Systems and Models

1.1.1
OutlinetheconceptandcharacteristicsofSystems
Asystemisanassemblageofpartsandtherelationshipsbetweenthem,whichtogether
constituteanentityorwhole.Theinterdependentcomponentsareconnectedthroughthe
transferofenergyandmatter.
Fourthingscancharacterizesystems:
1. Storages(ofmatterorenergy)
2. Flows(inputsandoutputs)
3. Processes(transfersandtransformationsofmatterandenergy)
4. Feedbackmechanisms(negativeandpositivefeedback)
1.1.2
Applythesystemsconceptonarangeofscales
Thesystemsconceptcanbeappliedacrossarangeofscalessuchasecosystemsassmall
asagardenoraslargeasabiome,andevencanbeappliedtolookattheentireworldasa
system.
1.1.3
Definethetermsopensystem,closedsystemandisolatedsystem
OpenSystem:Bothmatterandenergyisexchangedacrosstheboundariesofthesystem,
opensystemsareorganicandsomustinteractwiththeirenvironment
ClosedSystem:Energybutnotmatterisexchangedacrosstheboundariesofthesystem.
Matterisusuallyrecycledwithinthesystem.
IsolatedSystem:Neitherenergynormatterisexchangedacrosstheboundaryofthe
system.Thesesystemsdonotexistnaturally,althoughitispossibletothinkoftheentire
universeasanisolatedsystem

1.1.4
Describehowthefirstandsecondlawsofthermodynamicsarerelevantto
environmentalsystems
Thefirstlawofthermodynamicsstatesthatenergycanneitherbecreatednordestroyed,
itcanonlychangeforms.
Thismeansthatthetotalenergyinanysystemisconstantandallthatcanhappenis
changeintheformthattheyenergytakes.
Thislawisalsoreferredtoasthelawofconservationofenergy
Thesecondlawofthermodynamicsstatesthattheenergygoesfromaconcentratedform
intoadispersedformandtheavailabilityofenergytodoworkthereforediminishesand
thesystembecomesincreasinglydisordered.
Thetransformationandtransferofenergyisnot100%efficient,inanyenergyconversion
thereislessusableenergyattheendoftheprocess.
1.1.5
ExplaintheNatureofEquilibrium
SteadyStateEquilibrium:Thecommonpropertyofmoreopensystems.Thereisa
tendencyinnaturalsystemsfortheequilibriumtoreturnafteradisturbancesuchthat
fluctuationsinthesystemarearoundafixedpath.

StaticEquilibrium:Therearenoinputsoroutputsofmatterorenergyandnochangein
thesystemovertime;thereforetherearenofluctuationsandthesystemstateremains
constant.
StableEquilibrium:Ifasystemreturnstotheoriginalequilibriumafteradisturbanceitis
saidtobestable
UnstableEquilibrium:Ifasystemdoesnotreturntothesameequilibriumbutrather
formsanewequilibriumaredescribedasunstable
1.1.6
Defineandexplaintheeprinciplesofpositiveandnegativefeedback
PositiveFeedback:occurswhenachangeinthestateofthesystemleadstoanadditional
andincreasedchange
NegativeFeedback:workbyreducingtheeffectofoneofthesystemscomponents.This
isaselfregulatingmethodofcontrolleadingtothemaintenanceofasteadystate
equilibrium

1.1.7
Describetransferandtransformaitonproceses
Transfers:normallyflowthroughasystemandinvolveachangeoflocationorstate.
1. movementofmatierlathroughlivingorganisms(consumption)
2. Movementofmaterialinanonlivingprocess(percipitation)
3. Movementofenergy(energyreradiatingfromgreenhousegases)
Transformations:leadtoaninteractionwithinasystemintheformationofanewend
product
1. Mattertransformatons(aminoacidsintoproteinchains)
2. Energytransformations(photosynthesisinplantsconveritngsunlightenergy)
3. Mattertoenergytransformations(respirationbreakingdownglucose)
1.1.8
Evaluatethestrengthsandlimitationsofmodels
Strengths:
Theyallowscientiststopredictandsimplylargesystems
Inputscanbechangedandoutcomesexaminedwithouthavingtowaitforrealevents
Disadvantages:
Theymaynotbeaccuratebecauseofovercomplexity
Theyrelyontheexpertiseofthepeoplemakingthem
Differentpeoplemayinterpretthemdifferently

