Knight - Revelation
Knight - Revelation
Knight - Revelation
jonathan Knight
Contents
Preface
Abbreviations
Introduction
ISBN 1-85075-962-6
1-85075-967-7 pbk
Revelation 1
Revelation 2 and 3
Revelation 4 and 5
Revelation 6
Revelation 7
Revelation 8
Revelation 9
Revelation 10
Revelation 11
Revelation 12
Revelation 13
Revelation 14
Revelation 15
Revelation 16
Revelation 17
Revelation 18
Revelation 19
Revelation 20
Revelation 21
Revelation 22
Conclusion
Bibliography
Index of References
Index of Authors
7
8
9
30
41
58
67
71
75
78
82
85
91
95
102
108
111
115
120
125
130
134
139
143
169
171
183
Preface
My interest in Revelation was stimulated as an undergraduate when I
was introduced to Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature by Dr
(now Professor) Christopher Rowland. Revelation continues to fascinate
me because, of all the New Testament literature, this text lends itself
most especially to eisegesis and thus potentially to misinterpretation.
The continual question remains of what we are to make of this strange
and surprising Apocalypse with which the canon of Scripture comes to
its conclusion. There is no single answer to this question, but it will be
helpful to ask in brief compass what the Apocalypse meant to its original
readers and why it was written. These are the questions that led me to
write the present volume.
Biblical citations in this book are taken from the New Revised Standard
Version (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). I cite the non-canonical literature from the two-volumed series edited by ].H. Charlesworth,
The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (London: Darton, Longman & Todd,
1983-85).
I dedicate this book to John Sweet and Geoffrey Styler, both of whom
helped me very much to understand what little I have of the complex
world of the New Testament.
Abbreviations
Introduction
AV
GAP
JSPSup
jTS
NEB
NICNT
NRSV
NIT
SBT
WUNT
Authorized Version
Guides to the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
journal jo1 the Study of the Pseudepigrapha, Supplement
Series
journal of Theological Studies
New English Bible
New International Commentary on the New Testament
New Revised Standard Version
New Testament Theology
Studies in Biblical Theology
Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
Introduction 11
10 Introduction
the Apocalypse will benefit from further review given this continuing
research. This is what has led me to offer my own short reading of
Revelation.
Those who know my work will recognize that I bring my own
research interests to this project. My particular interest is in the history
of early Christian doctrine. Two areas that fascinate me about the Apocalypse are its eschatology and Christology. It is often supposed that the
eschatology of the book of Revelation is substantially different from that
of other New Testament literature. The truth is that Revelation has major
points of contact with wider Christian eschatology, not least in its hope
for the Messiah's earthly reign (ch. 20) and the recreation of heaven and
earth (ch. 21). These are important themes for Paul and the other New
Testament writers. 4 The origins of Christology have aroused interest in
recent years. One contentious question is whether Jewish angelology
contributed to the development of beliefs about Jesus. Some scholars
think it was merely a peripheral source, but a growing number of studies has shown that it exercised an extensive influence on Christology.
The New Testament Apocalypse enshrines what I shall call an 'angelomorphic Christology'. 5 By this I mean that its Christology uses imagery
derived from angelology in a way which recognizes that Jesus comes
from the human world and that his position in heaven cannot be
reduced to that of an angel. The angelological affinities of Revelation's
Christology are particularly obvious in 1.12-16 where the author draws
on a complex of traditions to depict Christ as a divine being in language
that stems from the Jewish theophanic and angelophanic traditions. 6
The eschatology and Christology of the Apocalypse deserve careful
4. See, e.g., Paul in Rom. 8.1825; and cf. Mt. 19.28 ('at the renewal of all
things').
5. I have borrowed this term from R.N. Longenecker, The Christology of Early
jewish Christianity (SBT, 17; London: SCM Press, 1970), pp. 26-32. A recent study of
this issue is LT. Stuckenbruck, Angel Veneration and Christology: A Study in Early
judaism and in the Chrlstology of the Apocalypse of john (WUNT, 70; Ti.ibingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1995). See also C.H.T. Fletcher-Louis, Luke-Acts: Angels, Christology
and Soteriology (WUNT, 94; Ti.ibingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997). Fletcher-Louis defines
the adjective 'angelomorphic' in the following way: 'We propose the use of the term
ange1omorphic wherever there are signs that an individual or community possess
specifically angelic characteristics or status, though for whom identity cannot be
reduced to that of an angel. In this case we understand the word angel to be defined
by the constellation of characteristics and motifs which commonly occur across a
broad spread of jewish texts from the second Temple and early rabbinic periods' (pp.
14-15).
6. See C. C. Rowland, 'The Vision of the Risen Christ in Rev. i, 13ff.: The Debt of
an Early Christology to an Aspect of]ewish Angelology',]T.S 31 (1980), pp. 1-11.
Rowland shows that the cmcial feature of Rev. 1 is the way the author depicts the
heavenly Christ as a divine being when other apocalypses use the same language to
describe an angelophany.
lypse there are crucial reasons why readers should consider this matter
carefully. The fact that Revelation looks quite different from the other
New Testament writings has often led to the assumption that its theology must be different too. This assumption is far from correct. The re~l
difference between Revelation and the other New Testament texts ts
one of genre and not for the most part of ideas. Revelation is an 'apocalypse'. It is the only New Testament apocalypse. The genre 'apocalypse'
features in the Hebrew Bible in the book of Daniel (second century
BCE). It was well known in post-biblical Judaism. The genre has a number of distinctive features which I shall consider in a moment.
Related to this question is the question of to what extent the choice
of genre determines the selection and presentation of material in Revelation. Given that most apocalypses contain warnings of cataclysm and
disaster, these are exactly what we should expect to find in Revelation
irrespective of its actual 'setting in life'. We do indeed ~d them _there.
One should thus beware of extrapolating from the work s selectton of
themes, which reflects a literary tradition, to a situation of 'acute crisis'
7. In places in this book, I cite the Qumran scrolls. 1 have used the translation of
G. vermes, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (London: Allen Lane, The
Penguin Press, 1997).
12 Introduction
Introduction 13
9. See 1.12-16; 4.1 ; 10.1. In the first of these references the mediator is Christ
and not an angel.
10. In his book, The Idea of the Holy: An Inquity into the Non-Rational Factor
in the fdea of the Divine a nd its Relation to the Rational (ET; repr.; Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1981) .
11. M.E. Stone, 'Lists of Revealed Things in the Apocalyptic Literature', in F.M.
Cross, w.E. Lemke and P.O. Miller (eds.), Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God
(Garden City, NY: Do ubleday, 1976), pp. 414-52.
Introduction 15
14 Introduction
This material, from the late first century CE, shows that the apocalyptic
writers' interest ranged very widely. Many of the items in this list have
an eschatological reference. But with items such as 'the weight of the
winds, the number of the raindrops', this is not so obvious, even when
it is acknowledged that eschatology supplies the context in which they
are discussed. The precise function of these lists in the apocalypses
remains uncertain. They quite conceivably legitimate the investigation
of these areas for the Jewish intellect and imagination. It is certain that
we must take account of this broader material in commenting on the
apocalypse genre. Non-eschatological material is in fact more obvious in
the non-biblical apocalypses, for both Daniel and Revelation are heavily
dominated by eschatology.
The revealed material in the apocalypses almost invariably has a soteriological purpose. It is included to help readers make necessary changes
in their situation as the author's perspective is in1parted to them. On the
spatial axis, the apocalypse discloses a heavenly view of reality that
enables readers to alter their perspective through the disclosure of what
is by definition an authoritative understanding. We can see this in Revelation where the shifting imagery encourages the readers to believe that
discipleship to Jesus means the rejection of all forms of accommodation
with Asian urban life. Readers are called to be unambiguous about their
Christian profession in the midst of a pagan culture and to consider how
their religion translates into their attitude towards their social environment. To this ethical appeal are linked John's constant warnings of judgment. These predict the loss of eschatological benefits for those who fail
to do what he requires. Judgment is the converse of salvation in the
12. Translation by A.F.J. Klijn from The Old Testament Pseudepigmpba, 1 (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1983), edited by ].H. Charlesworth.
Revelation as an Apocalypse
Revelation clearly belongs to the apocalypse genre. It has a narrative
setting (ch. 1) and embodies the claim to present revealed information
(see 1.1 0-11). Its subject matter is the secrets of the heavenly world.
These permit an authoritative view of the readers' situation. Altho~gh
there is no doubt that Revelation is an apocalypse, we must mentiOn
some areas where this (Christian) text is different from the Jewish
apocalypses.
.
Chapters 2 and 3 include a series of letters sent by the heavenly Chnst
to seven representative churches in Asia Minor. This material shows that
Revelation also embodies the form of the letter. John thirdly calls his
work 'prophecy' (1.3). 'Prophecy' was a familiar entity in early Christianity, formally distinct from apocalyptic and practised by a number of
figures. 13 'John' the author of Revelation was evidently a ~ell-know_n
Christian prophet. A particular feature of his prophetic consciOusness IS
his use both deliberate and unconscious, of Hebrew Bible passages that
supply,the raw material for the rebirth of imagery that takes place in his
text. 1<1 Revelation offers no mere repetition of these biblical themes, but
a brilliant meditation on them by which new meanings are skilfully
presented.
It is chs. 4-22 of Revelation that most obviously conform to the apocalypse genre. The link between John's self-understanding a~ a C~istian
prophet, his mediation of the letters to the churches and hts wntmg of
an apocalypse is the belief that he has been commissioned by the heavenly Christ to write in this way (1.19). It re mains an open and no doubt
an insoluble question of what relation existed between John's personal
(and perhaps to some extent quite private) experience of revelation a~d
the text that he dispatched from Patmos to Asia. The seer's own creatiVity clearly p layed a part in the construction of this material. The inclusion of the letters, which have no parallel in the Jewish apocalypses,
arguably indicates that Revelation has a genuine revelatory basis even
when this authorial creativity is acknowledged. But we would be hard
pressed to comment with authority on this matter beyond noting that as
a possibility.
Another diffe rence from the Jewish apocalypses is the absence of
13. See the studies of it by D. E. Aune, Prophecy in Early Cbrislianily and the
Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983); and D. Hill, New
Testament Prophecy (London: Marshall, Morgan & Scott, 1979).
14 . This aspect is brilliantly explored by A.M. Farrer in his A Rebirth of Images
(Westminster: Dacre Press, 1949).
16 Introduction
pseudonymity in the book of Revelation. Most if not all the Jewish apocalypses are pseudonymous. 15 The author of Revelation boldly departs
from this convention and issues his Apocalypse under his own name
(1.9). John was followed in this by the author of the Shepherd of Hermas, but interestingly not by the second-century author of the Ascension
of Isaiah who retains the pseudonymous form. The lack of pseudonymity in the New Testament Apocalypse is prompted by John's conviction
that he is a prophet on a par with the prophets of old (cf. 22.6), and
probably also by the belief that the final events of history have been
inaugurated. This gives his work an eschatological authority (cf. 1 Cor.
10.11). The lack of pseudonymity is an important (and sometimes
neglected) link with the Hebrew prophetic tradition from which many
scholars think that Jewish apocalyptic at least in part originated.
Bauckham notes a further difference from the Jewish apocalypses in
the extent of Revelation's visual imagery. 16 Other apocalypses include
dialogue between the seer and the mediator. This is strikingly absent
from the New Testament Apocalypse which also Jacks long passages of
narrative prophecy (contrast, for instance, Dan. 11.2-12.4). Instead,
readers are encouraged to reflect on the meaning of the visual symbols
that are presented before them in riotous colours. The teasing of the
readers' response which this symbolism represents is a significant feature of the author's rhetorical strategy. The symbols gain their force
when they impact on the readers' perception of reality. John does not
simply tell his readers what to think. He lets their imagination do the
thinking by offering them a rich assortment of material to work on.
A fourth difference from the Jewish apocalypses is eschatology. Here,
we are moving from form to content. The progress of thought in
Revelation (however rough a guide this is) moves towards the Messiah's
expected return from heaven and his rule on earth (chs. 19-20) under
the influence of the Christian eschatological tradition. The goal of
Revelation 's eschatology is the recreation of heaven and earth (chs. 2122). This understanding of eschatology contrasts with a work like 4
Ezra where the Messiah is mentioned in one of the visions (ch. 7) but is
not otherwise central to the work. 17 Although eschatology is a familiar
feature of the Jewish apocalypses, the point should be repeated that the
specific content of Revelation's eschatology has more in common with
the New Testament writings which are not apocalypses than with the
other Jewish apocalypses.
This issue must be probed, both in general and in particular, because
15. See the discussion of pseudonymity by D.S. Russell in The Method and
Message ofjewish Apocalyptic (London: SCM Press, 1964), pp. 127-39.
16. Tbeotogy , pp. 9-10.
17. The evidence of 4 Ez m is examined by M.E. Stone, 'The Question of the
Messiah in 4 Ezra', in]. Neusner et al. (eds.), judatsms and thet1 Messiahs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 209-25.
Introduction 17
it is sometimes suggested that there was a brand of eschatology in postbiblical Judaism which can be called an 'apocalyptic eschatology'. This
view is advocated by no less an authority than Philipp Vielhauer in the
Hennecke-Schneemelcher translation of the New Testament Apocrypha. IS Vielhauer sees the special features of 'apocalyptic eschatology' as
a contrast between the present and the new age; the belief that the new
age will break in through divine intervention; and that it will concern
the future of humanity rather than narrowly the destiny of Israel.
Although this definition mirrors certain themes of the apocalypses, it
also draws a distinction between the eschatology of the apocalypses and
that of other Jewish literature which cannot be sustained with precision
from an examination of the primary sources. Rowland observes that
many of these allegedly 'apocalyptic' elements are found also in rabbinic
eschatology (see for instance the Shemoneh Esreh, Benediction 14). 19
We must certainly observe that, especially in the non-biblical apocalypses, eschatology is not always the dominant theme of the literature
and that the 'apocalyptic' element of these writings consists more in the
disclosure of heavenly secrets in a broad sense than narrowly in the
revelation of what will happen in the future. As Rowland says, it would
be unwise to 'separate out a strand of eschatological expectation which
is coherent enough to be distinguished as an apocalyptic sectarian
ideology'. 20 The eschatology of the apocalypses has parallels beyond its
immediate genre. The 'apocalyptic' element of such writings lies in the
disclosure of the eschatological future and not in the nature of the
eschatology which is disclosed in that way.
This observation has important implications for the interpretation of
Revelation. There are parallels between the eschatology of Revelation
and that of Daniel in the sense that, in both apocalypses, a better future
is expected through the intervention of a heavenly mediator (see Dan.
12.1-4; Rev. 19.11-16). But we must be clear that Revelation's genre as
an apocalypse is certified more by the fact that it purports to present
heavenly revelation (cb. 1) than by the transcendental nature of its
future hope alone. To say that Revelation has an 'apocalyptic eschatology' in this sense is potentially to mask the contact which its eschatology has with the other New Testament literature, as I have observed.
To summarize this matter, Revelation is rightly classed as an apocalypse when viewed against the Collins morphology of the genre. One
must, however, see Revelation's eschatology in proper perspective.
18. New Testament Apocrypha (ET; 2 vols.; London: SCM Press, 1963-64), II, pp.
608-42.
19. Open Heaven, pp. 29-37. Benediction 14 reads: 'And to j erusalem, thy city,
return in mercy, and dwell therein as thou hast spoken; rebuild it soon in our days as
an everlasting building, and speedily set up therein the throne of David. Blessed art
thou, 0 Lord, who rebuildest]emsalem.'
20. Open Heaven , pp. 36-37 (italics added).
18 Introduction
Interpreters must also note some key differences from the Jewish apocalypses. These include John's conviction of being a Christian prophet; his
inclusion of the letters to the seven churches; the content of his
eschatology; and the extent of his visual symbolism.
21. See A.Y. Collins, Ctisis and Cathatsis: The Power of the Apocalypse (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1984), p . 25. There is an important discussion o f Papias
also in M. Hengel, Thejohannine Question (London: SCM Press, 1989), pp. 16-23.
