Military Modernization of Japan

Factors facilitating military modernization

Japan's long militarist tradition made it easier for the people to accept
military reforms and for the government to carry them out. Many government
leaders had been commanders of the clan forces before 1868. They had
experienced military encounters with the West, and they had fought the civil
war that led to the 1868 Restoration. Besides, it was their military forces that
gave the new government its main military support. Logically, therefore, they
favoured military reforms. Effective political centralization should be backed
up by the creation of national armies. Thus, military reforms were necessary.
Late Tokugawa military undertakings had already laid the foundation for
further subsequent military build-up during the Meiji period.
The Tokugawa Shogunate left behind a number of gunneries, some naval
specialists and a varied knowledge of Western military techniques.
Clans like Satsuma and Choshu had experimented with modern military
forces: Satsuma had created a naval squadron, and Choshu a land force, all
on European models.
Aims
In the early 1870s, military modernization was carried out for the sake of
defending Japan both against any possible foreign military threats and against
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any domestic rebellions or disorder. After the 1890s, however, attention was
more and more concentrated on Japan's ability to fight and win a foreign
offensive war and to acquire imperialist interests overseas.
Development of the army
Lack of a national army in the early 1870s
Strictly speaking, there was no national army under the Meiji government's
control in 1870, as former clan armies were still not unified.
In 1871, however, the situation changed for the better; an Imperial Guard was
formed, when a few western clans put their troops under the direct command
of the Emperor. With such a military backing, the Meiji government
succeeded in effecting political changes like the abolition of feudalism and
crushed internal opposition.
Conscription Law of 1873
It was only after the introduction of the Conscription Law in 1873 that a truly
national army began to take shape. According to the law, all Japanese males
over 23 years old were required to serve a 7-year military service in the
regular army, with 4 more years in the reserve.

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Opposition to conscription
The peasants were very dissatisfied with this sudden imposition of what
seemed to them a strange and troublesome obligation. Consequently, riots
broke out in the countryside. On the other hand, the samurai were also
dissatisfied with the loss of their military status to the peasants. Many
discontented samurai caused trouble. In 1878, even the Imperial Guard
mutinied.
Efforts at reorganization after 1878 and their effects
Although the revolt was quickly put down, Yamagata Aritomo, the Meiji
leader responsible for military modernization, was fearful that the new
national army was disloyal. He thus made efforts to reorganize the army:
First, whereas the new army had been based on the French model, army
organization was now on German lines. Stricter discipline and tighter
administrative control were introduced. A General Staff was created to advise
the Emperor on military matters - a job that formerly belonged to the civil
officials (non-military officials). As the General Staff could directly approach
the Emperor, civil control of the military was lost.
Secondly, to cut the army off from being influenced by any democratic
movement, Yamagata reintroduced the spirit of bushido for the troops. In
1878, he issued the Admonition to Soldiers, emphasizing unquestioned
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obedience to the emperor. In 1882, the Emperor himself issued the Rescript
to Soldiers and Sailors, telling the soldiers to be loyal and to cultivate
traditional militarist spirit. In this way, the authoritarian and militarist ideas
of the feudal past were preserved in the army.
Thirdly, the 1873 Conscription Law was revised so that the periods of
military service were extended. By 1894, Japan would have 200,000 soldiers
in case there should be war. Meanwhile, military colleges were founded, and
a Staff College was set up for greater specialization of military functions.
Expenditure on the army rose sharply.
Development of the navy
The organization of the navy was based on the British system. In 1872, a
Navy Ministry was formed. Both Japanese-built and foreign-bought ships
were added to the Japanese fleet.
By 1894, the fleet already had 28 modern ships, together with many wreck
boats. Dockyard facilities were also modernized.
Effects of military modernization

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Political effects
Strengthening of the Meiji state
In building up a strong army and teaching soldiers the values of obedience
and discipline, the Meiji government was greatly strengthened.
It had gained more support, and was in a better position to defend Japan
against the Western powers and to re-negotiate unequal treaties with them.
Moreover, it was able to fight successful wars:
In 1894 95, it defeated China
In 1904 05, it defeated Russia
Beginning of demand for more political rights in society
The introduction of conscription meant that the government expected the
people to contribute military service to the state. In return, the people
expected that the government should repay them by giving them more
political rights. Popular political movements arose. Conscription gave these
movements an excuse to demand constitutional rule.

