2102-487

Industrial Electronics

Signal Conditioners
and Transmission

Overview

4-20 mA
Amp

V to I

I to V

Amp

Control Room

Field
Noise Source

Interference
Motor/Power

Arcing

Lighting

Instrumentation Amplifier (IA)

Instrumentation amplifiers a dedicate differential amplifier with extremely
high input impedance. Its gain can be precisely se by a single internal or
external resistor. The high common-mode rejection makes IA very useful
in recovering small signals buried in large common-mode offsets or
noise.
IA consists of Two stages:
The fist stage: high input impedance and gain control
The second stage: differential amplifier (change differential signal to
common to ground
R-

R
E

+
R

R+R

Vdm/2

Vout

Vcm

Vdm/2

R+

Bridge circuit for sensor application

Equivalent circuit for a Load cell

IA: The First Stage

For Ideal op amp, no voltage difference
between the inverting and noninverting inputs

V1 = e1 and V2 = e2

+
-

e1

V1

V2

VRg = e1 e2
e1 e2
Vo
Rg
- This current must flow through all three
resistors because none of the current can flow
into the op amp inputs
+

IRg

Rg

The voltage across Rg

I Rg =

Vo = I R g (2 R + Rg )

Rg = gain setting resistor

2R

Vo = (e1 e2 )1 +
R
g

e2

Changing Rg will inversely alter the output voltage.

IA: First + Second stage

The second stage of IA is a unit-gain differential amplifier
V1
+
e1
-

R1

R1

Vo1

Rg

e2

+
R1

R1

Vo

2R

Vo = (e2 e1 )1 +

+
Rg
-

Gain = 1 +

2R
Rg

V2

2R
Vo = Vo1

Vo1 = (e1 e2 )1 +
R
g

Without loading effect, we can applied the direct multiplication for the cascade system
e1 e2

2R
1 +

R
g

Vo1

-1

2R

Vo = (e2 e1 )1 +
R
g

IA with Offset (Reference)

e1

+
R1

R2

V1
R2

Vo1

Rg

e2

R1

Sense

2R
+V
Vo = (e2 e1 )1 +
R ref
g

Output

+
R2

Reference

Load

V2

R2
+V
Vref

2R

Vo1 = (e1 e2 )1 +
R
g

Vref

-V

Vo = Vo1 + Vref
e1 e2

2R
1 +

R
g

Vo1

-1

+
Vref

2R
+V
Vo = (e2 e1 )1 +
R ref
g

Commercial IA: AD524

Features:
Low Noise: 0.3 Vp-p 0.1 Hz to 10 Hz
Low Nonlinearity: 0.03% (G = 1)
High CMRR: 120 dB (G = 1000)
Low offset Voltage: 50 V
Gain Bandwidth Product: 25 MHz
Programmable Gain of 1, 10, 100, 1000

AD524 Functional Block Diagram

40000
20%
G = 1 +

Rg

Here Rg = 40, 404, 4.44 k or external

resistor (connect: RG1 RG2)

Commercial IA: AD524

Vb

Va
349

Vout

Ex For the circuit, calculate Va, Vb, and Vout as well as the effect on the output of the 5V common-mode signal.
For a gain of 100, CMRR = 100 dB

Vb = 12 Vsupply = 5 V

349

Va =
10 V = 4.99285 V
350 + 349

Vout = G (Va Vb )
= 100(4.99285 V - 5 V) = -715 mV

Gdm
Gcm = 0.001
Gcm
GcmVcm = 0.001 5 V = 5 mV

CMRR = 20 log

The common mode error is

5 mV
100% = 0.7%
715 mV

Commercial IA: AD524

Error Budget Analysis

To illustrate how instrumentation amplifier specification are applied, we will
now examine a typical case where an AD524 is required to amplify the output an
unbalance transducer. Figure above shows a differential transducer, unbalance by 100
supplying a 0 to 20 mV signal to an AD524C. The output of the IA feeds a 14-bit A/D
converter with a 0 to 2 Voltage range. The operating temperature is 25oC to 85oC.
Therefore, the largest change in temperature T within the operating range is from
ambient to +85oC (85oC - 25oC = 60oC)

Commercial IA: AD524

1000ppm = 0.1%

Zero and Span Circuits

The zero and span circuit adjust the output of a transducer to match the
levels you want to provide to the controller or display.
Ex. You may need a 0.01 mV/lb input to a digital panel meter, while the load cell
provides a 20 V/lb reading with 18 mV output with no load.
Ex. A/D converter needs a 0- to 5-V signal, while the temperature transducer
output 2.48 to 3.90 V.