22. On the Ascension of Isaiah see).M. Knight, The Ascension of Isaiah (GAP, 2;
Sheffield: Sh effield Academic Press, 1995); and the same au thor's Disciples of the
Beloved One: Studies in the Christology, Social Setting and Theological Context of
tbe Ascension of Isaiah GSPSup, 18; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996).
Introduction 19
The Author
The Apocalypse entered the New Testament canon through its p~e
sumed connection with the Johannine writings. The text says that 1ts
author was 'John' (1.9). John was a common name in early Christian
circles. Justin Martyr says that the author of Revelation was 'John, one of
the apostles of Christ' (Dial. 81.4). Papias makes much of John ~he El~er
who was a venerable Christian leader in Ephesus (see Eusebms, Htst.
Eccl. 3.39.4). 1n the third century the belief in common authorship with
the Fourth Gospel began to be rejected, not least because of the support
23. ].A.T . Robinson , Redating the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1976),
pp. 221-53.
20 Introduction
Introduction 21
Introduction 23
22 Introduction
24 Introduction
Introduction 25
the gods who felt themselves spurned by the refusal of worship from
stubborn members of the population.
The issue of how the c hurch should relate to the world is crucial for
Revelation. This had been a matter for Christian reflection from at least
the Pauline letters onwards. John's perspective in the Apocalypse is
more critical of Christians w ho are open to cultural assimilation than is
either Paul or the author of Acts.41 John complains that more than one
church was tempted to eat food sacrificed to idols and to practise fornication (2.14, 20). I shall argue in this book that the primary meaning of
'fornication ' in this context is metaphorical: John inveighs against Christians w ho had assimilated the pagan ethos and not specifically against
sexual misbehaviour in the narrow sense. Thompson cites Theissen's
research in explication of these references.4 2 Theissen shows that
people in late antiquity had the opportunity to eat meat in a cultic setting at both public (festivals and funerals) and private occasions (guild
meetings and banquets). These occasions were representative of social
connections and they indicated the status that an individual enjoyed in
society. They almost invariably had religious connotations in the customary invocations that were offered to the gods. Theissen argues that this
issue would have affected Christians of different status in different ways.
Wealthier Christians with civic responsibility would have eaten meat
sacrificed to idols more often than poorer Christians who had no such
respectable connections. Wealthier Christians might even have found it
necessary to host these occasions themselves. Th ey would certainly have
fo und it difficult to abstain from meat-eating if they wanted to retain
their civic position.
The question of whether it was permissible to eat meat sacrificed to
idols had divided the Corinthian church 40 years earlier. Paul argued
then that the practice was legitimate provided that the 'weaker brother'
was not offended by it (1 Cor. 8.1-13). The implication of his statement
is that only in cases where different strata of the church met together
were Christians to abstain from this practice, as if less well-placed Christians (who met this problem much less often) were more likely to be
offended by it.
Thompson's reading of the Apocalypse concludes that John was a
rigorist who objected to Christians accommodating to this and other
social demands of urban life in the late first century. 43 There is a variety
41. Cf. Thompson, Book of Revelation , p. 174: 'Christian leaders who espouse
participation in the life of the empire as harmless and as irrelevant to Ch ristian existence are made homologous to evil, mythic forces such as Babylon, the Great Whore.
The p eace and prosperity of Roman society is, from his point of view, not to be
entered into by faithful Christians.'
42. Book of Revelation, p. 122; citing G. Theissen, The Social Setting of Pauline
Christianity: Essays on Corinth (ET; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1982), pp. 132-36.
43. Book of Revelation, pp. 123, 174.
26 Introduction
Introduction 27
themes, and also through the language and imagery as the different
visions unfold. Thompson thereby turns on its head the long-established
view that the Apocalypse is 'crisis literature'. There is indeed a crisis in
Revelation-but the crisis lies in the author's rhetoric and not in the
nature of the situation addressed. The author wants his readers to perceive a crisis, and thus to take a responsible course of action, when in
fact the lives of at least the wealthier members of the churches may
have been strikingly free of apprehension. By reworking apocalyptic
traditions, John calls his churches to action and threatens the security of
their existence. He does this from the conviction that they had become
too comfortable in their world and needed decisive action to return to
their calling as a priestly people.
Thompson's research shows that any reading of the Apocalypse must
carefully consider the letters to the churches. The letters set the matrix
in which the text must be read. They introduce the situations (no doubt
typical rather than exhaustive) from which the symbolism gains its
meaning. The letters also introduce us to the seer's special language
(e.g. 'conquering', 'crown of life'). This language recommends the separatist pattern of behaviour by portraying the non-Christian social world
in demonic terms through the use of binary contrasts. Thompson compares this literary strategy with Berger's category of 'deviant knowledge'
(knowledge that signifies a different perspective from the prevailing
norm).47 The ancient world knew a variety of 'deviants'. They included
magicians and diviners who were believed to disturb the public mind
through private teaching. Thompson argues that it is helpful to portray
the seer of Revelation in a similar light.48 John introduces subversive
themes in his Apocalypse, like the Nero mythology (ch. 13) and the
secret names (e.g. 2.17; 3.12). These emphasize the need for Christians
to maintain a distance from the dominant world. Here, the status of
'apocalyptic' as 'revealed knowledge' comes into full play. John's
'revealed knowledge' opposes itself to the 'public knowledge' of the
Asian social world. It offers an alternative order accentuated by the
apocalyptic claim that it is based on a higher form of wisdom derived
from revelation.
A not-insignificant feature of this subversion is John's peculiar Greek.
This draws attention to the fact that the normative canons of discourse,
and by extension the nature of reality, are being challenged. This would
have had a considerable rhetorical effect since the Apocalypse was first
declaimed to the churches (1.3). Better-educated Christians, who had
much to gain from social accommodation, would have been struck by
the barbarous Greek and prompted to reflect on why it is used. This
might lead them to reflect on the imagery and to consider the difference
47. P. Berger, A Rumor of Angels (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1970), p. 6.
48. Book of Revelation, pp. 186-97.
28
Introduction
Introduction 29
Christians at a time when the return of Jesus was proving more sulr
stantially delayed than had at first been envisaged. Many Christians
evidently followed Paul's lead towards social integration. John deemed
this impermissible, perhaps because he was worried about what this
might mean for the survival of his churches and their distinctive witness
in the world. He told the churches not to adopt pagan practices. In the
form found in the Apocalypse, this is tantamount to the call to be a
sectarian countercommunity in the midst of an tmbelieving world. 49
It is difficult to say how far John's recommended sense of distance
from the world was sustained as time wore on, but clearly this could not
have gone on for ever in unmodified form. The Apocalypse advocates a
position whose logical conclusion is absolute sectarianism. 50 This is a
position that Paul at least rejects. Unfortunately, we have no way of
telling what happened in John's churches beyond observing that Ignatius
is aware of continuing problems at Ephesus and Smyrna some 15 years
later.51 Christianity certainly survived in these cities, but one wonders
how far this was through the impact of the Apocalypse. 52 This radical
text requires careful handling in any discussion of the place of the
church in the world that might be tmdertaken today.
49. Such a position is well explained by P. Berger, The Sacred Canopy (Garden
City, NY: Anchor Press, 1969), p. 164: 'The sect, in its classical sociology-of-religion
conception, serves as the model for organizing a cognitive minority against a hostile
or at least non-believing milieu.'
50. In the history of post-biblical Judaism, the most extreme model of 'absolute
sectarianism' is that of the Qumran community who retreated to the Dead Sea in
protest at what they took to be the religious and ethical laxity of the rest of
contemporary Judaism.
51. E.g. Ignatius, Eph. 5.2, 'Let no one deceive himself: if anyone is not within the
altar, he lacks the bread of God'; Eph. 9.1, 'I know that some have passed by on their
way from there with evil teaching, whom you did not allow to sow among you' ;
Smym. 8.2, 'It is not permissible apart from the bishop either to baptize or to celebrate the love-feast; but whatever he approves is also pleasing to God, that everything
you do may be sure and valid' (Schoedel's translation). Although the situation Ignatius
addresses should not be confused with that of the Apocalypse, the Ignatian letters
do show that division continued to characterize the Christian communities in these
cities.
52. Cf. the following provocative comment from W. Bauer, Orthodoxy and
Heresy in Eatliest Christianity (ET; London: SCM Press, 1972), pp. 77-78: 'There is
also room for doubt as to whether the apocalypticist, with his extremely confused
religious outlook that peculiarly mixes Jewish, Christian, and mythological elements
and ends in chiliasm, can be regarded in any sense as an intellectual and spiritual
leader of an important band of Christians in western Asia Minor. '
Revelation 1
Revelation 1
Chapter 1 introduces the Apocalypse as the record of the revelation that
God gave to Jesus and that was revealed to John by an angel. The
chapter is a patchwork of traditions that include a number of set formulae (1.4-8), the report of a vision of the heavenly Christ (1.9-16) and the
words of Christ himself (1.17-20). It has been composed from more than
one source but the present arrangement of material is far from accidental. The function of ch. 1 is to authenticate everything that is said in the
rest of the Apocalypse by specifying the revealed nature of the material.
This claim for the divine origin of the revealed knowledge emphasizes
its superiority to the public and social knowledge which John's readers
possessed as urban Asians in the late first century. It encourages them to
pay careful attention to what follows on the grounds that the revelation
has been disclosed by Christ himself.
There is some ambiguity about how the revelation was received. John
refers initially to an angel (1 .1) but in the later part of the chapter he
describes a vision of the heavenly Christ who commissions him to write
to the churches (1.9-20). Not too much should be read into this
inconsistency. The Apocalypse contains a cycle of material. John does
not say that the whole text was dictated by Christ. However, 1.9-11 does
indicate that one exceptional experience of revelation stands behind the
work. There are no grounds for identifying the angel of 1.1 with the
'one like the Son of Man' of 1.13. The angel is merely the messenger of
Christ. As I said in the Introduction, we must constantly remember the
creative exchange that takes place between the seer's experience of
revelation, which came to him from without, and his own meditation on
that experience where his mind was fully engaged. The most important
feature of this chapter is the statement that the revelation come directly
from Christ himself. In John's view, this gives his text divine authority.
The opening section (1.1-3) introduces the text as an 'apocalypse' (lit.
'the revelation of Jesus Christ'). 'Apocalypse' is a term which we have
seen that modern scholarship uses to denote a literary genre. It is not
clear that John was conscious of writing an apocalypse with the literary
self-consciousness that assails the modern mind, but he does write in a
particular way that has parallels (with the differences noted) with other
Jewish and Christian literature. The 'apocalyptic' aspect of Revelation
lies in its disclosure of an authoritative perspective on human reality
through which the seer tells his readers to consider their behaviour.
This insistence on divine revelation authenticates the truth of the
31
message. That is what John means by calling his work 'the revelation of
Jesus Christ' .
In the logic of the chain of mediation, the description of John as a
'servant' (lit. 'slave', 1.1) means he is a servant of Jesus Christ. This term
mirrors the style of other New Testament writers including Paul (e.g.
Phil. 1.1) and the pseudonymous author of 2 Pet. 1.1. Its origins lie in
Hebrew prophecy where several prophets call themselves 'servants' of
Yahweh (quite apart from the figure of that name who appears in
Second Isaiah). Although the term projects a humble form, considerable
prestige must have attended the claim to be a 'servant' of Jesus where
the speaker is a well-known prophet and heavenly mysteries are disclosed. One might be inclined to see here a thinly veiled claim to
authority that goes beyond the self-understanding of the wider Christian
body as 'servants' of Jesus (for which see, e.g., Eph. 6.6). 'Prophets'
enjoyed a status second only to the apostles in the primitive church (see
1 Cor. 12.28). John appeals to this view and deliberately imitates the
style of the Hebrew prophets.
The phrase 'the revelation of Jesus Christ' (1.1) can be taken in two
different ways. It can mean either 'the revelation granted by Jesus' ('subjective genitive') or the 'revelation that concerns Jesus' ('objective genitive'). The former sense is preferable because of John's reference to the
chain of mediation and because the mysteries disclosed in the Apocalypse are not exclusively christological ones. The second sense should
not be completely excluded, however, because the Apocalypse has
much to say about the wrath of the Lamb and the kingdom of Christ as
the different visions unfold. The ambiguity of the Greek is happily preserved in the NRSV translation.
What is meant by this concept of 'revelation' is explained as the
Apocalypse unfolds. In 1.2, John is said to 'testify' to the word of God
and the 'testimony' of Jesus Christ. This phrase is a hendiadys (it
expresses the same thought in two diffe rent ways). 'The word of God'
recalls the prophetic expression 'the word of the Lord' (e.g. Isa. 1.10).
The 'testimony of]esus' can again be taken in two different ways as subjective or objective genitive. The ambiguity is deliberate. It makes Jesus
both the agent and the content of the revelation.
The Greek phrase 'testified' (1.2) is related to the English term
'martyr'. The 'martyr' complex of words is used in the New Testament
in two distinct ways. Its primary meaning is 'witness' in a legal sense.
This is found in many references in John's Gospel (e.g. Jn 1.7) and in
other writings too (e.g. Acts 22.15). At the heart of the word lies the
question of truth. The ultimate testimony to the truth is given by the
second sense of 'martyr'. This denotes the willingness to die for what
one believes to be true. Several New Testament passages use the word
in this more technical sense. Among these we must mention Acts 22.20
('your witness Stephen'), Rev. 2.13 ('Antipas my witness') and also
32 Revelation 1
Rev. 1.5 ('Jesus Christ, the faithful witness'). This double sense of
'martyr' is an important feature of Revelation. The prominence of the
'martyr' theme in the Apocalypse is perhaps to be explained by the
observation that the author has a connection with the ]ohannine school
for whom the concept of 'witness' is an in1portant one. It is not obvious
that martyrdom was a recent and significant feature of the readers'
experience. There is little concrete evidence for such martyrdom in the
Apocalypse (and no external corroboration). The frequent references to
martyrdom have a mainly symbolic significance. They highlight the
sense of absolute commitment that john requires of his churches.
1.3 pronounces a blessing on those who 'read aloud' the Apocalypse
and calls the work 'prophecy' . In the author's symbolic style there are
seven such blessings in all (see 14.13; 16.15; 19.9; 20.6; 22.7; 22. 14).
This verse explains how the Apocalypse was originally delivered to its
recipients. This was through oral declamation, doubtless in the context
of a meeting for worship. The author invokes his blessing on his readers
to compensate for the fact that he cannot bless them in person. His
blessing contains a thinly veiled ethical exhortation (cf. Dan . 12.12-13).
As in the tradition of the sayings of jesus, the notion of 'hearing the
word' means not just hearing but action too. The action John envisages
is described in the letters to the churches. It involves maintaining high
social boundaries by Christians in their urban environment. It is implied,
but not said explicitly, that those Christians who fail to hear (i.e. to act
on) what is said will be liable to judgment. This is suggested also by the
uncompromising dualism that runs throughout the Apocalypse, which
supplies the rhetorical basis for the visions and exhortations presented
there.
The concluding phrase of 1.3 gives an urgency to this appeal by reiterating the thought of 1.1 that 'the time is near'. Early Christian eschatology was founded on the hope for the return of j esus from heaven but
it was not known when this would happen. No first-century text abandons the hope for his re turn, so far as we can tell, but there is evidence
that some Christians were beginning to find this kind of eschatology
difficult to sustain towards the end of the first century. 1 Clement 23,
2 Clement 11 and 2 Pet. 3.4 all show some Roman Christians wavering
in their belief, but the texts significantly indicate that the church leaders
rebuked them for the ir doubts. The re was no doubt a spectrum of
opinion about the reliability of the hope for the return of Jesus when
Revelation was written. This uncertainty explains the different views
about social accommodation that are revealed in the Apocalypse. Looking back on the Apocalypse from our vantage point at the beginning of
the twenty-first century, we can say that the dissolution of its imminent
eschatological framework was the most important change that early
Christianity had to make. This is not yet reflected in the Apocalypse
Revelation 1
33
The Salutation
In 1.4 the seven Asian churches are mentioned for the first time. Asia
was a Roman province that roughly corresponds w ith modern-day
Turkey. It covered the territory of the ancient kingdom of Pergamum
which the Romans had annexed in 133 BCE. There were more than
seven Christian churches in Asia. It has been suggested (by Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy, pp. 77-94) that John's reference to only seven
churches reveals substantial apostasy there, but the number 'seven'
more likely has representative and not exclusive significance . John
addresses 'typical' churches and 'typical' situations, the latter heavily
defined by symbolism. This means we should not necessarily expect to
find a literal description of church life in any of the letters, still less a
full-scale p o rtrait of the c hurches addressed. There are substantial
dangers in 'allegorizing' this material, however tempting it is to do so.