Structure
2.1.1Distinguishbetweenbioticandabioticcomponentsinanecosystem
Biotic:referstothelivingcomponentswithinanecosystem(thecommunity)
Abiotic:referstothenonlivingfactorsoftheecosystem(theenvironment)
2.1.2definethetermtrophiclevel
Thetermtrophiclevelreferstothefeedinglevelwithinafoodchain.Foodwebsare
madefrommanyinterconnectingfoodchains.

2.1.3Identifyandexplaintrophiclevelsinfoodchainsandfoodwebs
Ecosystemscontainmanyinterconnectedfoodchains.Generallyafoodchainwillstart
withtheautotrophtrophiclevel,thentoprimaryconsumer,thentosecondaryconsumer
andsoforth.

2.1.4explaintheprinciplesofpyramidsofnumbers,biomassandproductivity
PyramidofNumbers:
Anumberpyramidrepresentsthenumberofproducersandconsumerscoexistinginan
ecosystemcanbeshownbycountingthenumberoforganismsinanecosystemand
constructingapyramid.


PyramidofBiomass
Abiomasspyramidquantitiestheamountofbiomasspresentateachtrophiclevelata
certainpointintimeandrepresentsthestandingstockofeachtrophiclevelmeasuredin
unitssuchasgramsofbiomasspermetersquared.
PyramidofProductivity
Apyramidofproductivitytakesintoaccountoftherateofproductionoveraperiodof
timebecauseeachlevelrepresentsenergyperunitareaperunittime(rateofchange)
2.1.6definethetermsspecies,population,habitat,niche,communityandecosystem
Species:agroupoforganismsthatinterbreedandproducefertileoffspring
Population:agroupoforganismsofthesamespecieslivinginthesameareaatthesame
time
Habitat:referstotheenvironmentinwhichaspeciesnormallylives
Niche:bestdescribedaswhere,whenandhowanorganismlives,essentiallywhat
definesthespecies
Community:agroupofpopulationslivingandinteractingwitheachotherinacommon
habitat
Ecosystem:acommunityofinterdependentorganisms(biotic)andtheirphysical
environment(abiotic)
2.1.7Describeandexplainpopulationinteractions
IntraspecificCompetition:competitionwithinaspecies(occupythesameniche)
InterspecificCompetition:competitionbetweenspecies(nichesoverlap)
Predation:occurswhenoneanimalhuntsandkillsanotheranimal
Parasitism:anorganism(theparasite)benefitsattheexpenseofanother(thehost)from
whichitderivesfood
Mutualism:arelationshipinwhichtwoorganismslivetogetherandasymbiotic
relationshipinwhichbothspeciesbenefitisdeveloped

Biomes
2.4.1definethetermbiome
Abiomeisacollectionofecosystemssharingsimilarclimaticconditions.Abiomehas
distinctiveabioticfactorsandspeciesthatdistinguishitfromotherbiomes.

2.4.2explainthedistribution,structureandrelativeproductivityofspecificbiomes
TropicalRainforestBiome
Consistenthightemperatures
Highrainfall
LieinabandaroundtheequatorwithinthetropicsofCancerandCapricorn,sothey
enjoyhighlightlevelsyearround
Highbiodiversity
Highproductivity

DesertBiome
Foundatlatitudesofapproximately30degreesnorthandsouth
Hightemperatures
Lowprecipitation
Limitedproductivity
Speciesarehighlyadaptedtoreducewaterlossduringdehydration
TundraBiome
Foundathighlatitudeswhereinsolationislow
Limitedlevelsofsunlight
Lowproductivity
Temperaturesarelow
TemperateForestBiome
Largelyfoundbetween40and60degreesnorthoftheequator
Wintersarecoldandsummersarewarm
Cancontainbothevergreenanddeciduoustrees
Rainfallismoderate
Biodiversityislowerthaninrainforest

Function
2.5.1explaintheroleofproducers,consumersanddecomposersintheecosystem
Producers:organismsthatusesunlightenergytocreatefoodarecalledphotoautotrophs.
Producersarethebasisofecosystems,supportingthemthroughconstantinputofenergy
Consumers:consumersdonotcontainphotosyntheticpigments.Theymustobtaintheir
energyandnutrientsbyeatingotherorganismstheyareheterotrophs.