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The authoritarian military independent of civil control
After the reorganization by Yamagata since 1878, the army became a stronghold of authoritarian and militarist traditions. No democratic forces could
break this stronghold. The military became a link with Japan's reactionary
feudal past.
Military officers constantly interfered in politics and the civil affairs of the
country. In a truly democratic country, the military forces are put under the
control of the civil government that represents the people. In Japan, the
military enjoyed independence from the civil government.
Economic effects
Demand for military-related industries
Military modernization needed arms. Armament industries were developed,
which benefited industrialization.
Introduction of Western knowledge
Military modernization introduced Western technology and systems of
organization into Japan, thereby bringing indirect gains to industries and
other business undertakings.

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Social effects
Destruction of localism
Conscription enabled more Japanese to acquire technical skills. Because of
conscription, more Japanese were drawn out of their village society to come
into contact with urban livelihood.
Ignorant peasant boys were given their first encounter with the modern world
and its activities. All this helped the peasants to live a more modern life, and
made it easier for them to accept modern things.
Increased political consciousness of the people
Conscription increased the political consciousness of the Japanese. Local
feelings were overcome as peasants underwent national military training.
Expansion in education
As soldiers must be able to read simple orders or to know the names of
weapons, national education was developed. Conscription contributed to
stronger emphasis on the development of popular education. More
specialized technical schools were founded to teach military science.

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Promotion of militant Japanese nationalism
Conscription helped teach qualities like obedience, spirits of courage and
sacrifice, and loyalty to the Emperor among the people. A "Japanese spirit",
which was a compound of traditional samurai spirit and imperial nationalism,
began to take shape. In short, military modernization partly gave rise to the
modern but militant Japanese nationalism.
In Search of a National Ideology
The meaning and function of ideology
A national ideology is a body of thoughts, beliefs and ideas that all citizens of
a nation share. If a country has a national ideology, conflicts of opinion
among the people will be minimized. Its function is to give greater unity to a
nation.
Shintoism at the expense of Buddhism and Confucianism
Shintoism, which was a native Japanese religion that regarded the Emperor as
Japan's God, was adopted by the Meiji government as a national ideology. In
1871, a Ministry of Shinto Affairs was established. It enjoyed independence
from other government departments and was responsible for educating the
Japanese to become loyal to the Emperor. To make Shintoism the only
religion in Japan, both Buddhism and Confucianism were discarded.
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Buddhist temple lands were confiscated by the government, and Buddhist
ceremonies were abandoned at the imperial court. On the other hand,
Confucian teachings were given up in the new schools.
Persistence of Buddhism and Confucianism
However, because both Buddhism and Confucianism had deep roots in
Japanese society, the attempt to isolate them from Shintoism failed. Many
Japanese still believed in Buddhism, and Confucian virtues.
Combination of Shintoism and Confucianism: the "family-state"
ideology
Consequently, in the 1880s, the government had to follow a different policy:
Buddhism as a religion was tolerated, while Confucianism was combined
with Shintoism.
The result was the formation of the "family-state" ideology in late Meiji
times:
Within individual families, Confucian virtues such as filial piety and
obedience to superiors were emphasized. Sons and daughters had to be loyal
to the father.

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In the country at large, the Emperor was regarded as the "father" of all these
individual families, for according to Shintoism, the imperial family was the
national head family. In effect, the whole country became a big "family".
Individual families would then extend their family loyalties upward to form a
larger national loyalty to the emperor.
In school, moral lessons taught virtues like filial piety, loyalty and obedience.
With this "family-state" ideology, Japan achieved stronger social unity.
Nationalism was also strengthened.

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