The symbolism is not the form of the content but the actual content of
the letters.
The author w ishes his readers 'grace . . . and peace' (1.4). This formula
r epresents a Christian adaptation of the secular letter-form. It has parallels in other New Testament literature (e.g. 1 Cor. 1.3). The concept of
'grace' is the ground of all New Testament theology. It denotes God's
unmerited action in the provision of salvation (cf. 7.10). Revelation 1.4
shows that 'grace' is by no means exclusively a Pauline concept. As used
throughout the New Testament, it carries the eschatological connotation that those w ho have received grace from God w ill be spared
punishment at the last assize provided that they remain faithful to their
calling. 'Peace' is also an eschatological term. Paul presents it as the
result of justification in Rom. 5.1.
Grace and peace come to the Christians from God, not initially from
John. The title used for God in 1.4, 'him who is and who was and who is
to come', acknowledges God's eternal existence w hich is not affected
by the passage of time. The author makes a swipe at the increasing
number of Roman deities w hich stands in the spirit of Hebrew literature
(e.g. Isa. 46. 1; Ps. 115.6). The notion of God as 'him who is' looks back
to the r evelation of the divine name in Exod. 3.14 ('I AM') which the
LXX translates as 'I am who I am'. This allusion to the biblical 'I AM'
asserts that God not only is (at the time of writing) but was (in the
period of the biblical Israel) and always will be (up to and including the
time of the eschatological climax). John's development of the name of
God foregrounds his belief in future divine intervention. God's status as
'he who is to come' is authenticated by his status as the One who was
and is.
34 Revelation 1
Readers would have expected grace and peace to flow from God (and
from Jesus Christ, 1.5) but it is surprising to find them sent also from
'the seven spirits who are before his throne' (1.4). This passage has a
trinitarian air but it certainly does not use the language of later trinitarian
orthodoxy. That the 'seven spirits' are the rough equivalent of 'the
Spirit' in 22.17 seems likely. Two sources have been proposed to
explain this phrase in the Apocalypse. These are the seven archangels of
Jewish literature (e.g. Tob. 12.15) and the seven eyes of God that are
mentioned by Zech. 4.10. Commentators are divided on which of these
sources influenced the Apocalypse, but the former is perhaps the more
likely. The question of why the author does not mention 'the Spirit'
here, as he does later in the Apocalypse, is difficult to answer. Perhaps
John deliberately employs an archaism to remind readers of their Jewish
heritage with its ethical standards. The number 'seven' is an important
aspect of John's apocalyptic symbolism. It must, however, be said that
the Spirit is striking by his absence in John's vision of the heavenly court
(Rev. 4-5) where if anywhere he might have been included. The conclusion seems inevitable that it lies beyond the author's purpose to offer a
developed trinitarianism within the context of the revealed mysteries.
This passage indirectly confirms that Jewish angelology was a source for
the Christian understanding of the Spirit.
The heavenly Jesus also sends grace and peace to the churches (1.5).
Jesus is called 'Christ', the 'faithful witness', the 'firstborn of the dead'
and 'the ruler of the kings of the earth'. This cluster of titles shows the
author's tendency to pile up nouns for rhetorical effect which is found,
for example, in 10.11 and other references. This cluster incorporates an
important difference from the description of the eternal God. Jesus is
not said to have an eternal existence. The reference to his resurrection
('firstborn of the dead') recalls the early christological conviction that
Jesus was shown to be a divine being through his death (cf. Phil. 2.6-11).
'Pre-existence' thinking was beginning to appear in late first-century
Christology (see, e.g., Col. 1.15-20; Jn 1.1-18) but John uses what is again
perhaps an archaic usage to recall his readers to their first convictions.
Jesus is here called a 'witness' in the technical sense of someone who
was faithful to the point of death. He is in this sense the archetypal New
Testament witness (cf. 1 Tim. 6.13). The portrait of the faithful Jesus is
used later in tl1e Apocalypse to commend perseverance to the Christians
(2.10). The notion that Jesus is the faithful witness mirrors Johannine
language (cf. Jn 8.26).
The phrase 'firstborn of the dead' picks up the idea of 'witness' and
indicates that Jesus' death was not the end but the beginning of a new
order of existence (cf. Acts 26.23; 1 Cor. 15.20; Col. 1.18). The crucial
point is not that Jesus was the first to rise from the dead, as if priority in
time is the crucial thing, but that he was the first to rise from the dead.
The resurrection of Jesus in this sense signifies the onset of the
Revelation 1
35
36 Revelation 1
Revelation 1
37
38 Revelation 1
Revelation 1 39
40 Revelation I
that the seven churches are protected by their heavenly patron and that
in this sense he owns them. The two-edged sword symbolizes the words
that Christ speaks (cf. Eph. 6.17; Heb. 4.12-3; cf. Isa. 49.2).
The seer's prostration (1.17) is a traditional response to the appearance of a heavenly visitor (cf. Dan. 8.17, 10.15; Mt. 28.9). It implies the
offering of respect but also the experience of awe and wonderment that
undergirds the numinous experience (on which see Otto, The Idea of
the Holy). There is a tradition in Revelation and other apocalyptic literature in which a seer who witnesses an angel falls at his feet but is
rebuked for doing so (see Rev. 19.10; 22.8-9). Clearly, the apocalyptic
tradition was sensitive to the need not to present an angel as a divine
rival; a fortiori in an apocalypse where angelophanic traditions are used
to describe Christ as a divine being who receives worship.
The chapter closes with Christ's command to John to write what he
sees (1.19). John's vision is given a specifically eschatological content
('what is, and what is to take place after this'). 1.20 identifies the seven
stars as the angels of the churches and the lampstands as the churches
themselves.
l
Revelation 2 and 3
Chapters 2 and 3 belong together. Here we find the letters to the
churches which Christ dictates to the seer. The inclusion of these letters
distinguishes Revelation from the other Jewish and Christian apocalypses. We have seen that they are central to the text inasmuch as they
set the terms in which the seer's special language should be understood.
For all their symbolism, the letters give a comprehensible picture of why
John thinks that the churches need criticism. It emerges from reading
them that this is because of the problem of social accommodation by
which high boundaries were being removed by some in the Christian
commw1ities.
Ephesus
The first letter is addressed to the angel of the church at Ephesus (2.1).
Ephesus was a major city of Asia Minor (but not the capital). It formed
the centre of the Artemis-Diana cult in that region (cf. Acts 19.23-41).
Ephesus had a strong Jewish community with syncretistic tendencies.
There were temples there to Claudius, Hadrian and Severus. The city
was a major commercial centre for the province of Asia. Ephesus had
been evangelized by Paul (see Acts 18.19-20.1). It served as a base for
Paul's missionary endeavours in the surrounding territory. It was the
home of the Johannine school and the reported city of John the Elder
(according to Papias). We have seen that the Apocalypse displays certain
affinities with Johannine language (e.g. the 'witness' theme). If the
author was in contact with ]ohannine Christianity, it would have been
natural for him to write to Ephesus. This might explain why Ephesus
heads the list of churches addressed.
Christ tells the Ephesians that he knows their works, their toil and
patient endurance (2.2). This partly repeats the language of 1.9 and
emphasizes the conflict motif at the beginning of the letters. John does
this to create a sense of crisis among his readers. The implication of
2.2 is that Christians in Ephesus have achieved a reasonable success in
resisting accommodation with pagan culture. No doubt this reflects the
prominence of the Artemis cult there which would have polarized the
need for Christian 'separateness'. There is, most importantly, no suggestion that the Ephesian Christians have suffered persecution of any kind.
The problems mentioned here are internal to the church, but the code
in which the letter is written is not initially easy to decipher.
42 Revelation 2 and 3
Revelation 2 and 3
43
44 Revelation 2 and ~
(Gen. 2.9). The end of this story states that a flaming sword bars access
to the tree lest people eat of it and live for ever (Gen. 3.22-24). John
uses this idea in a symbolic way to assert that the eschatological age will
yield paradisial benefits that have been inaccessible since primaeval
times (see Rev. 21-22). His striking promise draws attention to the term
'to conquer',which is used here for the first time in the Apocalypse:
'Conquering' means persevering in the author's recommended pattern
of behaviour and securing the rewards that will be revealed at the return
of Jesus from heaven.
Smyrna
The letter to the church at Smyrna follows (2.8-11). Smyrna is the modern Izmir in Turkey. It lies at the mouth of the river Izmir at the foot of
Mt Pagros. Smyrna had a prominent Jewish community. It was the home
of Bishop Polycarp who was martyred there in the middle of the second
century CE. Ignatius wrote letters to the Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp.
The church at Smyrna was probably founded by Paul on his third
missionary journey (see Acts 19.26). The Life of Polycarp 2 says that
Paul visited Smyrna on his way to Ephesus. Christ's message is again
addressed to the angel of the Smyrnaean church (2.8) in the logic of the
chain of mediation (cf. 1.1).
Smyrna receives much praise from the seer. John says that the Christians there are afflicted but have remained faithful. 2.9 states in rhetorical terms that they appear poor but are rich. This does not mean that
the Smyrnaean Christians come (only) from the poorer classes but it
probably means that they experienced relative deprivation which was
related to their unwillingness to engage in the full social life of the city.
Ignatius's letter to Smyrna confirms that the church was made up of different social classes, including at least one well-placed person and perhaps not too many slaves. Tllis contrast between poverty and riches
recalls the contrast between the riches and poverty of Jesus which Paul
makes in 2 Cor. 8.9, which the Smyrnaeans conceivably knew. They are
reminded that they are following the authentic path of Christian
discipleship even though the circumstances of their lives seem difficult.
The second half of 2.9 alludes to opposition in Smyrna from 'those
who say they are Jews and are not' and who in the author's opinion constitute a 'synagogue of Satan'. John says that these false Jews have slandered the Smyrnaean Christians. The statement that Christian poverty at
Smyrna was exacerbated by Jewish opposition is confirmed by the Martyrdom of Polycarp which says that the Jews joined the pagans in
calling for the bishop's death (12.2). The precise nature of the allusion
in 2.9 should be treated with caution given the symbolic nature of
Revelation's language and the fact that Jewish opposition to Christianity
was commonly found throughout the empire; but we have no cause to
Revelation 2
and~
45
46 Revelation 2 and 3
m terms of therr eschatological destiny. Here, it has rhetorical signifi~ance. People fall into one of these two camps depending on their reac-
tton to what John says.John underscores this warning with his statement
~bout the person with the ear to hear (which is a further warning in
1tsel1).
Pergamum
2.12 introduces the letter to the church in Pergamum. Pergamum was
the capit~l city of Asia, situated above the Caicus valley. The city had a
notable library and was a centre of pagan religion. A temple was dedicat~d there to Augustus and Rome by the Provincial Synod in 29 BCE (cf.
Tacttus, Ann. 4.37). There were also temples in honour of Zeus Soter
Athena Nikephoros and other pagan divinities.
'
John describes Pergamum as the place where Satan has 'his throne'
(2.' 13). The introductory phrase, 'I know where you are living', contrasts
wtth the 'I know your works' which introduces most of the other letters. It implies that life for the Christians was exceptionally difficult in
Per~amull_l, n? dou~t because of the city's importance as the imperial
capttal with Its vanety of pagan cults. This must have made social
accommodation all the more tempting. The 'throne of Satan' probably
denotes the Roman seat of government but some commentators have
taken it more specifically with reference to the pagan cults and even to
particular paga~ cui~ (such as that of Zeus Soter). The crucial point is
that the throne IS satd to be Satan's. The trappings of the Roman world
are portrayed in demonic terms.
Revelation 2.13 contains the only named and documented instance of
martyrdom. in the Apocalypse. The author mentions Antipas, 'my witness, m y fatthful on~. Not~in? ~ore is said about this person, including
when and how he dted. It IS significant that even in Pergamum, which is
the absolute blackspot ~n the churches addressed, the author can point
to only one martyr. Thts confirms that Christianity had not been made
the target of official repression in Asia and that the theory of persecution
does not adequately explain the writing of the Apocalypse. Revelation
2.13 c~ncludeswith another reference to Pergamum as the place 'where
Satan .lives' to e~phasize the particular difficulties felt by Christians in
that City, but agam without mentioning specific instances of martyrdom.
The author nevertheless makes some criticism of the Christians in
Pergamum. He says that some people 'hold to the teaching of Salaam'
(~.14). Salaam, as John notes, was a false prophet whom the Moabite
king Balak persuaded to curse the Israelites when they invaded his territory (see Num. 22). Numbers 31.16 says that it was on Balaam's advice
that the people of Israel played the harlot with the daughters of Moab.
Revelation 2 and 3
47
48 Revelation 2 and ~
possible. Neither is excluded but the former is more likely. The language
reflects the apocalyptic distinction between the decision for judgment
that has already been taken in heaven and its exercise on earth at some
future point.
The (by now familiar) saying about the person with the ears to hear
(2.17a) is followed by the statement that those who 'conquer' will
receive 'some of the hidden manna' and a white stone with a new name
written onit 'that no one knows except the one who receives it' (2.17b).
Manna was the miraculous food that sustained the Israelites in the wilderness. 2 Baruch 24.8 expects that manna will descend from heaven in
the messianic age. This expectation explains the present allusion which
has an eschatological orientation. Manna is mentioned in John 6 in a
context with eucharistic overtones. It is difficult to exclude these from
this passage, given the complex nature of Revelation's symbolism, but it
is fair to say that a eucharistic allusion is not made prominent here. The
emphasis falls on the 'hiddenness' of the manna and not on its relation
to early Christian worship. That implies its heavenly origin and eschatological significance.
The reference to the 'white stone' has prompted several interpretations . Among the most plausible are the stones cast into an urn by
ancient jurors (cf. Ovid, Met. 15.41); the stone that gave free admission
to a royal assembly; and the stone that b. Yom. 8 says fell with the
manna from heaven. Charles, however, may be right to suggest that the
stone has a predominantly mystical significance and alludes to the new
name that will be given to victorious people in the eschatological age to
link them with an angel (Critical and Exegetical Commentary, I, pp.
66-67). The 'white' colour picks up the description of Christ in 1.14 and
symbolizes the purity of those of whom the author approves (cf. 3.4;
4.4). We are here on the threshold of the mystical traditions of primitive
Christianity which for the most part we cannot penetrate.
Thyatira
Thyatira is perhaps the least important of the cities addressed but it
receives the longest letter. The city lay some 40 miles south-east of
Pergamum. It was a trading centre with numerous guilds of craftsmen. It
became a centre of Montanism in the late second century CE (see
Epiphanius, Haer 51.33).
Christ says that he 'knows ' the Thyatirans' works (2.19). This reflects
his position as a heavenly being from whom nothing is hidden. 2.19
praises these Christians for the fact that their 'last works' have exceeded
their former ones. Their love, faith, service and patient endeavour are
mentioned in this context. This introduction stands in marked contrast
to the strong polemic that follows in the letter. Swete drily observes that
'praise is more liberally given, if it can be given w ith justice, when
Revelation 2 and ~ 49
50 Revelation 2 and 3
Revelation 2 l\fld 3
51
them with an iron rod'. 'Doing my works to the end', like 'conqu~ring ',
means maintaining the author's desired position ~ntil th~ co.nung of
Christ. This promise of eschatological reward is set ill poettc tt;:rms ~at
represent a loose citation of Ps. 2.8-9. Th~ allusion is. to the fut\}re retgn
of the Christians with their Messiah whtch John (like all first-century
Christians) believes will be an earthly one (cf. 20.4; 21.~-22.5) .. Both
Mt. 19.28 and 1 Cor. 6.3 expect the Christians to pia~ a ~aJor role ill the
eschatological judgment. The eschatological subor~illat~on of ~he G~n
tiles to the people of God is a theme of wider Jewtsh literature whtch
the Christians inherited and on which they ~ew _Cse~, e.g.: Isa: ~1.5).,
2.28 adds to this the promise that Chrtst wtll gtve hts vtet?rs the
morning star' . This is a biblical allusion whose source has been dtsputed.