Decomposers:obtaintheirfoodandnutrientsfromthebreakdownofdeadorganicmatter,
andtheybreakdowntissue,theyreleasenutrientsreadyforreabsorptionbyproducers
2.5.2Describephotosynthesisandrespirationintermsofinputs,outputsandenergy
transformations
Photosynthesis:theprocessbywhichgreenplantsconvertlightenergyfromthesuninto
usablechemicalenergystoredinorganicmatter
1. Inputs=sunlight,carbondioxideandwater
2. Processes=chlorophylltrapssunlight,theenergyisusedtosplitwater,hydrogen
fromwateriscombinedwithCO2toproduceglucose
3. Outputs=glucoseusedasanenergysourcefortheplantandoxygenisreleased
intotheatmosphere
4. Transformations=lightenergyistransformedtostoredchemicalenergy
CellularRespiration:releasesenergyfromglucoseandotherorganicmoleculesinsideall
livingcells
1. Inputs=glucoseandoxygen
2. Processes=oxidationprocessesinsidecells
3. Outputs=releaseofenergyforworkandheat
4. Transformations=storedchemicalenergytokineticenergyandheat
2.5.3Describeandexplainthetransferandtransformationsofenergyasitflowsthrough
anecosystem
CARBONCYCLING
Carbondioxideisfixedbyautotrophs
Theseorganismrespireandreturnsomecarbonintotheatmosphereorassimilateinto
intotheirbodesasbiomass
Whenorganismsdietheyareconsumedbydecomposers,whichreturncarbontothe
atmospherewhentheyrespire
Deforestationreleaseslargeamountsofcarbondioxideintotheatmosphere
Oilandgaswereformedwhenmarineorganismsdiedandfelltothebottomoftheocean,
whenthesefuelsareburnedtheyreleaselargeamountofcarbonintotheatmosphere

NITROGENCYCLE
Thereisfourtypesofbacteriathatdrivethenitrogencycle:
1. Nitrogenfixingbacteriaarespeciesinrootnodulesderivethesoarstheyneed
fromplants,andtheplantsgainuseablenitrogenthathasbeenfixedintonitrates
2. Decomposersproduceammoniaandammoniumcompoundswhichisthenfixed
bythenitrogenfixingbacteria
3. Nitrifyingbacteriafoundinthesoiloxidizetheammoniafirstintonitritesthen
intonitrates
4. Denitrifyingbacteriareturnnitrogentotheatmosphere

2.5.5definethetermsgrossproductivity,netproductivity,primaryproductivityand
secondaryproductivity
PrimaryProductivity:thegainbyproducersinenergyorbiomassperunitareaperunit
time
SecondaryProductivity:thebiomassgainedbyheterotrophicorganismsmeasuredin
unitsofmassorenergyperunitareaperunittime
GrossProductivity:thetotalgaininenergyorbiomassperunitareaperunittime
NetProductivity:thegaininenergyorbiomassperunitareaperunittimeremainingafter
losses(R)
2.5.6definethetermsandcalculatethevaluesofbothgrossprimaryproductivityandnet
primaryproductivity
GrossPrimaryProductivity(GPP):gainedthroughphotosynthesisinprimaryproducers
NetPrimaryProductivity(NPP):thegainbyproducersafterrespiratorylosses(R)
NPP=GPPR
2.5.7definethetermsandcalculatethevaluesofbothgrosssecondaryproductivityand
netsecondaryproductivity
GrossSecondaryProductivity(GSP):gainedthroughconsumptionandabsorptionin
consumers
NetSecondaryProductivity(NSP):thegainbyconsumersafterrespiratorylosses(R)
NSP=GSPR