Vout

Sp
an

do
ub
le

Vout
al
n
i
r ig
O
a
Sp

a
nH

ro
e
Z

lf

d
fte
i
sh

y
el
v
iti
s
po

l
na
i
rig
O

Vin
ro
e
Z

d
fi te
sh

y
el
v
i
at
g
ne

Vin

Zero and Span: Inverting summer

V
ein

Rf

ROS

eu1

R
R

Ri
Rcomp

eu2

Inverting summer
Rf
Rf
eu1 =
ein
V
Ri
ROS
eu 2 =

Compare this to the eq. of straight line

Rf
Ri

ein +

R/2

Inverting amplifier
eu 2 = eu1

Rf
ROS

eout

m=

Rf

y = mx + b

Here y = eu2, x = ein, m = Rf/Ri and b = Rf/Ros V

b=

Rf
ROS

ein

Ri

Zero and Span: Instrument Amplifier

Ex When the temperature in a process is at its minimum, the sensor outputs 2.48 V.
At maximum temperature, it outputs 3.90 V. The A/D converter used to input these
data into a computer has the range 0 to 5 V. To provide maximum resolution, you
must zero and span the signal from the transducer so that it fills the entire range of
converter.
Vout = 0-5 V
Vin = 2.48-3.90 V

Vout

b=

Rf
ROS

m=

Rf
Ri

Vin

m=

Vout (max) Vout (min)

5V0V
=
= 3.52
Vin (max) Vin (min) 3.9 V 2.48 V

b = Vout mVin = 0 3.52 2.48 V = -8.73 V

The gain, m is set by Rf/Ri , Rf relatively large, so that Ri

will not load down the sensors
R f 330 k
Let Rf = 330 k
Ri =
=
= 93.7 k
m
3.52
Select Rs as a 47 k fixed resistor with a series 100 k potentiometer. (m ~ 2.25-7.02)
R f V (330 k)(- 12V)
b is Rf/ROSV select V = -12 V
ROS =
=
= 454 k
b
8.73 V
Select Rs as a 220 k fixed resistor with a 500 k potentiometer. (b ~ -18 - -5.5 V)

Rcomp = R f // R1 // ROS = 62.9 k

Select Rcomp = 56 k
The resistors in the 2nd stage should be in k range, this will not load the 1st stage,
pick R = 2.2 k and so R/2 = 1.1 k

Zero and Span: Instrument Amplifier

+V

+
8
2
16

+
ein

13

Rg

AD524

R1

Rg

span

+V

Output

+V

Sense

R2

Vout

11
3

span

S
10

12

R2

R2

R1

Reference

R2

+V

-V

Vref

zero

Vref

zero

-V

-V

-V

40000
(e2 e1 ) + Vref
Vout = 1 +

Rg

Vref

Vout

Zero and Span: Instrument Amplifier

Ex The output from a load cell changes 20 V/lb with an output of 18 mV with no
load on the cell. Design a zero and span converter using an instrumentation
amplifier which will output 0 Vdc when there is no load, and will change 10 mV/lb.
+V

Vsensor = 20V/lb x Load + 18 mV

Vout = 10mV/lb x Load = G Vsensor+ Vref

8
2
16

13

Vsensor

Rg

3
1

span

Vout

9
6

11

10

AD524

12

Vout = 20V G x Load + 18mV G + Vref

G=

+V
+V
-V

Vref

zero

G = 1+

ref

Vout

Rg = 80.2

40000
= 500
Rg

Select Rg as a 33 fixed resistor with a series 100

potentiometer. (G ~ 301-1213)
Vref = 9 V
0 = 18 mVG + V = 18 mV 500 + V

+
-

-V

10 mV/lb
= 500
20 V/lb

-V

40000
(e2 e1 ) + Vref
= 1 +

Rg

ref

So tie one end of the potentiometer to ground and

the other end to Vsupply. Select resistor and
potentiometer values that will put approximately -10 V
at one end and -8 V at the other end.