Isaiah 14.12 has been proposed but Num. 24.17 ('a star shall come out
of Jacob') seems the more likely candidate. It give~ th~ pa,ssage ~ ~es
sianic significance. On this interpretation, the proilllse ts that Ch_n~ttans
will share the Messiah's reign when he returns from hea:en. T~ts mterpretation is supported by Rev. 22.16 where Christ descnbes hfmseifas
the 'morning star'.
Sardis
The Jetter to Thyatira is followed by the letter to the churc~ in Sardis
(3.1-6). Sardis was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydt~, located
50 miles to the east of Ephesus and overlooking the Hermt~s valle~.
Sardis comes in for substantial criticism from John. He ex:prfSSes_ l~ts
view of the church there bluntly. It has the name of being alive butts 111
fact dead (3.1 b). John does not mention specific problem~ ~.r make
allusions as he does when addressing the other churches. Tht~ IS a b~d
sign. The term 'dead' does not mean that the church has ceaseg to ~XIS~
but that it has so far compromised with pagan_standards ~hatJ,opn think,
its Christian profession substantially called mto qu~s~ton. I)ead_nes~
mocks the behaviour of those who claim to be Chrtstt_ans buf thmk tt
acceptable to achieve a real compromise with urban soctety.
.
Also at variance with what he says elsewhere, John tells the Sardts
Christians that he finds their works (i.e. beh~viour) i~~erfe~t (3.2~ .
John's criticism leads to an urgent call for actiOn. Chnstta~s Ill Sardts
must wake up and strengthen what remains and is on the pomt of death.
The command 'wake up!' recalls Mt. 24.42, the saying of Jesus about
watchfulness in view of the uncertain end. Ramsay (Letters, pp. 276-78)
identifies two incidents in the history of Sardis that might ~ave \ent l~cal
meaning to this command, but these do not ~isguise its mainly ~hetonc~l
force. John acknowledges that vital Christiaruty can be restore? at ~ardis
en though the initial diagnosis is poor; but he states that tht& will not
~
. ' s part
be achieved without substantial effort on the commuruty
The command for watchfulness is accompanied by the corwnand to
52 Revelation 2 and
Revelation 2
'rem.ember ... what you received and heard' (3.3). If the Christians in
Sardts refuse to do this, Christ says he wiH come to them like a thief
when .t~ey do not e~pect him. 'What you received and heard' refers to
the ongmal eva~gelization of Sardis. John 's words suggest that this had
b~en ac~ompamed by teaching about the need for high social boundanes ':hich ~he church had su.b.sequently forgotten. The saying about
the t.hief denves from the tradttwn of the sayings of Jesus (Mt. 24.43)
a~d IS found throughout the New Testament (e.g. 1 Thess. 5.2). It is
gtven a new shade ?~ meaning here (characteristically in the Apocalypse) thro~gh the ~mtster implication that Christ will steal in to judge
the .church ~ question. Those who refuse to repent will be punished by
Chnst, despite the fact that they are Christians.
3.4 ?ffers a .partial qualification of this gloomy portrait. John says that
so~e m Sardts have not 'soiled their clothes'. These will walk with
Chnst
h . and. dress in white for
. they are worthy. The author co mpares
et 1ca1 mtsdemean~urs to dtrty clothes in this passage (cf. 7.14; Jude
23). The colour wlute symbolizes purity, hence its frequent use in the
Apocalypse (cf. 2.17). There is a tradition in some texts that the resurrected righteous will resemble angels (cf. Dan. 12.1-3; Asc. /sa. 9).
Angels are often t:>ortrayed as clad in white garments in Jewish literature
(Dan. 10.?-6). It ts ?~t certain whether John's language here is purely
metaph~ncal or anttctpates the resurrection but probably neither shade
of m~anmg ~hould be entirely excluded from the passage. There is no
pre~tse Jewtsh or Christian description of the resurrection from this
penod. (as may perhaps
be understood). The eschatology of the Apoca_
.
1ypse ts
no exception to this.
3.5 tends towa~ds the r~surrectional interpretation of this passage. It
repeats the pronuse of wh1te robes as if to emphasize it to a community
of renegades. John says that those who conquer will be clad in white
and have their names retained in the 'book of life'. This 'book' is a
refe~e~ce to the heavenly ledgers that are familiar from other apocalyptic literature (e.g. Asc. !sa. 9.19-23). The idea derives ultimately from
Ex~d. 32.32-~3 where Moses mentions a book that God had written and
whtch contams the names of righteous Israelites. In Revelation th
'book of life' contains the names of the followers of Jesus. Those wh~
refuse to repent ~ill be blotted out of this book and miss the blessings
of ~he. eschatologtcal age. This ethical dualism, with its eschatological
basts, ts ~rth~r expressed by the promise that Christ will confess the
na~e of his fruthful ones 'before my Father and before his angels' (3.5b).
Th1s alludes to the saying about the Son of Man in Mt. 10.32 and shows a
further aspect of Christ's role as 'witness'. Christ says he will acknowled~e thos~ whose nam~s a~e written in his book at the eschatological
ass1~e. Th1s understandmg ts close in meaning to the presentation of
Chnst as the 'advocate' in I Jn 2.2 (cf. the similar language that is used
about the Holy Spirit inJn 14- 16).
and~
53
Philadelphia
3. 7 introduces the letter to the church at Philadelphia. Philadelphia lay
on the southern side of the Cogamis valley. The city celebrated games in
honour of Zeus-Hellos and Anaeitis. It was struck by, but quickly recovered from, a disastrous earthquake in 17 CE. The difficulty for Christians
in Philadelphia came from the Jews. The Jews were still causing trouble
for the Christians when Ignatius wrote to Philadelphia more than a
decade later (see Ignatius, Phil. 6). John's Philadelphian letter is often
compared with his Smyrnaean letter as addressing a church that is
singled out for praise. It opens with a poetic passage that explains the
power of the heavenly Christ. Christ is said to be 'the holy one, the true
one' (cf. Isa. 43.15) and to hold the key of David which no one can
resist. The source for 'the key of David' is Isa. 22.22 which John understands messianically. In a context where Jews are causing trouble for
Christians, Jesus is purposefully presented as Messiah. The 'opening and
shutting' indicates Christ's ability to control entrance to his future kingdom. This phrase sounds a note of obvious foreboding in its negative
aspect. The implications of this will be developed throughout the
Apocalypse.
Christ says that he knows the works of the Philadelphian church
(3.8). He sets before them an open door which no one can shut. This
means that the Christians, although debarred by the Jews, cannot be
debarred from God's kingdom if they remain faithful. The 'little power'
of the Philadelphians has not prevented them maintaining high social
boundaries. The phrase reveals their resilience. In 3.9 the phrases 'the
synagogue of Satan' and 'those who say that they are Jews and are not,
but are lying' recall John's earlier criticism of opponents. They denote a
pattern of behaviour and not primarily an ethnic or religious identity.
3.9b reverses the status of the participants in this drama. Those who
now gain much from social contact will be subjected to those who
abstain from it: 'I will make them come and bow down before your
feet.' This passage once again anticipates the eschatological supremacy
of the people of God and strikingly casts the 'false Jews' in the subordinate role that Judaism reserved for the Gentiles. This identification is
not developed here but it does provide a precedent for the more hostile
picture of Judaism that we find in some second-century literature, not
least the literature of Gnosticism.
Commentators sometimes suggest that the problem in Philadelphia
was that the Christians were being excluded from the synagogue, but
this is to impose (only) one interpretation of the Fourth Gospel on the
Apocalypse in the absence of internal evidence for that identification.
The description of the Jews as 'the synagogue of Satan' does imply that a
formal breach between Judaism and Christianity has taken place but the
54 Revelation 2 and 3
commerH: is mainly symbolic and not necessarily an alJegory of recent
events. Jbhn here casts the faithful Christian in the role of the ' true Jew'
and presents Christians opposed to his position as 'the synagogue of
Satan' and the 'false Jew'. The language pe rmits mo re then one interpretation. Sensitive exegesis w ill not rule out any of the likely possibilities.
3. 10 alludes once again to the tradition o f impending judgment and
states that faithful Christians will be spared the 'hour of trial '. The
no tio n df impending world struggle features in both Jewish and Christian apoealyptic literature (e.g. Dan. 11.2-45; Asc. !sa. 4). 3. 11 predicts
the re turn of Christ and combines it with a further call for perseverance.
A non-specific eschatological prophecy (exemplified here by the 'soon'
and the absence of a definite date) can never lose its c urrency. In the
light of this hope, John asks his readers to maintain their distinctiveness
in order to win the 'crown'. This denotes the eschatological future that
is described in the rest of the Apocalypse.
3.12 promises further eschatological reward. Christ says that the
person who 'conquers' will be made a 'pillar' in the temple of God.
Christ adds that he will write on them the name of his God, the name of
the new Jerusalem that comes down from heaven and his own new
name. This passage alludes to the mystical names that will be revealed to
the Christians in the eschatological age. It is clear that something more
than th'e baptismal 'naming' is intended. These names are mystical
names that can only be revealed at the end of human history. They
imply an interest in mystical knowledge of which, as I said, we can now
reconstfuct merely the barest glimpses.
Laod.ieea
3.14 introduces the seventh and final letter to the church in Laodicea.
The Laodicea in question is situated in the Lycus valJey some ten miles
from Colossae. It was a commercial and administrative centre that benefited from a good network of roads which provided ease of access and
communication . In the Roman period Laodicea was the wealthiest city
in Asia. Its wool and medical school were famous features of the region.
Laodicea had a large Jewish community but this is (surprisingly) not
mentioned in Revelation. The church in Laodicea was probably founded
during Paul's third missionary journey (see Acts 19.10).
Laodicea is criticized for its lukewarmness (3.15). Several commentators note the presence of warm springs in nearby Hierapolis, but the
primary focus of this reference is rhetorical and not merely antiquarian
or topographical. John criticizes the c hurch for its willingness to blow
hot and cold according to circumstances. Because the church is lukewarm, Christ says, he will spew it out of his mouth (3.16). This vivid
image symbolizes the humiliating rejection of a people w ho are neither
Revelation 2 and 3
55
one thing nor the other. The Laodicean church is criticized especially
for its arrogance (3. 17). It thinks it is rich and p rosperous but it is in fact
poor, blind and naked. The Laodiceans' blindness lies particularly in the
fact that they are unable to perceive the true nature of their condition.
This is presumably because many churc h members were willing to
engage in the kind of integration that John deems wrong.
In 3.18 the imagery of 3.17 is developed in riposte. Christ advises the
Laodiccans to buy from him gold, white garments and salve to anoint
the ir eyes. The notion of buying was suggested by Isa. 55.1. The artefacts mentioned here contrast with th e conditio n described by 3. 17 .
'Gold' incorporates elements from the description of Christ in Rev. 1.1216; 'white' from that passage and from the garments of the worthy in
3.4 . The implication is that only Christ can heal the condition John diagnoses. This is a way of saying that the Laodiceans must do what John
requires if their cure is to prove effective.
In 3.19 the letter moves towards its conclusion. Ramsay (Letters,
pp. 318-1 9) sees 3. 19-22 as the conclusion to all the letters and not just
the Laodicean le tter. This seems a plausible view, especially if the
churches addressed have representative significance. Christ says that he
reproves and disciplines those whom he loves. This is said about God in
other Jewish literature (see Prov. 3.11-12; Pss. Sol. 10.1-3; He b. 12.5-6)
so that Christ is h ere shown to be discharging a divine task. This
statement is combined with a further exhortation to repent.
3.20 is a much-quoted verse. Despite its frequent use in Christian
evangelism, it is addressed to Christian readers and not to people outside the church. Christ says that he stands at the door and knocks. If the
door is opened, he w ill come in for dinner. This image has a p articular
force given the setting of the Apocalypse in a situation where the question of dinner-parties was a particular problem. J ohn states that when
Christians gather, Christ himself joins them . This m ore than compensates for the required absence of Christians at pagan banquets by saying
that they entertain the most important guest at their agapes. Their
gathering for the common meal is thus not inferior to the pagan dinners
which seemed more tempting. Revelation 3.20 is a vivid assertion of the
agape's true significance.
3.21 returns to the theme of 'conquering' in summary of the letters. It
sets the tone for w hat follows in the Apocalypse. Christ says that those
who conquer will have a place on his throne just as he himself has
conquered and sat down on the thro ne of his Father. 'Enthronement'
symbolizes future victory which the author understands as the earthly
reign of Christ and the recreation of heaven and earth (chs. 20-22). We
should not suppose that this verse makes a literal prediction of fut ure
heavenly enthronement for the righteous. The language is symbolic and
does nothing to contradict the hope for the earthly reign of the saints
which is a prominent feature of the Apocalypse (see esp. 20.4). Other
56 Revelation 2 and 3
enthronement passages in Jewish literature provide the source for this
saying: Moses in Ezekiel the Tragedian's Exagoge and the description of
the Son of Man-Elect One in the Similitudes of Enoch (1 En. 37-71) are
examples of this. John is possibly thinking also of the saying of Jesus in
Mt. 19.28 that the Twelve will occupy thrones in the eschatological age
and judge the tribes of Israel. There is a good parallel for this passage in
1 En. 51.2-3:
And he shall choose the righteous and the holy ones from among (the
risen dead), for the day when they shall be selected and saved has arrived.
In those days, (the Elect One) shall sit on my throne, and from the con
science of his mouth shall come out all the secrets of wisdom, for the Lord
of the Spirits has given them to him and glorified him.
In Retrospect
The letters have an important function in the Apocalypse. They introduce the reader to John's special language and explain, both in symbol
and explicitly, the problem that the Apocalypse addresses. I have argued
that this situation is given by the references to (fornication and) meateating in 2.14, 20.
My reading of the letters takes the view that the seven churches have
representative significance and that the material gains its effect from its
symbolism with the occasionally clear punctuation. It would be wrong
to look either for precisely described situations or even, I think, for
substantially different situations in the churches addressed. The symbolism is allusive. John thinks in typical categories. This means that we
must take special note of those places where the symbolism parts to
reveal explicit criticism. I have identified 2.14, 20 as the places where
this is found.
The letters set the scene for everything that follows in the Apocalypse. They set the terms for John's dualism and explain that this has
both ethical and eschatological implications. John says that those who
will not do what he asks are a 'synagogue of Satan' (2.9; 3.9). Such
people ally themselves with the dragon and the beast who appear later
Revelation 2 and 3
57
in the Apocalypse. They will follow their masters into the lake of fire
(22.15). By contrast, the Christian eschatological hope is presented as
the promised destiny of the faithful. Readers are reminded of what they
know already to recall them to a stricter pattern of behaviour. They
must be wary of full integration with the urban social world. Once we
recognize that the eschatology undergirds the ethical appeal, we ~an
understand the entire message of the Apocalypse. In a sense, everythmg
that follows in the text is commentary. It is no doubt encouraging to
remember that those who understand the (relatively simple) message of
the letters already understand the (much more complex) contents of the
Apocalypse proper, to which we now turn.
Revelation 4 and S 59
Revelation 4 and 5
Chapters 4 and 5 also belong together. They move the readers' attention
from earth, where the seven churches are located, to heaven through
the description of John's ascension with which the Apocalypse proper
begins (4.1). The shift from earth to heaven is a signilicant one in terms
of John's apocalyptic outlook. The heavenly world is the location of the
throne of God and the place where the secrets of the universe are
stored. The rest of the Apocalypse describes a sequence of visions which
John receives by means of revelation from heaven. As in other apocalypses (notably 1 En. 14), John's vision of the throne of God (chs. 4-5)
is presented as the first and most important aspect of the heavenly
mysteries that are revealed in this way.
This section draws extensively on the Jewish theophanic tradition.