Changes
2.6.1explaintheconceptsoflimitingfactorsandcarryingcapacity
LimitingFactorsincludetemperature,waterandnutrientavailability
CarryingCapacityisthemaximumnumberoforganismsthatanareaorecosystemcan
sustainablysupportoveralongperiodoftime
2.6.2DescribeandexplainSandJpopulationcurves
TheSCurvehasthreestages:
1. ExponentialGrowthstageinwhichthepopulationgrowsandanincreasingly
rapidratebecausetherearenolimitingfactors,nocompetitionandplentiful
resources
2. Transitionalphasewherethepopulationgrowthslowsconsiderablybutit
continuestogrowbecausethereisanincreaseincompetitionandinpredators
3. PlateauPhaseinwhichthenumberofindividualsstabilizesandthepopulation
growthstabilizesbecausetheavailablespaceandresourcesdecrease

TheJcurveisapopulationgrowthcurve,whichshowsonlyexponentialgrowth.Growth
isinitiallyslowandbecomesincreasinglyrapidandusuallyresultsinapopulationcrash
whencarryingcapacityisreached.

2.6.3describetheroleofdensitydependentandindependentfactorsandinternaland
externalfactors
DensityDependentFactors:somelimitingfactorsarerelatedtopopulationdensitysuch
ascompetitionforresources,spaceandpredation.Asapopulationgrowsinsize,the
availabilityofresourcesperorganismdecreases.
DensityIndependentFactors:canoperatealongsidedensitydependentfactors.Theseare
generallyabioticsuchasclimatechangeorgeophysicaleventssuchavolcaniceruptions.
Theseeventsincreasedeathrateandreducebirthrate.
InternalandExternalFactors:internalfactorsincludedensitydependentfertilityorsize
ofbreedingterritorywhileexternalfactorsincludepredationordisease
2.6.4describetheprinciplesassociatedwithsurvivorshipcurvesincludingKandR
strategists
KStrategists:Tendtobelimitedbythecarryingcapacityofanenvironment
Dominatespecies
Slowdevelopment
Delayedreproduction
Longerliving
Largersize
Lessproductive

RStrategists:tendtohaveafastrateofincrease
Initialcolonizers
Largenumbers

Rapidgrowthanddevelopment
Earlyreproduction
Shortlife
Veryproductive
2.6.5describetheprocessofsuccessionandzonation
Succession:thelongtermchangeinthecompositionofacommunity.Theychangein
communitiesfromtheearlier(pioneer)communitytothefinalcommunity(climax
community),eachcommunityiscalledasere.
1. Successiononabarerock=lithosere
2. Successioninfreshwater=hydrosere
3. Successioninadryhabitat=xerosere
Successionoccurringonapreviouslyuncolonizedsubstrateitiscalledprimary
succession.SecondarySuccessionoccursinplaceswhereapreviouscommunityhasbeen
destroyed.
Zonation:referstochangesincommunitiesinrelationtospatialpatternsandcanbe
illustratedinthefigurebelow.

Population Dynamics

3.1.1Describethenatureandexplainandimplicationsofexponentialgrowthinhuman
populations
Theworldspopulationisgrowingveryrapidlyinanexponentialmanner.Theimpactof
thisisthatahugeamountofresourcesareneededtolookaftertheincreasingnumberof
people.
HumansareKstrategists,soexponentialgrowthdoesnotmatchwithourtypeofspecies,
aswewilleventuallyreachcarryingcapacity
3.1.2Calculateandexplainthevaluesofcrudebirthrate,crudedeathrate,fertility,
doublingtimeandnaturalincreaserate
BirthRate:
Crude Birth Rate=

total number of births

x 100
total population

Fertility:
Changesinfertilityareacombinationofbothsocialculturalandeconomicfactorslike
levelofeducation,familyplanningandeconomicprosperity
Theagespecificbirthrateshowsthenumberofbirthsper1000womenofaspecificage
Age specific birth rate=

total number of births

x 100
1000 women of any specified age

DoublingTimes:
Thedoublingtimereferstothelengthoftimeittakesforapopulationtodoubleinsize
assumingitsnaturalgrowthrateremainsconstant
Doubling Time ( years )=