Voltage-To-Current Converters
Signal voltage transmission presents many problems. The series resistance
between the output of the signal conditioner and the load depends on the
distance, the wire used, temperature, conditioner.
Rwire Distance, wire type, temperature

Rwire

+
-

+
ein

Rf

Rf
ein
Vo = 1 +
R

load

Load

Vo
R
+
Load
wire

V To I: Floating Load
The most simple V to I actually is the non-inverting amplifier
+V
Rwire

+
+

load

-V

ein

ein
-

I=

ein
R

Therefore, The resistance in the transmission loop (Rloop = Rwire + Rload)

does not affect the transmitted current. However, the output voltage
of the op amp is affected by the Rloop
Rloop
ein < Vsat
Vout = 1 +
R

Rloop must be kept small enough to keep the op amp out of the saturation.

V To I: Floating Load
V to I with current booster

Add transistor for

increase current
output

+V

New op amp with

high current output
+

Q1

Rwire

Q2
load

+
ein

-V

I=

ein
R

Many transmission standard call for either 20 or 60 mA current. These

values are beyond the capabilities of most general-purpose op amps.
However, the transistor can be added to increase the transmission current
capability.

V To I: Floating Load
The signal at the load is inherently differential. So we can use difference or
instrumentation amplifier to reject any common-mode noise.
Open and short circuit in the transmission loop can be detected by
checking Vout of the non-inverting amplifier (transmission side)
open circuit : Vout = Vsat
short circuit : Vout = ein
However, at the load side, with this circuit , if ein = 0, IL = 0, here it appears
that the IL = 0 is the valid signal. If the open or short circuit fault occurs, IL
will fall to zero too. The load would respond as if ein = 0.
Therefore a method has been advised to allow the load to differentiate
between no signal (circuit failure)
IL = 0 and ein = 0
This can be achieved by adding an offset to IL when ein = 0
ein = 0: IL > 0
Ex. 4-20 mA standard in current transimission

V To I: Floating Load
zero

+V

ein

10 k

eref

An example of 4-20 mA V to I converter (span + zero adjust)

-V

+V

1 M
+

Iin

1 M

IL

Q1

load

-V

R span

I
b=

m=

1
2R

eref
2R

ein

Rwire

I=

ein + eref
2R

ein eref
+
2R 2R

m = 1/2R, b = eref/2R

Zero and Span: Instrument Amplifier

Ex Design an offset voltage-to-current converter that will produce 4 mA with an
input of -5 V and 20 mA with an input of 10 V
I (mA)

Vin = -5 - 10 V

20

m=

15
10

1
I (max) I out (min) 20 mA 4 mA
= out
=
2 R Vin (max) Vin (min)
10 V (5 V)

R = 469

Select a 430 fixed resistor with a series 100 potentiometer.

5
-5

Iout = 4 - 20 mA

4
0

I=

Vin Vref
+
2R 2R

10

Vin

Vref = 2 RI Vin = 2(469 )(20 mA) 10V = 8.8 V

V To I: Grounded Load
This V to I actually is a derivative of difference amplifier
R3
R1

+
e1

Vout

R2

e2

Rs

VL

R4

load

R1=R2=R3=R4=R

Using superposition:
Vout due to e1 = -e1
Vout due to e2 = e2
Vout due to VL = VL

Vout = Vout |e1 +Vout |e2 +Vout |VL

= - e1 + e2 + VL = e2 - e1 + VL

The current drive into the load is approximately equal to the current in Rs if RLoad << R2+R4

I L I Rs =
As in the case of the floating load:

Vout VL e2 e1
=
Rs
Rs

VSat > IRload + e2 e1

V To I: Grounded Load
An example of 4-20 mA V to I converter (span + zero adjust)
zero