Meditation on the biblical theophanies possibly even helped to induce a
mystical experience of this kind. It would be foolish to discount this
possibility even if in practice the point cannot be proved. John introduces some new elements into the theophanic tradition, notably his
reference to the Lamb and the worship of the heavenly Christ which are
clearly Christian features. The liturgical elements in this section (and
elsewhere in the Apocalypse) do not necessarily reflect the actual worship of the churches addressed but they do represent John's creative
attempt to describe the heavenly liturgy. At critical places, the heavenly
chorus discloses the truth about the readers' situation and gives an
authoritative perspective on it. This function is used to great effect in
the seer's vision of the throne of God where the chorus sings that God
and the Lamb are invincible.
learn 'what must take place after this'. Heavenly ascension is described a
number of ways in apocalyptic literature. Here, John is invited to step
through the door himself. He has already entered a trance in 1.17. In
other texts, especially those with a more complicated cosmology, the
seer is accompanied by an angel guide (e.g. 2 Enoch; the Apocalypse of
Abraham; the Ascension of Isaiah). The statement that John will learn
'what must take place after this' shows the essentially eschatological
nature of the revealed mysteries in the New Testament Apocalypse.
In 4.2 John finds himself in heaven. The statement that he is 'in the
Spirit' confirms he is in a trance. The first thing that John sees in heaven
is a throne. This is the merkabah, the throne-chariot of God. The merkabah features in earlier Jewish visions of God (see Ezek. 1; 1 Kgs 22.19;
Isa. 6.1-4; and Dan. 7.9-14). Ezekiel1 and Daniel 7 both describe God in
anthropomorphic form (as if he resembles a human being). The author
of Revelation is reluctant to describe the form of God (cf. Apoc. Abr.
16.3) but elsewhere he describes the heavenly Christ (e.g. 1.12-16) as if
to compensate for this reserve. In one strand of Johannine Christology
the Son is presented as the visible aspect of God On 14.9; cf. Jn 6.46).
The Christology of the Apocalypse seems related to this conviction. All
such language reflects the binitarian convictions that sustained early
Christianity.
4.3 offers a short and unornate description of God. The language is
heavily qualilied. God is said to resemble 'jasper and carnelian'. The
throne is surrounded by a rainbow that looks like an emerald (cf. Ezek.
1.26-28). The seer's reluctance to describe the form of God leads him to
describe God by analogy with precious stones. Commentators often
point toPs. 104.2 (which says that God wraps himselfwi.th 'li~ht a~ with
a garment') to explain the basis of this passage, but the tdentificauon of
the stones remains uncertain . Sardis was a red stone; jasper may have
been translucent rock crystal. Emerald is of course green. If so, this
means that the stones contain the principal colours of the rainbow.
These colours are mentioned together in Jewish (Ezek. 28.13) and classical literature (see Plato, Phaed. 110e) so that John employs a familiar
combination. The description of the primal person in Ezekiel 28 may
have contributed more to this passage than some commentators are prepared to acknowledge.
It would be wrong to treat this colourful description as an allegory of
the different facets of God's character. That would detract from its
mystical impact which resembles a kaleidoscope and not a telescope.
The passage demonstrates John's mystical imagination. It is not an early
philosophical theology. It is nevertheless true that we find here an early
version of what would come to be known as the ' analogical argument'.
The Apocalypse embodies the recognition that, since God cannot be
fully described in human language, he must be described by analogy
with entities that are known to human beings. Earlier apocalyptists (e.g.
60 Revelation 4 and 5
the author of 1 En. 14) are more willing than John to describe the form
of God. John's reserve is to be explained with reference to the growing
understanding of divine transcendence in the first century CE and also to
his conviction that the vision of Christ (ch. 1) is itself the vision of a
divine being.
Around the throne of God sit 24 elders (4.4). These elders are clad in
white and wear golden crowns. Some commentators see the elders as an
editorial insertion but they appear later in Revelation (e.g. 7.11) and
clearly belong in the Apocalypse. Their white dress means that they
resemble angels. Their human form and crown distinguishes them from
the angels. The elders to this degree transcend the angels through their
connection with the human world. The presentation may thus be called
an 'angelomorphic' one according to the definition of this term that I
offered in the Introduction. Some apocalypses describe the transformation of exceptional humans into angel mediators (e.g. I En. 71. 14); but
John has no such description, and this view is not obviously intended in
the Apocalypse. The elders are symbols of faithful Christians. They are
modelled on the 24 heads of the priestly families in 1 Chron. 24.4-6.
They are priestly figures just as Christians are called to be 'priests' in the
Apocalypse (see 1.6; 5.10 and 20.6). Their enthronement symbolizes the
future victory of the people of God.
As with 3.21 , however, we should not assume that the elders symbolize a future heavenly destiny for the faithful. This view finds no support
in the Apocalypse. John expects the kingdom of Christ to be an earthly
one (20.4) and that it will be followed by the recreation of heaven and
earth in which the barrier between the two different realms is removed
(ch. 21). The elders symbolize by their enthronement in heaven what
will prove to be true at some future point for the faithful on earth. This
is that those who conquer-which for John is linked to ethical strictness-will enjoy the Messiah's kingdom when the priestly people of
God comes into its own.
From the throne issues lightning and thunder (4.5). Before it burn
seven torches of fire which are the seven spirits of God (cf. 1.20). This
description of the throne has a traditional nature and it initially represents what any Jewish reader would expect to find in a theophany.
There is an echo here ofEzek. 1.13 (cf.jub. 2.2) where fire burns in the
middle of the living creatures. The author of Revelation takes up this
tradition and modifies it by the inclusion of the number seven. This, too,
derives from earlier literature (Zech. 4; Tob. 3.16-17).
Before the throne stands a sea of glass that resembles crystal (4.6).
Two Hebrew Bible passages have resourced this description . Ezekiel
1.22 says that over the heads of the cherubim stands 'something like a
dome, shining like crystal'. Also relevant is the statement of Exod. 24.10
that a sapphire pavement undergirds the throne of God. It is difficult to
resist the conclusion that the primary reference in Rev. 4.6 is to the sky
Revelation 4 and 5 61
62 Revelation 4 and S
Revelation 4 and 5 63
is probably the original form of words. The image of the proffered scroll
embodies the assertion, associated with the notion of creation, that
everything is known to God and rests within his will and control. This
scroll has sometimes been identified with the Torah but that identification is by no means obvious. It is an apocalyptic symbol which contains
the disasters that follow. The scroll provides a transition to the next part
of the Apocalypse where the Lamb opens the seals to reveal a sequence
of events.
An angel asks a rhetorical question (5.2): 'Who is worthy to open the
scroll and break its seals?' The impression is that no angel is equal to this
task, not even the 'mighty angel' who is mentioned here (5.3). This
shows that knowledge of the human world is a divine prerogative. No
one in heaven, earth or hell can open or read the scroll. The seer weeps
because no one can do this (5.4). This rhetorical question replaces the
dialogue between the seer and the angel which occurs in other apocalypses.
The seer's weeping, with its dramatic effect, is short lived. One of the
elders proclaims that the 'Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David,
has conquered, so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals' (5.5).
This Lion is the heavenly Christ. Ilis title has messianic connotations. In
Gen. 49.9 Judah is called 'a lion's whelp'. Genesis 49.9 was interpreted
messianically in the post-biblical period as we know from T. jud. 24.5
and other passages. The title 'Root of David' reflects the influence of Isa.
11.1 ( cf. Rom. 15 .12) which describes the Messiah's Davidic descent.
Revelation 5.5 thus uses two messianic titles to say that the Christian
Saviour can open the scroll because he has 'conquered'. His 'conquering' (like the 'victory' motif in the Fourth Gospel) is an allusion to the
cross as the 'Lamb' imagery makes clear. The victory was won on earth.
Its authoritative interpretation is now promulgated in heaven. It is
implied that the full effects of the victory will be disclosed at some
future point on earth. The unswerving witness of the Lamb is made the
pattern of behaviour that the readers must adopt.
There is a powerful subversion of reality here, as throughout the
Apocalypse. The death of Jesus posed a problem for the early Christians
because jesus had been executed as a criminal by the Romans. Crucifixion offended the Jews because it infringed the Deuteronomistic prohibition against exhibiting the bodies of those who had been executed by
stoning (see Deut. 21.23 and Gal. 3.13). It reinforced for pagans the
seeming strangeness of the Christian religion with its claims fo r the
divinity of a would-be insurrectionary whom the authorities had executed. The Christians responded by turning this criticism on its head.
Paul told the Corinthians that w hat seemed like folly was in fact the
wisdom of God (1 Cor. 1.18-25). The deutero-Pauline author of Col. 2. 15
says that even on the cross God in Christ had robbed the 'rulers and
authorities' (i.e. cosmic spirits) of their power. Similarly, the author of
64 Revelation 4 and S
Reve_lation calls_ the cross an act of victory through his 'conquering'
termmology. Thts understanding of the death of Jesus explains why the
Apocalypse contains so many allusions to martyrdom when it comes
from a situation where martyrdom was not a significant factor. The
imagery reminds readers to maintain high social boundaries through the
stark image of the suffering Christ. The bitterness of the death of Jesus is
allowed to exercise a full rhetorical appeal.
The portrayal of Christ as a 'lamb' is found both in Johannine On 1.29,
36) and in other New Testament literature (Acts 8.32; 1 Cor. 5.7; 1 Pet.
1.19). In this context, the reader thinks immediately of the sacrificial
lamb, for John the Apocalyptist's Lamb stands 'as if it had been slaughtered' (5.6). Commentators note a number of Hebrew Bible analogies,
not least Isa. 53.7 ('like a lamb that is led to the slaughter'). Lamb
imagery features in post-biblical literature too (I En. 90.9; cf. T. jos.
19.8). John's imagery is sufficiently imprecise to let readers form a
variety of mental associations concerning this image. The shift from the
lion to the lamb is striking. It prompts readers to think about the status
of the Messiah who is described in this way. The fact that the Lamb has
'seven horns' (cf. I En. 90.9) indicates his almighty power which is the
power of God himself (cf. 4.5).
5.6 contains a significant problem of translation. Does the Lamb stand
in the middle of the throne or between the throne and the 24 elders?
The Greek has been taken to support both views. The NEB preserves the
first translation ('standing in the very middle of the throne') which is
suggested also by 3.21. There is a background to such Christology in
Jewish apocalyptic literature, especially in the Similitudes of Enoch
(I En. 3 7-71) where the Son of Man-Elect One is seated on the throne
of God. On the other hand, early Christian literature generally gives
Jesus his own throne in heaven on the grounds that he is a second
divine being (see 1 Pet. 3.22; Asc. lsa. 11.3233). The problem is a finely
balanced one which should probably be answered internally through
the evidence of 3.21 where the Lamb does occupy the throne of God
(and for which the Similitudes provide Jewish corroboration). Even if
this translation is rejected, however, the passage asserts that the Lamb
stands nearer the throne than do the 24 elders. This is a visual demonstration of the Lamb's close affinity to God-his divinity-which will
now be affirmed through his reception of universal worship.
The Lamb takes the scroll from the right hand of God (5.7). The elders
and throne-creatures prostrate themselves before him in worship (5.8a).
They hold a harp and bowls of incense (5.8b). The latter is called 'the
prayers of the saints'. The harp appears in the Psalms (e.g. Ps. 33.2).
Incense was used in the temple ritual. The incense either represents or
accompanies the prayers of the saints (probably the latter). The notion
that the angels present the prayers of the righteous before God derives
Revelation 4 and S 65
from post-biblical Judaism (see Tob. 12.15; cf. 3 Bar. 11). Tllis function
is here attributed to the elders.
John describes the 'new song' sung by the elders (5.910). They sing
that the Lamb is worthy to open the scroll because he has been slain and
ransomed people for God from every 'tribe and language and people
and nation'. The opening words ('you are worthy') provide a form of
parallelism with the worship of God in 4.11. They designedly pr~sent
the heavenly Christ in the same terms as God. The concept of a new
song' derives from the Psalter (e.g. Ps. 33.3) but the adje_ctive has ~
Christian connotation. This song is 'new' because it descnbes the tn
umph of the Lamb which has made possible the state ~f b~ing 'ran
somed' for God. That is h ow John understands the constltutton of the
church (5.9).
John does not say how the Lamb's death has achieved ~his eff~ct, only
that this has happened. Jesus' death, including the sheddmg of his blood
(see above on 1.5b-6), has given the Christians a new status (cf. 2 Cor.
5.17). This status is described in 5.10 as being that of 'a kingdom and
priests serving our God'. 'Ransoming' as a metaphor comes from t~e
slave market. It signifies acquisition by a new master. The new master ts
God (cf. 1 Cor. 6.20). John presents Christ as the agent and price of the
ransoming, as does the author of Hebrews with his identification of the
priest and the victim (Heb. 9.12). That the redeemed come from ever:
'tribe and language and people and nation' emphasizes the cosmopoh
tan nature of the Christian religion which cut across social divisions and
attracted people of different backgrounds. It is said that 'they will reign
on earth' as they do at the conclusion of the Apocalypse (20.4).
John hears the angels' chorus (5.11-14). The almost indes~ribable
number of angels (5.11) agrees with information about them m oth~r
apocalyptic literature (e.g. I En. 14.22). The angels sing that the Lamb ts
worthy to receive 'power and wealth and wisdom and might and honor
and glory and blessing!' It would be fruitless to distinguish between
these nouns. They all designate the universal authority of the Lamb
which is related to the fact of his vindication through slaughter. From
this belief stems the peculiar status of Christians redeemed as a priesthood who must demonstrate their sanctity in their behaviour. At the
close of ch. 5, all the inhabitants of the earth and the underworld join
the chorus which now has a binitarian focus, singing, 'To the one seated
on the throne and to the Lamb be blessing and honour and glory and
might, for ever and ever!' (cf. Phil. 2.911). The creatures add the
'Amen!' to this song to emphasize their assent. The elders fall down and
worship so that the scene ends with prostration, calling to mind once
again the ritual of the royal court.
66 Revelation 4 and 5
In Retrospect Again
We should ask about the function of chs. 4-5 in the Apocalypse.
Chapter 1 introduces the Apocalypse. Chapters 2-3 introduce the readers to the seer's special pattern of language and identify the problem
that the text is going to address. Chapters 4 and 5 follow on from this
scene-setting. Their function is to provide authentication for the
sequence of visions which begins in ch. 6 and thus to authenticate the
rest of the Apocalypse. That John sees the throne of God, following his
commission by Christ, is a rhetorical assettion that what he says is true
and comes direct from God. That the Lamb will open the seals shows
that the future is under God's control. The almost incidental comment
'they will reign on earth' (5.10) n1rns out to be rhetorically significant as
the Apocalypse unfolds.John anticipates the eschatological future which
only the faithful will share with Christ on earth. Chapters 4-5 thus
demonstrate John's authority as an apocalyptist which is related to his
commission by Christ and his vision of the heavenly mysteries.
Revelation 6
Chapters 6 to 8 describe what happens when the seals of the scroll are
opened. Chapter 6 narrates the opening of the first six seals. We must
wait until 8.1 to see what the seventh seal discloses. Chapter 7 is an
interlude in this wider section that describes the sealing of the servants
of God. In the meanwhile, ch. 6 has some surprises.
John's language is pictorial. We should no more expect to find here a
literal description of the end than in any other part of the Apocalypse.
But this is not to say that the symbols are entirely distant from the
situation that John addresses, or that the material lacks a practical
application. This part of the Apocalypse describes the judgment which
awaits those who do not do what God requires. The symbolism makes a
clear distinction between the followers of Christ and all other people.
This leaves readers in no doubt about the clear-cut choice that they must
make in terms of their social behaviour.
The strength of John's symbolism lies in its starkness. Its sharp focus
makes the readers consider the meaning of the different symbols
employed. Tllis encourages them to create a mental link between the
symbolic world of the Apocalypse and their own situation. To this
extent the meaning of the symbols lies in the reader's response to them.
The dissonance between the two world-views Gohn's mythological
world and the readers' actual world) allows the criticism of the latter
through what happens in the former. It is inevitable that readers' minds
should wander from one world to the other. That the symbols are so
bizarre is an aid and not a hindrance to understanding.
The theme of chs. 6 to 8 is the wrath and judgment of God. This is
introduced very forcefully in 6.1-2 as the white horse gallops onto the
stage when the first seal is opened. He is the first of four horses and
horsemen in the Apocalypse. The scene as a whole is modelled on Zech.