70
percentage growthrate

DeathRate:
Deathratecanvaryformanyreasonssuchasagestructure,socialclassandoccupations
Crude De ath Rate=

total number of deaths

x 100
total population

3.1.3Analyzeage/sexpyramidsanddiagramsshowingdemographictransitionmodels

Populationpyramidsrepresentanymeasurablecharacteristicofthepopulation.
Populationpyramidstellusagreatdealofinformationabouttheageandsexstructureof
apopulation:
Awidebaseindicatesahighbirthrate
Narrowingbasesuggestsfallingbirthrate
Straightsidesreveallowdeathrates
Concaveslopscharacterizehighdeathrates

Energy Resources
3.3.1Outlinetherangeofenergyresourcesavailabletosociety
Energycanbegeneratedfrombothrenewableandnonrenewableresources.
Renewableenergyresourcesaresustainablebecausethereisnodepletionofnatural
capital.Someoftheseincludesolar,hydroelectric,geothermalandbiomass
Nonrenewableenergysuppliescannotbereplenishedatthesamerattheyareused
resultinginadepletionofthestock.Someoftheseincludefossilfuelsandnuclearpower.
Onlyabout9%oftheworldsenergysupplycomesfromrenewableresources.
3.3.2evaluatetheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftwocontrastingenergysources
FossilFuels(nonrenewable)
Advantages:theyarecheapandplentifulandtechnologyhasbeendevelopedtoallowfor
safeextractionandtocontrolpollution
Disadvantages:theyareunsustainablebecauseitimpliesliquidationofalimitedstockof
theresourceandtheycontributetoclimatechangebyaddingcarbondioxidetothe
atmosphere

WindPower(renewable)
Advantages:thereisnopollution,windenergyisreliableandrenewableandtheydonot
contributetoclimatechangeatall
Disadvantages:windturbinesrequirealargeamountofspaceandtheplacementis
critical,astheyrequireconsistenthighwindsinceifthereisnowind,thereisnoenergy
generated

The Soil System

3.4.1Outlinehowsoilsystemsintegrateaspectsoflivingsystems
SoilProfiles:soilcanbedividedintohorizons(distinguishablelayers).Theselayershave
distinctqualities.

3.4.2Compareandcontrastthestructureandpropertiesofsand,clayandloamsoils
includingtheireffectonprimaryproductivity
CHARACTERISTI
C
Mineralcontent
Drainage
Waterholding
capacity
AirSpaces
Totaltoholdorganic
matter

SANDYSOIL

LOAMSOIL

CLAYSOIL

High
Verygood
Low

High
Good
Intermediate

Intermediate
Poor
High

Large
Low

Intermediate
High

Small
Intermediate

PrimaryProductivity

Low

High

intermediate

3.4.3Outlinetheprocessesandconsequencesofsoildegradation
Soildegradationisthedeclineinquantityandqualityofsoil.Itincludes:
1. Erosionbywindandwater
2. Acidificationischangeinthechemicalcompositionofthesoil,whichmaytrigger
thecirculationoftoxicmaterials
3. Atmosphericpersistentorganicpollutantsmayrendersoilslesssuitabletosustain
theoriginallandcoveranduse
4. Cancausedesertification(spreadofdesertconditionsintopreviouslyproductive
areas)
5. Overgrazingcanseverelyreducethevegetationcoverandleavethesurface
vulnerabletoerosion
3.4.4OutlineSoilconservationmeasures
Farmersareencouragedtowardsmoreextensivemanagementpractices
Mechanicalmethodsincludecontourploughingtopreventthemovementofrainwaterto
stoperosion
Preventingerosionbydifferentcroppingtechniquessuchasmaintainingacropcoverand
plantinggrassforprotection
Forsoilsthathavebeenaffectedbysalt,farmscanflushthesoilwithwatertoleachthe
saltaway,orapplychemicalsthatreplacethesodiumions

Water Resources
3.6.1describetheEarthsWaterBudget

OnlyasmallportionoftheEarthswaterisfreshwaterandaround70%ofthisistrapped
inicecapsandglaciers
Thedifferentformsofwaterarefullyreplenishedduringthehydrologicalcyclebutat
verydifferentratescalledturnovertimes
Polaricecaps,oceans,groundwater,lakesandglaciershavethelargestturnovertimes
whichisaproblemsincetheymakeupalargeportionofavailablefreshwater
Thedegreetowhichwatercanbeseenasrenewableornonrenewabledependsonwhere
itisfoundinthehydrologicalcycleandhowlongittakestoreplenish