+V

Rb
eref

100 k

Rs

100 k

Ra

100 k

span

ein

-V

VL

load

100 k

IL

I
m=

b=

eref
Rs

ein

1
Rs

ein eref
Rs

ein eref
=

Rs Rs

m = 1/R, b = -eref/R

V To I: XTR110
4 to 20 mA Transmitter
Selectable input/output ranges: 0-5V or 0-10V Inputs
4-20mA, 0-20mA, 5-25mA Outputs
Required an external MOS transistor to transmit current to load
Reference voltage

I to I converter
(current mirror)

Precision resistive
network

V to I converter

V To I: XTR110
VCC 13.5-40V

XTR110

VIN1(10V)

16

R8
500
4

Io/10
R1
15k
R5

R2
5k

Va
R4
10k

Vb

Io

I R8 I R 6

14

+
-

Io
4-20mA

Io/10

R6
1562.5
16mA
span
9

R7
6250
4mA
span
10

Vb Va
=
R6 R6

The current IR6 is approximately

equal to IR8

R3
20k

16.25k

External
MOS

VREF IN 3

VIN2(5V)

R9
50

I R6 =

Since there is no voltage

difference between the op
amp inputs
RL

VR 8 = VR 9
I o = I R9 =

Io =

I R 8 R8
= 10 I R 8
R9
10Va
R6

V To I: XTR110
The voltage at Va is defined by precision divider network and the
voltage at Vin1, Vin2 and Vref . Using superposition
Va due to Vin1 = Vin1/4
Va due to Vin2 = Vin2/2
Va due to Vref = Vref/16
Va = Vin1 / 4 + Vin 2 / 2 + Vref / 16

Therefore, the relation of the output current can be shown as

Io =

10(Vin1 / 4 + Vin 2 / 2 + Vref / 16)

Rspan

This IC allows us to change the value of Rspan by using R6, R7 and

external resistors so therefore the Io span can be set to 16mA, 4mA or
arbitrary value.
Ex if Vin2 = 0, Vref = 10 V, Vin1 varies from 0-10V and Use Rspan = R6 = 1562.5
At Vin1 =0 V; Io = 4 mA at zero Vin1

Zero = 4 mA

At Vin1 =0 V; Io = 20 mA at Vin1 = 10 V

Zero+span = 4mA + 16 mA

V To I: XTR110
VIN1

VREF IN 3
R1
15k

R3
20k

R5

R2
5k

1 + 2 + 3

Va

16.25k
R4
10k

Va = 14 VIN1 + 12 VIN2 + 161 VREF

VIN2
5

Rin = 22 k

Rin = 27 k

Rin = 20 k

VIN2

VIN1

VREF IN

Va

16.25k
R1
15k

R2
5k

R4
10k

R4 //( R5 + R1 // R2 )
VIN1 = 14 VIN1
R3 + R4 //( R5 + R1 // R2 )

R1
15k

R4
10k
R5

R5

Va =

R3
20k

Va =

R2
5k

R5

Va

16.25k
R1
15k

Va

16.25k
R2
5k

R3
20k

R3 //( R5 + R1 // R2 )
VIN2 = 12 VIN2
R4 + R3 //( R5 + R1 // R2 )

Va =

R4
10k

R3
20k

R3 // R4
R2
VREF = 161 VREF
( R5 + R1 // R2 ) + R3 // R4 R1 + R2

V To I: XTR110
Pin connections for standard XTR110 input voltage/output current ranges

15 V
1 F
15
16
1

12

13

XTR110

14

4
5

A basic 4 to 20 mA transmitter
4 to 20 mA Out

0 to 10 V
RL

VL

V To I: XTR110
I out =

Vout = 400Vin + 6 V

Vsensor = 10 mV

10(Vin1 / 4)
1250

I out = 4 20 mA

Vsensor = 2 10 V

I out =

10(400Vsensor + 6) / 4
1250

Current-To-Voltage Converters
Grounded Load I to V converter

Span and Zero circuit

Rf

Ros
V

4 to
20 mA

+
-

R2

RL
Rcomp

Current is converted
into a voltage by RL

R/2

+
Vout
-

Voltage follower is inserted

to avoid the loading effect

Vout =

Rf
Ri

IRL +

Rf
ROS

m = RfRL/Ri, b = Rf/ROSV

The grounded load converter has many problems with the common ground (use by
many device) especially the noise source. To reduce this problem, we use a
floating load.