1.8; 6.1-8. The four forms of destruction derive from Ezek. 14.21. The
drama is carefully staged. The horse is permitted to enter by the
heavenly voice (6.1). He does not enter of his own accord. 'A crown
was given to him, and he came out conquering and to conquer' (6.2).
This reference to 'conquering' shows that the horseman is a servant of
God. It is not said in more detail what 'conquering' involves and what
the first horseman conquers. We are not shown the world as it is but
given a picture of the world as it stands under God's judgment. Into this
picture readers must insert their own understanding of their situation.
Tllis reacts with the imagery that the seer constructs for them.
The first horse' s white colour led patristic commentators (e.g.
Revelation 6 69
68 Revelation 6
Victorious) to identify its rider with Christ. There are obvious reasons
for rejecting this interpretation. It is difficult to see how Christ can be a
character in the story when he hilnself opens the seals and stands, so to
speak, behind and not within the action. This horseman is an agent of
divine destruction like his fellows who appear next.
6.3 describes the opening of the second seal. The second living
creature calls ' Come! ' A bright-red horse appears. Ics rider is permitted
(sc. by God) to take peace from the earth so that men begin to kill each
other. The red colour symbolizes blood for this reason. To emphasize
his power of destruction, this horseman is given a sword. Again, the
thought is that God permits the destruction and that the horseman is the
agent and not the source of the destruction. The fact that judgment happens (only) on the opening of the seal shows its essentially determinate
nature.
On the opening of the third seal (and the words of the third creature)
a black horse enters the arena (6.5-6). Its rider holds a balance. A voice
from among the creatures pronounces the words, 'A quart of wheat for
a day's pay, and three quarts of barley for a day's pay; but do not damage
the olive oil and the wine! ' The reference to scales and inflation show
that famine is expected (cf. Mt. 24.8). Famine was the scourge of the
ancient world. It was exacerbated by the agrarian nature of the ancient
economy. To judge from information provided by Cicero (Verr. 3.81),
the price for these commodities was ten times what it should have been
given that a denarius was the daily wage for a workman. Commentators
note that oil and wine have deeper roots than corn and survive when
corn fails, but John's interest is more symbolic than horticulturally precise. 'Oil and wine' are symbols of the messianic age in Jewish literature
(see Jer. 31.12; Hos. 2.22; Joel 2.24). The command not to harm them
shows that the blessings of the eschatological age are preserved by God
even though he permits the destruction.
The opening of the fourth seal produces a pale horse whose rider is
Death (6.7-8). Death is followed closely by Hades. Death and Hades are
given power over a quarter of the earth to kill by various forms of
destruction ('sword, famine and pestilence, and by the wild anilnals of
the earth'). The reference to 'a quarter' is limitative. It emphasizes the
point that the destruction is controlled by God. 6.1-8 shows signs of
careful construction. The notion of God's control is progressively reinforced as the different misfortunes are described. The four means of
destruction are all commonly encountered features of ancient life. They
have a biblical foundation and are set within the purposes of God.
slaughtered for the word of God and for the testimony they had given'
(6.9). The martyrs contrast with the horsemen. They are victims (but
not passive victims) and not aggressors. Their presence in heaven is a
sign of the messianic victory. The martyrs intrude into the portrait of
destruction to set things in their true light. They show that the destruction is permitted by God and that those who wear white-which for
John has ethical implications-will be kept safe by God.
The reference to 'souls' (6.9) suggests an anthropology in which the
death of the human person allows the soul to ascend to heaven. There
are superficial parallels for this in Platonic eschatology but the closest
parallels are with Jewish views about martyrdom. Several texts indicate
that resurrection or immortality is the reward for the martyrs (see, e .g.,
Dan. 12.1-2; 4 Ezra 7.32; Wis. 5.15). Paul and Ignatius evidently shared
this view (see Phil. 1.23; Ignatius, Eph . 12.2). This passage is a symbolic
assertion that the martyrs are dear to God and that their deaths will be
avenged. It uses the same imagery as the rabbinic text b. Sab. 152b ('the
souls of the righteous are kept under the throne of glory') to explain
that God preserves his faithful servants. Later in the Apocalypse, the
martyrs are resurrected for the thousand-year reign on earth (20.4). The
thought here is that they are kept safe in anticipation of that event.
In 6.10 the martyrs cry to God for vengeance ('how long will it be
before you judge and avenge our blood?'). Some commentators dislike
this notion of revenge and contrast it with the recorded words of Jesus
(Lk. 23.34) and Stephen (Acts 7.60). Yet the idea of vindication is prominent in the Hebrew Bible (e.g. Ps. 79.10) and in post-biblical Judaism
(see 1 En . 47.2, 4; 4 Ezra 4.35). It features in the Christian eschatological tradition in 2 Thess. 1.8-10 (quite strikingly so). The author of
Revelation is doing nothing exceptional in attributing this request to the
martyrs. More than anything else, their cry reflects the perceived injustice of their death. This provokes empathy in the readers and makes
them consider why the martyrs died. It is implied that they died because
they stood out against a God-opposing system and provoked the vengeance of that system by their refusal to acquiesce with it. This call for
cognitive resistance will be made time and again in the Apocalypse,
most notably in the symbolism of the Beast (ch. 13). Martyrdom for John
is the ultimate act of commitment which illustrates the need for separate
existence from the world. The martyrs are given a white robe and told
to wait until their number is complete (6.11). The white robe demonstrates the need for separate standards in nuce.
Further Destruction
The Martyrs
There is a profound change in tone in 6 .9-10. After the opening of the
fifth seal, John sees 'under the altar the souls of those who had been
6.12-1 7 describes what happens when the Lamb opens the sixth seal.
John sees a great earthquake. The sun becomes like sackcloth and the
moon turns to blood. These are signs in the natural order that the last
70 Revelation 6
days have begun. Earthquakes are a feature of the Hebrew Bible (Amos
8.8; Joel 2.10) and the New Testament (Mt. 28.2). In 6.13 the stars fall
like fruit from a tree (cf. Isa. 34.4). This calls to mind Jesus' cursing of
the fig tree in the Synoptic Gospels (Mk 11.12-14 and par.; cf. Mt. 24.3235). The sky is rolled up like a scroll and every mountain and island is
removed from its position (6.14). This reference to the sky is an interesting one. Sweet mentions the possibility that it signifies the eschatological removal of the veil between God and man (Revelation, p. 145).
With this we might compare the Pauline hope that God will be 'all in aH'
(1 Cor. 15.28), and again the thought-world of Hebrews (esp. Heb. 6.1920; 10.19-20). Commentators observe that there is no parallel in apocalyptic literature for the second half of this verse (the removal of the
mountains and the islands), but its thought may have been suggested by
Nah. 1.5 or Jer. 4.24.
6.15-17 describes the effect that this activity has on the inhabitants of
the earth. Led by the kings, the people run to the caves to take shelter
from the destruction that has been unleashed upon them. The flight
starts with the powerful because not even they can withstand the wrath
of the Lamb. This passage is based on lsa. 2.20-21 which anticipates that
people wiH hide themselves on the Day of the Lord. There is an important paraHel in 1 En. 62.3 where the enthroned mediator begins his
judgment with the kings and mighty ones. In 6.16 people call to the
rocks to fall on them to provide shelter from the face of God and the
wrath of the Lamb (cf. Hos. 10.8). This is the first reference to the 'face'
of God in the Apocalypse. This was not mentioned inch. 4. It is in every
sense an angry face. Behind this passage stands the fearful warning that
'you cannot see my face; for no one shaH see me and live' (Exod.
33.20b). John has not seen the face of God himself but he knows that
those who deserve divine vengeance will see it clearly enough. The
'wrath of the Lamb' in this passage signifies retribution and not just displeasure.
6.17 brings the chapter to a conclusion with a rhetorical question,
'Who is able to stand?' (cf. Mal. 3.2; Nah. 1.6). The breaking of the sixth
seal reveals a time of horror for the world for which the first five seals
have served merely as the preparation. The description of this misfortune gains a cumulative effect as the chapter gathers pace. John challenges the prevailing standards of the readers' society by showing that it
falls under divine condemnation. His rejection of the world at large is
particularly obvious in the shift from the fifth to the sixth seal. This
juxtaposes the image of the martyrs in glory with the image of the kings
in their terror. The message of the chapter is that only those who
m~intain a rigid separation, symbolized under the image of martyrdom,
wtll escape the fate of the kings. The author uses the threat. of judgment
to make readers consider where they stand.
Revelation 7
Chapter 7 is an interlude between ch. 6 and the opening of the seventh
seal in 8.1. The interlude reinforces John's call for separateness with a
different image. John now describes the sealing of the people of God
(notice the rebirth of imagery from ch. 6). This sealing is a symbolic
demonstration of the need for separateness by whichJohn again reminds
his readers of what they should be doing. The implication is that separate religious identity requires distinctive behaviour among the people
of God. Much of this material has a Jewish origin, not least the list of
tribes in 7 .5-8.
In 7.1 John sees four angels standing at the corners of the earth. They
restrain the winds for a time, by implication under divine control. Apocalyptic literature often assigns natural phenomena to the supervision of
the angels (see, e.g., 1 En. 75.3). The thought is that the wind will be
prevented from exercising a harmful effect until the servants of God
have been sealed. Their sealing is the main theme of this chapter.
In 7.2 another angel ascends from the sun with the seal of the living
God. He tells the angels not to 'damage the earth or the sea or the trees'
until the servants of God have been sealed on their foreheads (7.3).
There is a Hebrew Bible background for this passage in Ezek. 9.4 where
the linen-clothed man is told to mark those who grieve over the abominations in Jerusalem. It also recalls the blood that was placed on the
Israelite lintels at the time of the Exodus from Egypt (see Exod. 12.2127). We can hardly ignore the possibility that the sealing also symbolizes
baptism since Christians were signed with a 'T' at the moment of their
initiation. Baptism, however, does not exhaust the meaning of this passage which suggests a special demarcation of the people of God in
language that is familiar from biblical literature.
7.4-8 describes the number and the tribes of the sealed. The figure
144,000 prompts much discussion in the commentaries. It is clearly symbolic. Twelve was the number of the tribes of Israel (and the main disciples of Jesus). Numerical symbolism plays its part in this passage. The
figure 12 is squared and then multiplied by a thousand in a calculation
whose fuH significance remains obscure. Much light can be shed on this
section by comparison with the Qumran War Scroll (IQM). The Qumran
community were Jewish sectarians who inhabited a desert retreat on the
shores of the Dead Sea between approximately the middle of the second
century BCE and the First Jewish War against Rome (66-70 CE). They are
often but not universally identified with the Essenes who are mentioned
by Philo and Josephus. Their War Scroll describes the preparations for
72 Revelation 7
the final war between the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness in
which the former are to prove victorious. Eschatological victory is the
theme of Revelation 7. Comparison with the Qumran text suggests that
the numbers specified by Rev. 7.4-8 are adult male warriors who constitute the Christian army that fights against the forces of Satan (see
Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, p. 217). In this case the number 1000
evidently designates an army division under the belief that each tribe
will supply 12 such divisions. The language is symbolic but it probably
implies the belief, inherited from Judaism, that the 12 tribes will be
reconstituted in the eschatological age.
The force of this passage is that membership of the Christian church
confers a separate status that must be demonstrated in people's behaviour. The military imagery gives this expectation added edge. Far from
being comfortable, readers are reminded that they are engaged in a conflict. Chapter 7 is an apocalyptic vision of perfection that reveals the
truth about what people should be in order to confront the truth of
what they are at present. It is inconceivable that this vision of the elect
people of God can be addressed to people who need no reminder about
what they should be doing. The author provokes them to fresh thought
and action through the juxtaposed images of cbs. 6 and 7. 'Sealing'
means election; election requires a different kind of life.
The list of tribes in ch. 7 is not without problems. It corresponds to
no other known Jewish list. The inclusion of both Joseph and Manasseh
is difficult. Judah is placed at the head of the list because this is the tribe
from which Jesus came (cf. Heb. 7.14; Rev. 5.5). Dan is omitted and
Manasseh perhaps included to compensate for this omission. Irenaeus
preserves the tradition that Dan was omitted because Antichrist was
supposed to come from that tribe (Adv. Haer. 5.30.2), but we have no
way of telling whether this information was known to the author of the
Apocalypse.
7.9 significantly adds the whole number of the Christian redeemed to
these adult male warriors. John sees a great multitude that cannot be
numbered. This multitude is taken from 'all tribes and people and languages'. It stands before the throne and the Lamb. The multitude is clad
in white robes. People hold palm branches in their hands. The branches
make it a victory procession. Palm branches are mentioned in the Maccabaean literature as a symbol of victory after war (see 1 Mace. 13.51;
2 Mace. 10.7). There is doubtless also an echo of the 'triumphal entry' of
Jesus into Jerusalem (Mk 11.1-10 and par.). The major exegetical question that this passage raises is whether this multitude are identical with
the 144,000 of 7.5-8 or different from them. This point probably did not
trouble John's fertile mind as much as it troubles some of his commentators but the answer is surely that, if 7.5-8 refers to adult male warriors,
7.9 should be taken to designate the wider Christian body. These are
innumerable and cosmopolitan like Abraham's promised descendants
Revelation 7 73
(Gen. 17.4-5). In the logic of the chapter, this indicates that there is no
restriction on the numbers who can be saved. Neither group is of course
an allegory of divisions or parties in the readers' communities. The language insists that the final conflict is near and that the redeemed must
stand their ground through careful attention to their behaviour. My
interpretation of 7.9 finds no textual basis for the opi~io.n of .some
sectarian groups that only a predetermined number will inhent the
kingdom.
The innumerable multitude worship God and the Lamb (7.10). They
sing, 'salvation belongs to our God who is seated on the throne, and to
the Lamb' (7.9-10). The angels fall down in worship and sing a song. Its
words resemble the liturgy of chs. 4-5 (7 .11-12). The effect of this
material is to insist that God's victory is assured and to imply that those
who turn their backs on John's required lifestyle thereby place
themselves outside the boundaries of salvation. The chorus pronounces
the truth of the situation which the readers must apply as they see fit.
In 7.13-17 an elder asks John a question in order to supply the correct
answer himself (other apocalypses describe the seer's dialogue with an
angel). The elder asks John: 'Who are these, robed in white, and where
have they come from? ' (7.13). He tells John that 'these are they who
have come out of the great ordeal; they have washed their robes and
made them white in the blood of the Lamb' (7 .14). If this reference to
the 'great ordeal' signifies some kind of persecution, John has not ~ade
this obvious in the Apocalypse. His language is principally symbohc as
the clash of imagery (red-white) indicates. The elder's reply encourages
the readers to believe that they are engaged in a conflict which this
reference to the 'great ordeal' suggests. The depiction of the conflict
demands a distance from the world which is portrayed in hostile terms.
It is implied that only those who undergo the conflict will share the
rewards of the victory. This means we should consider the purpose of
this passage as 'consciousness-raising', not as descriptive of the actual
situation addressed by the Apocalypse.
John's imagery is strikingly vivid. He mixes familiar symbols (whiteblood) in a bizarre fusion to commend this perspective to the readers.
The image of 'washing robes' foregrounds the clash of colours because
it calls to mind the ritual of baptism with its linkage of water and blood
(cf. Rom. 6.3; Isa. 1.18). The mingling of the white and re? demons.trates
the belief that the death of Jesus has provided eschatologtcal secunty for
his followers. It reminds readers that those who want the triumph of the
white must bear the isolation symbolized by the red. What we know
about John's use of Scripture indicates that he was t~ng o~ Is~. 1.18
and gave that passage a new twist of meaning through his med1tatton on
the passion of Jesus.
The concluding song celebrates the benefits of Christian redemption
(7 .15-17). It is said that the redeemed worship God day and night in the
74 Revelation 7
IS passage t e
s care for his people leads him to ward off those who would h
them. God's providential care is further illustrated by his wiping aw am~
tears from their eyes (7.17).
ay 0
Revelation 8
The interlude of ch. 7 creates a dramatic tension between the opening
of the sixth and the seventh seals of the scroll. Chapter 8 describes what
happens when the Lamb opens the seventh seal. This results in a
sequence of plagues that are heralded by the prayers of the saints (8.3-5)
and the blowing of trumpets by the angels (8.6). The plagues recall the
miseries of the Egyptians in the book of Exodus. They refused to allow
the Israelites their freedom and suffered in consequence a series of punishments by God. John freely reworks this material to produce a new
patchwork of imagery which describes a further sequence of misfortunes that are unleashed upon the earth.