Nature Of Pollution
5.1.1definethetermpollution
PollutionisdefinedasthecontaminationoftheEarthandatmospheretosuchanextent
thatnormalenvironmentalprocessesareadverselyaffected.
Pollutioncanbenaturaloranthropogenic
Itcanbedeliberateoraccidental
Itincludesthereleaseofsubstances,whichharmthesustainablequalityofair,waterand
soil
5.1.2Distinguishbetweenthetermspointsourcepollutionandnonpointsourcepollution
PointSourcePollution:referstodiscretesourcesofcontaminantsthatcanberepresented
bysinglepointsandthesourceofthepollutioncanbetracked.
NonPointSourcePollution:referstomoredispersedsourcesfromwhichpollutants
originateandenterthenaturalenvironment
Pointsourcepollutionisgenerallymoreeasilymanagedasitcanbelocalizedand
controlled
5.1.3Statethemajorsourcesofpollutants
Majorsourcesofpollutionincludethecombustionoffossilfuel,domesticandindustrial
waste,manufacturingandagriculturalsystems.Someofthemoresignificantsources
include:
27%comesfromminingandquarrying
20%comesfromagricultureorganicwastes
17%comesfromindustry

Approaches to Pollution Management

5.3.1OutlineApproachestopollutionmanagementwithrespecttotheprocessof
pollutionandstrategiesforreducingimpacts
ChangingHumanActivities
Regulationcanoccurbyalteringhumanactivitythrougheducation,incentivesand
penaltiestopromote:
Thedevelopmentofalternativetechnologies
Theadoptionofalternativelifestyles
Reducing,reusingandrecycling
Themainadvantageofchanginghumanactivitiesisthatitmaypreventpollutionfrom
happening.
RegulatingActivities
Aneasywaytoreducepollutionistoreducetheamountofpollutionatthepointof
emissionbyregulatingtheactivitiesthatcausepollution.Howeversuchtreatmentsare
expensiveanditisdifficulttoenforcesuchmeasuresinanunregulatedpartofthe
economy.Theymaybeabletoregulateactivitiesby:
Settingandimposingstandards
Introductionmeasuresforextractingthepollutantfromwasteemissions

Eutrophication
5.4.1Outlinetheprocessesofeutrophication
1. Increasedamountofnitrogenandphosphorusarecarriedintostreams,lakesand
groundwatercausingnutrientenrichment
2. Thisleadstoanincreaseinalgalbloomsasplantsrespondtotheincreased
nutrientavailability
3. Theincreaseinalgaeandplanktonshadethewaterbelow,cuttingoffthelight
supplyforsubmergedplantsresultinginanoxia(oxygendeprivation)whichkills
offtheorganismslivinginthewater

Themainsourceofanthropogeniceutrophicationisfromnitrousoxidesfromfossilfuel
combustionandthepercolationofnitrogenfertilizersintothewater
Anumberofchangesmayoccurasaresultofeutrophication:
1. Turbidityincreasesofthewater
2. Netprimaryproductivityincreases
3. Dissolvedoxygeninwaterdecreases
5.4.2evaluatetheimpactsofeutrophication
Losstofarmers:aneconomiclossforfarmssuchthatwhenfarmersapplyfertilizersto
stimulatecropgrowthanditrunsoff,itreducesthesebenefitstothesoils
Healthconcerns:Aconcernforhealthrelatedtoincreaseratesofstomachcancercaused
bynitratesfromdrinkingwaterandbluebabysyndromecausedbyinsufficientoxygenin
themothersblood
5.4.3Describeandevaluatepollutionmanagementstrategieswithrespectto
eutrophication
AlteringHumanActivities
1. Avoidusingnitrogenfertilizerswhensoilsarewet
2. Maintaincropcovertoconservenitrogen
3. Givepreferencetocropsthatconservenitrogeninthesoil
4. Donotapplynitrogentoareasnearwaterorslopedareas
CleanUpStrategies
1. Addingachemicalwhichcausesphosphatestoprecipitateandthereforeallowfor
easyremoval
2. Removenutrientenrichedsedimentsbymudpumping
3. Removebiomass