I To V Converters: Floating Load

Rf

4-20 mA

Rspan

Ri

R4
Ri

+
Vout
-

+V
Rf
Rpot

Vref

-V

Vout =

Rf
Ri

IRspan + Vref

m = RfRL/Ri, b = Vref

To prevent the loading effect be sure that Rspan << Ri

or Instrumentation amplifier can be used in stead

I To V Converters: Floating Load

Ex Design a floating current-to-voltage converter that will convert a 4- to 20-mA
current signal into 0- to 10-V ground-referenced voltage signal. If voltage-to-current
converter, has +V = 12 V, Rspan V-I =312 , Imax = 20 mA What is the maximum
allowable Rspan I-V
Vout = 0-10 V
Iin = 4 - 20 mA

Vout =

Rf
Ri

IRspan + Vref

Rf
Ri

RspanI V =

10 V 0 V
Vout (max) Vout (min)
=
= 625
20 mA 4 mA
I in (max) I in (min)

Choose Rf/Ri =10 This seem arbitrary now, but well come to check it again

RspanI V = 62.5
Since R i >> Rspan I-V, pick Ri = 2.2 k
Find Vref :

Vref = Vout

Rf
Ri

Rspan I = 0

Rf = 22 k

22 k
(4 mA )(62.5 ) = 2.5 V
2.2 k

I To V Converters: Floating Load

+V

2V

0.7 V

IRspan I-V
-V
+

IRspan V-I

Rspan I-V

Rspan V-I

+ V = 2 + 0.7 + IRspanI V + IRspanV I

RspanI V (max) =

12 2 0.7 (20 mA)(312)

= 153
20 mA

Therefore, 62.5 resistor would work. However, if we had chosen R f/Ri =1 then
Rspan I-V = 625 , which is too large. The op Amp in the voltage-to-curren converter
would saturate before 20 mA would be reached.

Voltage-To-Frequency Converters
To provide the high noise immunity, digital transmission must be used.
V to F will convert the analog voltage from the sensor or signal conditioner to
a pulse train. The pulse width is constant but the frequency varies linearly
with the applied voltage

f Vin

Vin

V to F

fout

fout

Vin

Ideal V to F characteristics

V-To-F: LM131

LM131

Suitable for various applications:

precision V to F converter
simple low-cost circuits for A/D conversion
precision F to V converter
long-term integration
linear frequency modulation and demodulation

Voltage-To-Frequency Converters
Basic V to F block diagram
Rt
VCC

8
2

Ct
5

Switched
current
source

fo =

Vlogic

RS

RL

CL

Comparator
1

Vx

7
Input
V
voltage 1

Vin

One shot
timer

Frequency
output

a
b

Vx
t

Vout

t
fout

High Vin high fout

Adjustment

Low Vin low fout

Adjust

High Vin high fout

Vin RS 1
2.09 V RL Rt Ct

Voltage-To-Frequency Converters
Rt
VCC

Ct

Determine
Iref

Determine the timer of one shot

TOS = 1.1Rt Ct

5
Switched
current
source

Vlogic

RS

RL

CL

Comparator
1

7
Input
V
voltage in

One shot
timer

Frequency
output

Phase I: Charge CL with Iref within the specific time TOS from the one shot timer.
At the end of this phase, VC reaches the value assigned as Vx
Phase II: CL discharge through Iref until VC is equal to Vin. The time in this phase is
defined as TII
We can found that 1/(TOS + TII) = f Vin

Voltage-To-Frequency Converters
Phase I: Charge CL with Iref within the specific time TOS determined from the one
shot timer. At the end of this phase, VC reaches the value assigned as Vx
Initial condition: VC(0) = Vin
Iref