Chapter 8 opens with the statement that silence prevails in heaven for
half an hour after the Lamb opens the seventh seal (8.1). This heightens
the drama by contrasting with the noise of the heavenly chorus. This
silence is a sharp (if not eerie) intake of breath. It warns the reader that
something sinister is to happen in this chapter.
Seven angels are given trumpets in 8.2. These are 'the seven angels
who stand before God' (cf. Tob. 12.15). Before they blow their trumpets, there is another dramatic interlude in 8.3-5. John is nothing if not a
careful artist. Another angel with a golden censer stands at the heavenly
altar. He mingles his incense with the prayers of the righteous. All
attempts (of which there have been several) to identify this angel with
Christ are misplaced. Some scholars try to distinguish more than one
heavenly altar on the basis of this passage, but this is also unlikely. It has
been disputed (as in 5.8) whether the incense is mingled with the
prayers of the saints or me rely represents the praye rs of the saints.
Bruce ('Revelation' , p. 646) argues that the phrase preserves an underlying Semitic original which suggests the second meaning, but the
former is the better explanation. One should not reduce apocalyptic
symbolism to rational explanation.
This second interlude presages further destruction (8.5). Smoke rises
from the altar. The angel throws hot coals down to earth. This makes a
clever contrast in the direction of movement. Prayer rises; divine judgment falls from heaven. It results in 'peals of thunder, flashes of lightning and an earthquake'. This scene is suggested by Ezek. 10.2-7 where
the linen-clothed man scatters coal from between the cherubim over the
city of Jerusalem.
8.6 describes how the angels stand ready to blow their trumpets. The
blowing of their trumpets results in a further series of calamities. At the
blowing of the first trumpet, there appears hail and fire mixed with
Revelation 8
76 Revelation 8
blood (8. 7). This is hurled to earth and a thi.r d of the earth is destroyed,
together with a third of the trees and all the grass (cf. Exod. 9.13-35;
Zech. 13.8-9). The fraction seems odd but it indicates that the full force
of God's wrath has yet to appear.
On the blowing of the second trumpet, something like a mountain,
burning with fire, is thrown into the sea (8.8-9). A third of the sea turns
to blood, a third of the fish die and a third of the ships are destroyed.
Commentators have sometimes explained this imagery with reference to
the natural phenomena of Asia but once again it would be unwise to
attempt an overly 'rationalistic' interpretation of the passage. The burning mountain derives from 1 En. 18.13 or 21.3 (cf. 108.4); Amos 7.4
forms a remoter parallel. The turning of the sea to blood recalls Exod.
7.20 (cf. Ps. 78.44). The destruction of the fish comes from Zeph. 1.3.
We find here another example of the way in which John's apocalyptic
imagination has blended together a medley of biblical imagery to yield a
new pattern that is germane to the matter in hand.
When the third trumpet is blown, a star called Wormwood falls from
heaven, blazing like a torch (8.1 0-11). It falls on a third of the rivers and
their fountains. A third of the waters turns to wormwood; a third of
humanity dies from drinking the polluted water. Wormwood is a bitter
herb (cf. Lam. 3.19). The falling star recalls the fate of Lucifer, the DayStar, who falls from heaven in Isa. 14.12. This Isaianic passage has a
history of exegetical development in early Christianity as we know from
Lk. 10.18 where Jesus sees Satan fall like lightning from heaven (cf. Asc.
/sa. 4.1-4). The contamination of the water recalls the first Egyptian
plague in Exod. 7.20. It is through this contamination of the natural
order that humanity is adversely affected. This is the reverse of the
nature miracle described by Exod. 15.25.
8.12 describes the effects of the fourth trumpet. A third of the sun is
struck, as of the moon and stars. A third of their light is darkened. This
change affects the natural order of day and night. The passage recalls the
third Egyptian plague (Exod. 10.21-23) but does not form a precise
parallel. Darkness is a well-known symbol of destruction in the Hebrew
Bible, most obviously in Amos 5.18 (cf. Joel 2.2). Darkness in both early
Christian and Qumran literature is understood as the property of the
powers opposed to God (see 2 Cor. 6.14-15 and 1QM). The Synoptic
eschatological discourse anticipates darkness at the end times (Mk
13.24). In Rev. 8.12, the darkness is caused by the action of God. This is
the significant feature of the passage. It reinforces the point that God
holds the final authority, even over the eschatological disasters. This
point is foregrounded in the Apocalypse where disaster is a stock item.
That is why, at the end of the text, the disasters cease with the advent of
the kingdom of God.
The chapter closes with a reference to an eagle flying in heaven
(8.13). This eagle pronounces woes on the inhabitants of earth because
77
the last three trumpets have yet to be blown. This comment sets the
scene for the next part of the Apocalypse where the three 'woes' are
mentioned.
Uncomfortable Reading
Chapter 8 does not make for comfortable reading. It describe~ an
unmitigated vision of disasters that are said to be caused by the ~ill of
God. We should approach this material by recognizing that John 1s not
so much describing what will happen in the future as commenting on
the reality that exists now. This is not an inevitable pred~c~ion ~f w~de
scale destruction but a rhetorical condemnation of the eXlstmg s1tuat10n
through which John encourages his readers to see their society in a
hostile light. It is because life has become too comfortable that they are
warned of impending destruction. The warning of disaster (and not the
disaster itself) makes them sit up and think about what should be done.
The dramatic pauses assist this reflection. At the beginning of the
chapter, we read of silence in heaven for half an hour; at the end, of a
pause before the last three trumpets. Thi~ ma~es the .rea~er wonder that
will happen next. The point is that notlung m creation 1s exempt from
the wrath of God. The binary oppositions in 8.3-5 (heaven/prayerearth/judgment) give the rationale of this view. The passage knows of
only two reactions-faithfulness and punishment-which are symbolized by the upwards and downwards movement resp~ctively. P~op~e
must choose whether they will be faithful-the meanmg of wh1ch 1s
defined in the letters to the churches-or whether they will determine
their own punishment. This is the significance of the shift from chs. 7 to
8. It has both ethical and eschatological implications.
Revelation 9 79
Revelation 9
The trumpets and the judgment continue in ch. 9. At the blowing of the
fifth trumpet, a star falls to earth (9.1). It is given the key to 'the bottomless pit'. This star's identity is much discussed in the commentaries.
It appears to be an (otherwise anonymous) angel who carries out the
function of judgment. There was a cycle of stories about the fallen
angels in Jewish literature, stemming from Genesis 6 but that material is
not obviously reflected here. This angel acts in accordance with the
divine purpose and not against it. The verb, 'had fallen', lacks a sinister
sense altogether. Charles provisionally identifies this angel with Uriel
(on the basis of 1 En. 20.2) but this is to say more than does the text
itself (Critical and Exegetical Commentary, I, p. 239). The 'abyss ' or
'bottomless pit' is understood in the Apocalypse as the place of preliminary punishment (see 9.1; 11.7; 17.8; and 20.1-3). It is distinct from the
final place of punishment which is the 'lake of fire' mentioned in Rev.
20.10-15. The adjective 'bottomless' indicates there is no possibility of
escape from this punishment.
The angel opens the abyss (9.2). From it rises smoke that fills and
darkens the atmosphere. Out of the smoke flies a swarm of locusts (9.3).
The locusts are given power like scorpions. Two Hebrew Bible passages
stand behind this passage. Exodus 10.1-20 describes the p lague of locusts
that devoured the vegetation of Egypt. Joel 1.4 mentions locusts in its
portrait of the eschatological vengeance. Once again, John's material
represents a fusion of imagery. Locusts are unpleasant enough. Their
comparison with scorpions heightens the terror of this plague.
The one redeeming feature of the passage is that the locusts are told
not to harm the vegetation and to destroy only those who do not bear
the seal of God (9.4). Those who were sealed in ch. 7 are exempted
from this punishment. John clearly knows that the Israelites went
unharmed in the Exodus story. It must not be different for the latter-day
Israel of God. That the locusts attack human beings (against the course
of nature) reflects the horrific nature of this plague. Its terror derives
from the hybrid quality of the imagery. The damage inflicted by the
locusts is made worse by the command that they must not kill their
victims but may torture them for five months. This passage is sometimes
held to be determined by the life-cycle of the locust which is apparently
five months. But the figure probably has the same symbolic function as
the earlier references to one-third in that it leaves scope for further torture and destruction.
9.6 expresses the horror that this plague brings. John says that people
will seek death but will be unable to find it. This recalls the panic of
6.15-17. It shows the effect of the Lamb's wrath displayed in this metamorphosis of the natural order. As if to reinforce this point, 9.7 describes
the locusts in more detail. They are compared to horses arrayed for
battle. This reflects their size and strength. They wear what appear to be
golden crowns and have human faces (cf. Joel 2.4). T~e crow~s signify
that they are divinely commissioned agents of destruction. Therr human
faces suggest a special note of cruelty given that they resemble people
but behave with purely animal destructiveness. They have women's hair
and lions' teeth (9.8; cf. joel 1.6). This description resembles the Furies
from Greek mythology and gives the passage anything but the air of
gentle femininity. Their scales resemble iron breastplates; the noise of
their wings is like chariots and horses as they rush into battle (9.9; cf.
Joel 2.4-5). Their tails are like scorpions; their sting lasts for five months
(9.10).
9.11 describes the locust chief. He is called ' the angel of the bottomJess pit'; Abaddon in Hebrew and Apollyon in Greek. The title 'Abaddo~
appears in the Wisdom literature (e.g. Job 26.6; Prov. 15.11) where It
means 'destruction '. It is used in parallel with 'Sheol' in Job 26.6 and
other references. Apollyon in Greek means 'Destroyer'. Some commentators play off the name Apollyon with the Greek god Apollo and see an
implicit downgrading of the latter in this passage. This may be a feature
of John's imagery, given the social setting of the Apocalypse , but the
primary meaning of the noun is supplied by the present contex~ and not
by external allusions. This Apollyon is a destroyer who leads h1s locusts
into battle.
Chapter 9 is one of the most vivid passages in the Apocalypse.
clearly has a biblical source-several passages from Joel-but l~e IS no
slavish tradent who lacks the imagination to recast his matenal. We
might say even that this passage represents a form of biblical midrash i.n
which .Johf1 gives new depth and meaning to the Hebrew text . .Jo~1n IS
helped by the fact that he is not restricted to the level of prosaic ? r
literal repetition . John's portrait of the locusts gains its strength from Its
mutational obscenity. These locusts are specially empowered agents of
destruction. Their unnatural properties come from the creator himself.
Their divinely willed origin is signified by the fact that they come fr~m
the bottomless pit which is opened by the angel. Their appearance IS,
however, an intermediate affliction . 9. 12 announces ominously: 'The
first woe has passed. There are still two woes to come.'
The three 'woes' are among the most difficult features of the
Apocalypse. It is clear that the first woe is the appearance of the locusts
in 9.1-11. In 11.14 we read, 'the second woe has passed. The third woe
is coming very soon.' This 'second woe' seems to be the entirety of the
material in 9.13-11. 14. It is difficult to restrict it to only part of that
material given the flow of the text. The 'third woe' is not formally held
!ohn
80 Revelation 9
Revelation 9 81
of the behaviour that is adopted by people estranged from God (cf. Gal.
5.19-21). From it, readers draw their own conclusions about the kmd of
behaviour that is required of them.
Revelation
... 10 83
Revelation 10
The clue to understanding ch. 10 lies in the reference to the woes in
9.12. We might have expected the reference to the second woe at the
end of 9.13-21 which describes the effects produced by the blowing of
the sixth trumpet. But this is deferred until 11.14. 10.1-11.13 must therefore be part of the second woe, although some commentators think that
it is a further interlude between the blowing of the sixth trumpet and
the announcement of the third woe. It is pedantic to press this distinction too far. 10.1-11.13 is clearly associated with the second woe. The
material must be considered in that context, even if John's structural
scheme is perhaps somewhat difficult to follow here.
In 10.1 John sees another angel descend from heaven. This angel is
wrapped in a cloud. He has a rainbow over his head. His face is like the
sun and his legs like pillars of fire. John's vision of this angel 'coming
down' implies that the seer is now on earth, but nothing has been said
to indicate tllis in the text of the Apocalypse. Tllis problem evidently
does not trouble the author who introduces a number of abrupt transitions in his work. As with the other angels in Revelation the angel of
10.1 has sometimes been identified as Christ, but this is as unlikely here
as it is in 8 .3. His description nevertheless incorporates elements from
the biblical theophanies. The cloud derives from Dan. 7.13 and the rainbow from Ezek. 1.28. The shining face includes a detail from 1 En.
14.20. The description of his legs probably comes from the description
of Israel's wilderness wandering (Exod. 14.19, 24) where the pillar of
fire symbolizes the divine presence. This language means that the angel
bears something of the visual majesty of God but without the suggestion
that he is a divine being.
The angel holds a scroll in his hand (10.2). He shouts with a voice as
loud as a lion's (10.3). The roaring of the lion is used in Jewish literature
as a description both of Yahweh (Hos. 11.10) and the Messiah (4 Ezra
12.31-32). Given the symbolism of 5.5 ('the Lion of the tribe of]udah') it
seems likely that this detail links the angel with Christ to demonstrate
the divine origin of his message (1 0. 7).
When the angel speaks 'the seven thunders' sound (10.4). Thunder is
associated with divine vengeance elsewhere in the Apocalypse (see 8.5;
11.19; 16.18). But this reference to the 'seven thunders' is probably
another mystical allusion. It draws attention to the significance of w hat
is to follow. John is about to write down the vision when a voice comes
from heaven with the command to seal up what the thunders have
disclosed and not to write it (10.4). Commentators are puzzled by the
contrast between this passage and 1.19 (where the seer is commanded
to write down what he sees), but the reference to 'sealing' is commonly
found in the apocalyptic tradition (e.g. Dan. 12.9). 22.10 makes for a
further contrast with this passage, but for agreement with 1.19, when it
forbids any 'sealing'. The Apocalypse is not consistent on this i~sue. It is
possible that the command of 10.4 is deliberately counterm~nde~ by
22.10 to form an eschatological declaration of hope. 10.4 tmphes a
wider body of apocalyptic knowledge that goes beyond the contents of
the Apocalypse and is not made public there. John may or may pot have
disclosed this to his churches on other occasions.
Many commentators compare this passage with 2 Cor. 12.~:4 w~~re
Paul briefly describes a mystical experience. It is perhaps not s~rpnsmg
that John does not reveal all that he has learned through revelat\on. 10.4
implies that the Apocalypse is carefully honed to suit the pres~nt situation and that John could say more than he does to the churc\les. One
wonders what it would have been like to hear this prophet in P.~rson!
In 10.5-7 the drama reaches a critical moment. The angeltqts up his
right hand and swears by God that there will be no more d<,: lay: 'the
mystery of God will be fulfilled, as he announced to his se~ants t~e
prophets' (10.7). The upraising of the hand is part of the oath \fl ~ewtsh
practice (see, e.g., Gen. 14.22-23). The in1roediat~ source f?r this passage is Dan. 12.7 where the linen-clothed roan ratsed up his !lands ~o
predict that the 'power of the holy people' would no longer be dtspersed. The mystery mentioned here (in line with the conteqts of the
Apocalypse) is an eschatological one. It signifies the final move& towards
the end which will yield the Messiah's kingdom and the r.ecreated
heaven and earth. It is not accidental that John's language pecoroes
more conspicuously mysterious as he begins to describe the final things.
As before, this heightens the dramatic tension and tells the rqder that
significant things will follow.
