds during the string test if a torsiograph connection has
been provided.
A large scale string test arrangement for a Frame 7 driven LNG
compressor is shown in Figure 81. A setup for a Frame 9 driven
string test is shown in Figure 82.
Figure 81. Frame 7LNG Compressor String Test Setup.
Table of Contents
146
The design of LNG turbomachinery must be considered in an

integrated manner so that all components including auxiliaries
work well.
APPENDIX A
LNG CONVERSIONS
LNG conversions can be found in Table A-1.
Table A-1. LNG Conversions.
TO CONVERT
3
FROM
TO M of
LNG
Metric
Ton of
LNG
M of
Gas
Ft of
Gas
Milli on Giga jo ule Kilo watt Barr el

Btu of
Hour
Crude
Gas
MULTIPLY BY
1
1 M3 of LNG
1 Metric Ton
2.47
of LNG
1 M3 of Gas
.00171
3
1 Ft
of Gas .00005
Figure 82. Frame 9LNG Compressor String Test Setup.
INTEGRATION ASPECTS
All the turbomachinery components and the associated
auxiliaries must work together in context of an integrated LNG plant.
This means that aspects such as control philosophy, maintenance
philosophy, and design of auxiliary systems are best considered
during the design phases, involving the turbomachinery supplier.
Some of the key points that must be considered include:
Integration of turbomachinery design into plant configuration
careful integration of process design with the machinery design.

This should be done at an early stage of the design to ensure that a
good aerodynamic and rotordynamic solution is derived taking all
process cases into consideration.
Lube oil systems/dry gas seal systems/air filtration and auxiliary
systems. Careful attention to these systems is critically important
to ensure good operational reliability.
Distributed control systems (DCS) and control systems. These
must be carefully integrated into the overall system.
Antisurge valves and dynamic simulationearly definition of
control schemes, control philosophy, compressor load sharing,
startup issues, and transient issues must all be considered.
Emission testing.
Noise issues. These are best addressed at an early stage of
the design.
Condition monitoring. This is an important area for plant
operational reliability. Modern condition monitoring tools should
be considered to allow operators to have the best indication of
operational health in terms of both aerothermal performance and
vibration and other mechanical parameters.
Fuel variability, gas turbine issues, and DLN/DLE considerations.
Power plant integration.
SUMMARY
The dynamic growth of the LNG industry has resulted in the
use of very complex and high technology turbomachinery for
refrigeration service. This paper has provided an overview of
the turbomachinery involved, covering both gas turbines and
compressors. The propane compressor represents one of the most
challenging designs.
From the perspective of compressor selection, design, and
testing, close designer-user interaction and good communication
are important to derive a robust compressor solution that will
operate under varied operating conditions. Imposition of simple
and rigid rules of thumb and specifications by the user that do not
recognize that design compromises are inherent in compressor
design will often result in nonoptimal designs. Recognition should
exist that turbocompressor aeromechanical design is a complex
area where several advanced tools are available to optimize design.
1 Million B tu.048
1 Gigajoule
.045
1 Kilo watt .000162

Hour
.261
1 Barr el
Crude
0.405
1
584
1379
1
.000725
.00002
20,631
35.3
.0283
21.04
48,690
.036
1
22.19
52
00102.
54.8
.038
.00108
6173
15222
10.54
.299
3
9.43
.006
.00019
.0192
27.8
981
1.054
292.7
.182
.018
26.3
930
.095
277.5
.173
.000065
.0949
.106
153
3.3.003415
5390
5.5
.0036
5.79
.00062
1.610
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank GE Oil and Gas and GE Energy for permission
to reproduce several figures relating to gas turbines and compressors.
The authors thank Mike Kuzdzal of the Turbomachinery Symposium
Advisory Committee who acted as paper monitor and Ms. Joanne
Burnett of the Turbomachinery Laboratories for her work in
preparing the final version of this paper.

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Table of Contents

GAS TURBINES AND TURBOCOMPRESSORS FOR LNG SERVICE

Cyrus B. Meher-Homji is an Engineering

Antonio Pelagotti is Manager of LNG

Terryl Matthews is Senior Rotating

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-SIXTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM 2007

The most critical component of an LNG liquefaction facility is

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Liquefaction by chilling of the gas (it is this section that is the

The LNG Value Chain and LNG Market

Figure 2. LNG Liquefaction Plant Block Diagram.

Figure 1. LNG Versus Onshore Pipeline Economics (Indicative

gas production (wells) and transportation to the

propane precooled mixed refrigerant and AP-XThis

use gas turbines as their power outputs, efficiencies, and overall

Figure 3. Growth and Projections of the LNG Industry. (Houston,

Figure 4. Increase in LNG Plant Sizes over Time.

LNG PLANT DRIVER OPTIONS

Figure 5. Evolution of Drivers for LNG Refrigeration

Smaller plot space.

Driver power capabilityThe power developed by the driver

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-SIXTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM 2007

the liquefaction process. Gas turbine selection, the use of waste

Environmental Greenhouse Gas Considerations

Figure 6. Map of ISO Thermal Efficiency Versus Specific Work of

Figure 9. Trend of Gas Turbine Specific Work and Output.

Figure 8. Value of converting Fuel Gas Savings into LNG.

GAS TURBINE DRIVERS

Figure 10. Single Shaft and Split Shaft Gas Turbine

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-SIXTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM 2007

drives the compressor. In the case of a three-spool engine, the low

larger machines while others may favor redundant smaller

Figure 11. Differentiation between Heavy Duty and Aeroderivative

Design Information for Mechanical

32 MW, thermal efficiency = 29.5 percent

The Frame 5D is shown in Figure 12. The Frame 5D machine is an

Typical Gas Turbine Configurations

Configurations using mixed refrigerantsConfigurations here

include either two Frame 7EA machines or one Frame 6B and

Figure 12. Layout of a Frame 5D Gas Turbine.

Figure 13. Frame 5D High Pressure Rotor (Axial Compressor and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-SIXTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM 2007

LM2500+ (PGT25+) Aeroderivative Engine

design. The power turbine is attached to the gas generator by a

Figure 14. Evolution of the LM2500 Engine. (Courtesy GE Energy)

17-stage axial compressor; PR 23:1

injection systems for NOx abatement

Figure 15 Overview of the PGT25+ Gas Turbine. (Courtesy GE

Frame 7EA Gas Turbine

Figure 16. The Uprated LM2500+ G4 EngineDLE Variant.

Figure 19. Overview of the Frame 7EA Gas Turbine.

Figure 17. Growth of the LM2500+G4 Variant. (Courtesy GE Energy)

Figure 18. Overview of the Frame 6B Gas Turbine.

Hot end drive

Hot end drive

Figure 20. Overview of the Frame 9E Gas Turbine.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTY-SIXTH TURBOMACHINERY SYMPOSIUM 2007

17-stage axial flow compressor (12.7:1 ratio)

An analysis and simulation of 91 gas turbines were conducted to

Effect of Site Conditions on GT