RL

CL

VC (t ) = (Vin I ref RL )e t / + I ref RL

= RL C L

e TOS / 1 TOS /

Assume RLCL >> TOS

Vx = VC (TOS ) = Vin + (I ref RL Vin )

TOS

Phase II: CL discharge through Iref until VC is equal to Vin. The time in this phase is
defined as TII
Initial condition: VC(0) = Vx
RL

CL

= RL C L

VC (t ) = Vx e t /
Vin = VC (TII ) = Vx e TII /

TII = ln

Since RLCL >> TOS, Therefore Vx /Vin ~ 1

TII = x 1
Vin

Vx
Vin
ln

Vx Vx

1
Vin Vin

Voltage-To-Frequency Converters
Combine eq.(1) and (2)

T = TOS + TII =
f =

I ref RLTOS
Vin

1
Vin
=
T I ref RLTOS

Substitute Iref = 1.9 V/ Rs ,TOS = 1.1RtCt

f =

Vin Rs
Vin
Rs 1
=
1.9 V RL (1.1Rt Ct ) 2.09 V RL Rt Ct

V To F Converters
Ex Design a voltage-to-frequency converter that will output 20 kHz when the input
is 5 V.
At maximum frequency, the minimum period is
1
1
Tmin =
=
= 50 s
f max 20 kHz
We have to set the pulse width no wider than about 80% of the minimum period,
otherwise, at the higher frequencies the pulse width may approach or exceed the
period, which will not work.
tlow = 1.1Rt Ct
pick Ct = 0.0047 F (somewhat arbitrary, but suggested by manufacturer)

Rt =

tlow
(0.8)(50 s ) = 7.7 k
=
1.1Ct (1.1)(0.0047 F)

pick Rt = 6.8 k, since this is not a critical parameter, as long as it is not too
big. This give tlow = 35 s. Pick RL = 100 K.

Rs =

(2 V ) f 0 RL Rt Ct = (2 V )(20 kHz )(100 k )(6.8 k )(0.0047 F) = 25.6 k

Vin

5V

Select a 22 k fixed resistor with a series 10 k potentiometer.

Voltage-To-Frequency Converters
Low-pass filter

Simple V to F converter
From

fo =

Vin RS 1
2.09 V RL Rt Ct

I=

1.9 V
< 200 A
RS

Manufacturers recommended, RL = 100 k, Rt = 6.8 k, Ct = 0.01 F and RS = 14.2 k

fo =

1 kHz
Vin
Volt

V To F Converters
Ex Design a voltage-to-frequency converter that will output 20 kHz when the input
is 5 V.
At maximum frequency, the minimum period is
1
1
Tmin =
=
= 50 s
f max 20 kHz
We have to set the pulse width no wider than about 80% of the minimum period,
otherwise, at the higher frequencies the pulse width may approach or exceed the
period, which will not work.
tlow = 1.1Rt Ct
pick Ct = 0.0047 F (somewhat arbitrary, but suggested by manufacturer)

Rt =

tlow
(0.8)(50 s ) = 7.7 k
=
1.1Ct (1.1)(0.0047 F)

pick Rt = 6.8 k, since this is not a critical parameter, as long as it is not too
big. This give tlow = 35 s. Pick RL = 100 K.

Rs =

(2 V ) f 0 RL Rt Ct = (2 V )(20 kHz )(100 k )(6.8 k )(0.0047 F) = 25.6 k

Vin

5V

Select a 22 k fixed resistor with a series 10 k potentiometer.