Global Warming
6.1.1describetheroleofgreenhousegasesinmaintainingmeanglobaltemperature
ShortwaveultravioletlightfromtheSunisreflectedfromthesurfaceoftheEarthas
infraredlight(whichhasalongerwavelength)
Atmosphericgases(greenhousegases)aretransparenttoshortwaveradiationbutthey
cantraporreflectbackoutgoinglongwaveradiation
Greenhousegasesincludewatervapor,carbondioxide,nitrousoxideandozone
6.1.2describehowhumanactivitiesaddtogreenhousegases
Humanactivitieshaveincreasedthelevelofgreenhousegasesintheatmosphere.Some
oftheactivitiesinclude:
1. Burningfossilfuelsandreleasingcarbondioxide

2. Deforestationremovesacarbonsink
3. Increasedcattleranchinghadleastoincreasedmethanelevels
4. Ricefarminginpaddyfieldscreasesanoxicconditionsleadingtomethanerelease
6.1.3discussionqualitativelythepotentialeffectofincreasedmeanglobaltemperature
EnvironmentalFeatures
Iceandsnow:retreatofpolaricecapsandglaciers
Coastline:increaseinsealevelcausingflooding
Ecosystems:changeinbiomedistributionandspeciescomposition
SocietalFeatures
Waterresources:severewatershortages
CoastalOccupation:relocationduetofloodingandstorms
HumanHealth:increaseddisease
6.1.4discussthefeedbackmechanismsthatwouldbeassociatedwithanincreaseinmean
temperature
Positivefeedbackwithregardstoclimatechangeusuallyreferstooneachangeinone
environmentalfactorresultsinasuccessivechangetostimulatemoreclimatechange.
Negativefeedbackhoweverintheinstanceofglobalwarmingusuallysignifiesa
dampeningeffectofglobalwarming,orsomethingthatisslightlyreversingtheeffectof
globalwarming.
PositiveFeedbackExample
Meltingof
polaricecaps

Decreasesthe
Earthsalbedo,
thusincreasing
temperature

Temperature
increases
leadingtoice
capsmelting

NegativeFeedbackExample
Surface
Increased
Morelow
Reflectsmore
Surface
temperature
evaporation
cloudsinthe
lightbackinto
temperature
increases
fromthe
atmosphere
space
decreasesslightly
slightly
oceans
6.1.5describeandevaluatepollutionmanagementstrategiestoaddresstheissueofglobal
warming
NationalandInternationalMethods

Controllingtheamountofatmosphericpollution
Stoppingforestclearance
Developingalternativerenewableenergysources
Improvingpublictransport
Settinglimitsoncarbonemissions

IndividualMethods
Usepublictransportation
Usebiofuels
Useenergyefficientproducts
Eatlocallyproducedfoods

Environmental Value Systems

7.1.1statewhatismeantbyanenvironmentalvaluesystem
Aparticularworldvieworsetofparadigmsthatshapesthewayanindividualorgroupof
peopleperceiveandevaluateenvironmentalissues(EVS)
EVSInputsare:
Education
Culturalinfluence
Themedia
EVSOutputsare:
Perspectives
Coursesofaction
Decisionsregardinghowtoact
7.1.2outlinetherangeofenvironmentalphilosophies
Ecocentrism
Minimumdisturbanceofnaturalprocesses
SustainabilityforthewholeEarth
Lackoffaithinmodernlargescaletechnology
Intrinsicimportantofnatureforthehumanityofman
Anthropocentrism
Peopleasenvironmentalmanagersofsustainableglobalsystems
Beliefthateconomicgrowthandresourceexploitationcancontinueassumingthatthere
issuitableeconomicadjustments,improvementstolegalrightsregardingthe
environmentandcompensationforthosewhoexperienceadverseenvironmentaleffects

Technocentrism
Technologycankeeppaceandprovidesolutionstoenvironmentalproblems
Beliefthatpeoplecanfindawayoutofanydifficulties
Faiththatscientificandtechnologicalexpertiseprovidesthebasicfoundationforadvice
onmatterpertainingtoeconomicsgrowth,publichealthandsafety