Frequency-To-Voltage Converters
VCC

Iout
1

RL

Connect to low
pass filter

Comparator
7

RD

One shot
timer

Rt
VCC

Ct

CD
Vin

Vin
Iout

T
The amplitude of pulse current output is
The average voltage output is
The average current output is

i=
I ave =

1.9 V
Rs

it 1.9 V 1.1Rt Ct
=
T
RsT

Vave = I av e RL = 1.9 V 1.1Rt Ct

RL
f in
Rs

Frequency-To-Voltage Converters

High pass filter

for input
frequency

Low pass filter

for output
current

Simple F to V converter
From

Vave = 1.9 V 1.1Rt Ct

RL
f in
RS

RL = 100 k, Rt = 6.8 k, Ct = 0.01 F and RS = 14.2 k

Vave =

1V
f in
kHz

F To V Converters
Ex A reflective optical sensor is used to encode the velocity of a shaft. There are
six pieces of reflective tape. They are sized and positioned to produce a 50% duty
cycle wave. The maximum shaft speed is 3000 r/min. Design the frequency-tovoltage converter necessary to output 10 V at maximum shaft speed. Provide
filtering adequate to assure no more than 10% ripple at 100 r/min
The maximum frequency is

Tmin =
Select

f max =

6 counts 3000 rev 1 min

= 300 Hz
rev
min
60 s

1
Tpulse = 0.5Tmin = 1.67 ms
= 3.33 ms
300 Hz
Tout ( high ) 0.8Tmin = (0.8)(3.33 ms) = 2.664 ms

Select Ct = 0.33 F

Rt =

tlow
(0.8)(50 s ) = 7.7 k
=
1.1Ct (1.1)(0.0047 F)

pick Rt = 6.8 k, This give tout(high) = 2.47 ms. We must set 5RDCD << 1.67 ms, so
pick RD = 10 k.

5 RD C D (0.1)tout ( high )

C D 3.3 nF

F To V Converters
RL
f in
Rs
2 V 1.1Rt Ct RL f in (2 V )(1.1)(6.8 k )(0.33 F)(100 k )(300 Hz )
Rs =
=
= 14.8 k
Vave
10 V
Vave = 2 V 1.1Rt Ct

Select Rs as a 10 k fixed resistor with a series 10 k potentiometer.

i=

Check
At 100 r/min

1.9 V
1.9 V
=
= 135 A < 200 A
Rs
14.8 k
f =

6 counts 100 rev 1 min

= 10 Hz
rev
min
60 s
Tpulse = 0.05 ms
= 0.1 s

1
10 Hz
Filtering is accomplished by RL and CF
Tmin =

For 10% ripple,

CF

t
RL ln(0.9)

CF

= RL C F

Vout = V pk e t /

Vout
= 0 .9 e t / R L C F
V pk
and, we have

97.53 ms
= 9.25 F
(100 k ) ln(0.9)

t = T10Hz tout ( high ) = 100 ms - 2.47 ms = 97.53 ms

Select CF = 10 F

Cabling
Cables are important because they are the longest parts of the system
and therefore act as efficient antennas that pick up and/or radiate noise.
There are three coupling mechanisms that can occur between fields
and cables, and between cables (crosstalk).
Capacitive or electric coupling (interaction of electric field and
circuit)
Inductive or magnetic coupling (interaction between of the magnetic
field of two circuits.
Electromagnetic coupling or radiation (RF interference)

Magnetic Coupling
When a current flows in a closed circuit, it produce a magnetic flux,
which is proportional to the current.

= LI

When current flow in one circuit produces a flux in a second circuit,

there is a mutual inductance M12 between circuits 1 and 2

M 12 =

12
I1

12 the current, geometry, and orientation

The voltage VN induced in circuit to 2 due to the current I1

VN = M

di
= jM 12 I1
dt

Assume i varies sinusoidal with time

Magnetic coupling between two circuits

Magnetic Coupling
Separate the sensitive, input signal condition from the other portions of
the electronics: Digital signal (high f), high power circuit, ac power (50
or 60 Hz line)
place low level signal on the separate card
board layout
separate low level signal conduit or race way, from ac power line,
communication or digital cable conduits.
Reduce loop area (twisted pair)
Use magnetic shield (effective at high frequency)

Magnetic Coupling

Capacitive Coupling
The potential different between two conductors generates a proportional
electric field. This will result in the redistribution or movement (current)
of charge by external voltage source

*The shield must be

grounded.

VN =

VN =

jRC12
V1
1 + jR(C12 + C2G + C2 S )

jRC12
V1
1 + jR(C12 + C2G )

Capacitive coupling between two

conductors

Capacitive coupling with shield

Grounding Problems
Grounding is one of the primary ways of minimizing unwanted noise
and pick up. (also bad grounding can cause the serious problem of
interference)
A well-designed system can provide the protection against unwanted
interference and emission, without any addition per-unit cost to the
product
Grounds category:

safety grounds (earth ground)

signal grounds

A signal ground is normally defined as an equipotential point or plane that

serves as a reference potential for a circuit or system (can not be realized
in practical systems)
A signal ground (better definition) is a low-impedance path for current to
return to the source.

Ground System
Ground System can be divided into three categories.
single-point grounds
multipoint grounds
hybrid grounds (frequency dependence)
1

Series connection

Parallel connection

Two types of single-point grounding connection

Multipoint connection

Single-Point Ground System

1
R1

2
R2

I1

I1+ I2+ I3

I2+ I3

3
I2

R3
I3

VA = ( I1 + I 2 + I 3 ) R1
VB = V A + ( I 2 + I 3 ) R2

I3

VC = VA + VB + I 3 R3

A series ground system is undesirable from a noise standpoint but has the
advantage of simple wiring

VA = I1 R1
VB = I 2 R2

R1
I1

VC = I 3 R3

A
R2
I2

B
R3

I3

A parallel ground system provides good noise performance at low frequency

but is mechanical cumbersome.

Single-Point Ground System

Single Point Grounding System

Ex Calculate Va and Vb resulting from the input signal and from the effects of the
ground returns current under the following circumstances
(a) Actuator off, Ic = 5 mA, Ip = 20 mA, Ia = 0;
(b) Actuator on, Ic = 8 mA, Ip = 35 mA, Ia = 1 A;
The voltage, Vb is determined by the 40-mV input signal and any voltage developed
across the 50 m resistance by the ground return current.

Vb =

1 M
1 M
(40 mV) + 1 +
Va
10 k
1
0
k

Where Va = (Ic+Ip+Ia)50m
(a) Actuator off

Va = (5 mA + 20 mA + 0)(50 m) = 1.25 mV
Vb = (100)(40 mV) + (101)(1.25 mV) = 3.87 V

The error is about 3% compare to the correct value (-100)(40 mV) = -4 V

(b) Actuator on

Va = (5 mA + 20 mA + 1 A)(50 m) = 52 mV
Vb = (100)(40 mV) + (101)(52 mV) = 1.25 V

The large return current has raised the non-inverting input to 52 mV, and this
causes the unacceptable error.

Single-Point Ground System

Multiple-Point Ground System

Ground loops can occur when the multiple ground points are separated by a
large distance and connected to the ac power ground, or when low-level analog
circuits are used.

0-100 m
signal wiring
Control
Building

Plant
0-2000V
Ground difference

Multiple-Point Ground System

circuit
1

VN

circuit
2

Ground loop

VG

A ground loop between two circuits

VN

circuit
1

circuit
2

VG

A ground loop between two circuits can be broken

by inserting a common-mode choke

Multiple-Point Ground System

VN

circuit
1

circuit
2

VG

A ground loop between two circuits can be broken

by inserting a transformer
VN

circuit
1

circuit
2

VG

A ground loop between two circuits can be broken

by inserting an optical coupler

Isolation Amplifiers
General concepts: Isolation Amplifier provides three important advantages
over normal amplifiers.
Safety issues for some industrial and medical applications: signal
common isolation and common ground can be achieved
Extremely high common-mode voltage tolerance (in general amp
this is normally less than power supply)
Very low failure currents

Transformer-coupled Amplifiers

Symbol of transformer-coupled amp.

Block diagram of AD289 isolation amp

Optically Coupled Amplifiers

Transformer-coupled isolation amplifiers are expensive, bulky, bandwidth
limited and slow response.
Optically-coupled isolation amplifiers have less non-linear and isolation.

Optically Coupled Amplifiers

Symbol of optically coupled amp.

Simplified schematic diagram

I1 = I 2 =

Vin
RG

Vout = I 2 RK =

RK
Vin
RG