In 10.8-9 the heavenly voice tells John to take the scroll from the
angel's hand and eat it. The angel says that it will taste as swe~t as ho~ey
to his mouth but bitter to his stomach. This reference to eatm~ (wh1ch
derives from Ezek. 2.8-3.3) signifies that John will become 11\c; embodiment of !lis message by digesting the contents of the scroll. The thought
is not that bitter revelation is presented to John in the form of a sugared
pill. The sweetness signifies the divine origin of the message. The
Hebrew prophets were often instructed to proclaim a message that they
found unpalatable. In this case, the message is a hopeful one because
Christians are promised the blessings of the eschatological ag~ . It may
be that 11.1-13 provides the content of this scroll, especially s4tce there
(as in the letters) we find the 'message' of the Apocalypse in m\crocosm
(see below). The scroll would then promise that t~e person vv~o 'conquers' (with its ethical implications) will share the vtctory of Christ.
John does as he is told (1 0.1 0). The scroll produces its .p.rojected
84 Revelation 10
eff~ct. John is told that he must prophesy about 'many people and
nattons and languages and kings' (10.11). As in 1.5, the piling up of
nouns demonstrates the universality of the knowledge (knowledge
about all people) that is granted to the seer through revelation. The referenc_e to 'nations and kings' leaves little doubt that their fate will be
descnbed, together with the victory of the followers of Jesus.
Revelation 11
Chapter 11 falls into two main parts. 11.1-13 describes what happens
when John eats the scroll. He sees two witnesses whose martyrdom
terrifies the world (11.13). This is followed by the announcement of the
third woe in 11.14. That in tum leads to the celebration by the heavenly
chorus ofthe coming of the kingdom of God (11.15-18). In this way, ch.
11 provides the transition to the middle section of the Apocalypse.
The Temple
In 11.1 the seer is given a measuring-staff and told to measure the
temple, the altar and those who worship there. It is clear from what
86 Revelation 11
in 11.1-13. The answer is that he may have done so but that it is more
important to understand how this material is used in the Apocalypse
than to speculate on the precise nature of the source from which it was
derived. The present form of material speaks with a Christian voice
(especfally in 11.8). It would be unwise to ignore this observation even
when aJewish origin is posited.
The seer is told to ignore the outer court of the temple because this
will be given over to the nations (11. 2). This is a reference to the court
of the Gentiles beyond which only Jewish people were allowed to pass
(see Josephus, War 5.5.2). That the court of the Gentiles is excluded
from the calculation makes the point that Gentile practices (but not, of
course, Gentiles themselves) have no p lace in the church. 'Measuring' in
this passage is the symbolic equivalent of the 'sealing' in 7.3-8. There is
possibly a distant echo of Caligula's attempt to erect his standards in the
temple in 39 CE. The timescale placed on the ' trampling' is equivalent to
the three-and-a-half times (i.e. three-and-a-half years) of Rev. 12.14. It
derives from the symbolic eschatology of the book of Daniel (Dan.
7.25).
Revelation 11 87
which stand before the Lord (11.4). The background to this identification is Zechariah 4, where a lampstand is flanked by two trees. There
is an obvious link with the lampstands of chs. 2- 3. This identifies the
witnesses-whatever else they are-as symbols of the church. 11.4 is a
symbolic repetition of the point that the church's witness cannot be
snuffed even if in places it bums quite dimly. If the olive tree suggests
peace, this image is shown to be deceptive (or at least implicitly malleable).
The time will come when the witnesses have 'finished their testimony' (11.7). This will be when the 1260 days of 11.3 are completed.
Then the beast will ascend from the bottomless pit, make war on them,
conquer them and kill them. This passage anticipates the beast's appearance in chs. 13 and 17of the Apocalypse. It is a variation on the early
Christian theme of eschatological opposition to the righteous which is
found in the Synoptic Eschatological Discourse (Mk 13 and par.), 2 Thessalonians 2 and several other passages. Neither Moses nor Elijah was
killed in this way, but this does not matter for John's imagery. John adds
that their bodies will lie unburied in the street of that great city which is
'prophetically called Sodom and Egypt, where also their Lord was
cmcified' (11.8).
Many commentators identify this 'great city' as Jemsalem on the basis
of the last clause ('where their Lord was cmcified'), but this is probably
an over-literal reading of the passage which belittles John's allusive
mind. The city's identification as 'Sodom and Egypt' is called ' prophe~c
or 'symbolic' . This prevents any single or exclusive identification of tt.
Sodom and Egypt were notorious places of rebellion against God. John
does not tell his readers the obvious fact that Jesus was crucified in
Jerusalem. The symbolism implies that Jesus is crucified in ~very ~ity
and by every person who is opposed to Christian sta~da:ds (rn~ludt~g,
no doubt, John's Christian opponents). Readers are mvtted to tdentt~
themselves with the shame of the witnesses who followed the Lord s
example and perished as he had done. As elsewhere in the Apocalyps.e
(e.g. 16.19; 17.18, etc.), 'the great city' primarily designates Rome but 1t
also denotes all those other cities (including the cities of the seven
churches) where Roman influence was prominent.
In 11.9 people are said to gaze on the bodies of the witnesses for
three and a half days and to prevent their burial. This is a deliberate
mark of disrespect to the servants of God (cf. Tob. 2.1-7). 11.10
describes the mirth that is raised over their bodies. People celebrate and
exchange presents because the witnesses have been a torment to them.
But, as John tells their story, it is the witnesses who call the tune by
their faithfulness to death. People react to them; how they lived made a
difference. 11 .11 duly vindicates the martyrs (as we should now call
them although the Greek word is the same). After three-and-a-half days,
a 'br~ath of life' from God enters them and they stand on their feet. This
88 Revelation 11
resurrection terrifies those who see it. There is an echo here of the
Valley of Dry Bones (Ezek. 37) where human bodies are reconstituted by
the spirit of God.
Revelation 11.11 is one of the most vivid descriptions of the resurrection in the New Testament literature. It conceivably anticipates the
process that John expected in the eschatological future, but we should
remember that all descriptions of the resurrection in New Testament
literature are speculative. It would be wrong to expect an entirely literal
description in Revelation 11. The symbolism does however recall the
'physicality' that other passages expect of the resurrection (e.g. 1 Cor.
15.44b).
The martyrs are addressed by a voice that calls them to heaven
(11.12). They enter heaven 'in a cloud' as their enemies look on. There
are echoes here of the ascension of Jesus; the verse mirrors Jewish
beliefs about the immortality of martyrs and other exceptional people.
This description of their vindication, like John's earlier portrait of the
elders, is not so much a promise of heavenly immortality to the readers
as a symbol of the fact that death cannot deprive people of their eschatological destiny. The passage recalls Paul's assurance in 1 Thessalonians
4 that in this sense it makes no difference whether one is dead or alive
at the return of Jesus to earth. The eschatological benefits are assured
for both alike. At the end of the Apocalypse, the martyrs are resurrected
to reign on earth with Christ (20.4) as a prelude to the recreation of
heaven and earth. 11.12 anticipates this future hope.
At the moment of their ascension, there is a great earthquake (cf.
6.12). A tenth of the city falls (11.13). Seven thousand people perish in
the earthquake. The rest give glory to 'the God of heaven '. An
earthquake is an eschatological sign in the Hebrew Bible (see Ezek.
38.19-20; Zech. 14.15; Hag. 2.6-7). This scene is reminiscent again of the
book of Daniel where those who are confounded by the miracles
acknowledge the power of the Jewish God (see esp. Dan. 2.17-19). The
title 'God of heaven' deliberately recalls this Jewish background.
This part of ch. 11 describes what can only be called a process of
conversion. The earthquake leads people to glorify God (11.13). It concludes the story of the martyrs, so that we are probably right to suppose
it is the death of the martyrs (and not the earthquake in the limited
s::nse) that leads people to glorify God. This means that their witness
achieves what the plagues did not. That is in every sense a significant
assertion. John implies that the plagues might not bring conviction but
that the witness of the church will have this effect. Through the church's
witness, the Gentiles will be turned. The witnesses remind the readers
what effect their behaviour will have in their society. Chapter 11 is an
ethical appeal in miniature.
11 .14 states that the second woe has passed and the third yet to come
(cf. 9.12). I have suggested that the content of 'the second woe' is given
Revelation 11 89
90 Revelation 11
f h
'
1.
e openmg o t e temple and ark (God's heavenly seat) reveals God's judgment.
!he natural po~tents confirm that the judgment is now beginning. This
Is a further remmder of the choice that readers must make.
Revelation 12
The scene is set for the description of the events of the end. Chapters
12-15 begin this description with the mythological narrative of the
supernatural opposition unleashed against the Christians. There is a
clear structural marker in 15.5-6 that looks back retrospectively to 11.19
and binds this section together. This is the third woe of the Apocalypse.
Chapter 12 describes the portents that herald the end. We read here of
the woman and the dragon (12. 1-6) ; of the dragon 's exp ulsion from
heaven (12.7-12); and of the woman and the dragon again (12.13-17).
The blowing of the seventh trumpet in 11.15 marked the start of the
eschato logical climax. This is now described in symbolic form.
92 Revelation 12
between the Romans as the dominant power and the Christians as people who are powerless to oppose them. The author here creates the
notion of conflict by using the dragon imagery which represents chaos
and which the Hebrew Bible claims that Yahweh has subdued (see Isa.
51.9; Ps. 74.14). It is not necessary to suppose that this passage was
provoked by the specific experience of persecution. It more obviously
inculcates a world-view that expresses the inevitability of conflict
between Rome and the Christians (in a situation where this may not
have been obvious) and sets the participants in a particular light. John
presents Rome in demonized terms as a way of telling the readers the
attitude that he wants them to adopt towards the existing order.
The woman bears a male child (12.5). This child is expected to 'rule
all the nations with a rod of iron' (cf. Ps. 2.9). This anticipates Christ's
future rule over the nations which John thinks will be demonstrated on
his return from heaven (see esp. 19.11-21 ; 20.4). The notion of 'shepherding', which means 'destroy', contrasts with the use of that term in
7.17 where Christ was said to 'shepherd' his flock. Readers remember
the earlier passage. This 'shepherding' of the chosen ones means the
subjection of their adversaries. 12.5b says that the child is snatched up
to the throne of God (cf. 3.21). This expresses divine protection of him.
Not even Rome can prevent the final triumph of the Messiah and his
people. Readers may think of the ascension of Jesus which earlier Christian literature (e.g. Rom. 8.34) associates with the throne of God, but
John is thinking here of ascension immediately after birth and does not
draw directly on that tradition.
The woman flees into the wilderness where her place is prepared by
God (12.6). There she is nourished for 1,260 days (cf. 11.9; Dan. 12.11).
John thinks here of Israel's wilderness sojourn. The passage describes a
retreat which illustrates the need for distance from prevalent forms of
behaviour (cf. Asc. !sa. 4.13).
War in Heaven
12.7 describes the outbreak of war in heaven. Michael and his angels
fight with the dragon. The dragon is cast down from heaven. Although
he cannot prevail against the forces of Michael, there is nevertheless the
suggestion, as in Daniel 10-12, that the contest is a hard-fought one in
which the dragon provides credible opposition. In 12.9 the dragon and
his angels are thrown down to earth. This explains the additional title
'the deceiver of the whole world' that he is given in this verse. The
dragon is given a medley of other titles which leave his identity in no
doubt: 'the great dragon ... that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil
and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world' .
The dragon's fall is paralleled in the Gospel tradition in Lk. 10.18
where Jesus says that he sees Satan fall like lightning from heaven. The
Revelation 12 93
94 Revelation 12
devil has come down to them, 'because he knows that his time is short!'
Spatial and temporal categories are fused together here to make Satan's
ejection from heaven a sign of his future destruction. The chorus pronounces authoritative truth because they know that Satan has already
been defeated in heaven.
Revelation 13
Chapter 13 is a notorious and difficult section of the Apocalypse. Hard
on the heels of ch. 12, it portrays the Roman administration in demonic
terms as a beast that comes up from the sea (13.1) and blasphemes God
(13.6). Several remarks must be made before we read this material. First
of all, there is no reason to suppose that the symbolism of this chapter
(which looms large in the debate about the orientation of New Testament theology) should be taken any more or less literally than other
parts of the Apocalypse. John brings into being a further rebirth of
images whereby a variety of material is used to express antipathy to the
existing order on the grounds that it is inimical to Christianity. This is
the principal point of the passage. Secondly, the presentation of the
readers' social situation has not changed perceptibly from the earlier
chapters. We should not expect to find a new attitude inch. 13. We do
not find one there. The striking imagery reinforces what has been said
already. This is that readers must avoid full integration with their social
world whlch is symbolized under the image of the blasphemous Roman
Empire. Chapter 13 carries forward John's intention of creating a crisis
by presenting the Roman government in critical terms.
96 Revelation 13
Revelation 13 97
98 Revelation 13
Antiochus Epiphanes in Dan. 11.36 (cf. Dan. 7.8, 25; 2 Thess. 2.4). The
passive 'was given' is deliberately vague. It might identify the dragon as
the source of authority but it more likely refers to God so that the
'divine passive' is used. This would agree with the insistence of the
whole Apocalypse that God determines all human events-even those
that apparently work against his own people. The irony is that the beast
does not recognize that God permits his every move. The figure of 42
months is another variant on the 'three-and-a-half times' that has
featured several times already in the Apocalypse.
The beast blasphemes God, his name, his dwelling, and those in
heaven (i.e. the angels, 13.6). There is a parallel for this blasphemy of
the angels in Jude 8-10 which shows that the idea was a familiar one in
early Chri~tian apocalyptic. The thought is that the beast blasphemes
every posstble aspect of the heavenly world. No higher criticism can be
made. This is blasphemy. John tells his readers how to regard a world
order where the dragon and his beast are potent forces.
The beast is allowed to make war on the saints and conquer them
(13. 7). Its authority extends to 'every tribe and people and language and
nation'. 12.7-9 has set the matrix in which this statement should be
read. Readers know that the final sovereignty is God's and that the beast
discharges power that he has been granted only temporarily. 13.7 develops the myth of Satan's fall by explaining that he harries only the people
of God ('the saints'). Discipleship to Jesus is the crucial factor in determining how one fares in respect of the beast. The dualism once again
tells readers to see their environment in hostile terms.
This polarized approach continues in 13.8. The Christians stand out
because, unlike other people, they refuse to worship the beast. John
says this is because their names have been written in the Lamb's book of
life (cf. 3.5; 7.5-8). The predestinarian implications of this statement present Christians as necessarily distant from the aspirations of urban society. 13.9 contains a maxim, drawn from the sayings of Jesus, that the
person with an ear should hear. Earlier in this book I called this 'the
refrain' of the letters to the seven churches (chs. 2-3). This maxim introduces a proverb whose form varies across the manuscripts (13.10). The
form given by the NRSV says that the captive will be taken captive and
th.e person who uses the sword will be slain by the sword. This agrees
wtth the words of]esus in Mt. 26.52 and warns against the temptation to
defend oneself with force. This form of words reminds the readers of
the need for a peaceful co-existence with the present order while the
eschat?logical age is born. Some scholars think that another reading,
found m the fifth-century CE Codex Alexandrinus, is the more original.
This softens the saying into a comment on the inevitability of persecution: 'If any man is to be killed with a sword, he is to be killed with a
sword.' The agreement with the words of Jesus is the critical factor in
Revelation 13 99
deciding between these readings. One should probably argue that the
majority text has the edge here for this reason.
I 00 Revelation 13
compromise. Here, the critical action comes from the two beasts. John
explains in parody why his readers cannot continue with the policy of
social integration which some of them have adopted. The image of
martyrdom illustrates the ultimate consequences of such behaviour.
There is doubtless an echo here of the Neronian persecution (64 CE).
This verse reveals awareness of a tradition of martyrdom that must have
taken several decades to create (cf. Asc. !sa. 4.3). 3.15 recalls the events
of 64 CE to draw readers back to an exemplary tradition that, it is
implied, their present behaviour has begun to set aside.
The second beast furthermore causes its subjects to be branded on
their right hands and foreheads (13.16). Branding was common in the
ancient world. The branding of the slave and the practice of religious
tattooing provide the closest analogies to this passage. This branding
cleverly parodies the sealing of the tribes which the seer has seen
already (7 .5-8). It differs from the sealing in that the branding is required
by a human agent but the sealing by the command of God. No one can
bear two marks. John asks his readers which mark they prefer.
13.17 states that no one can buy or sell without the mark of the beast.
This is a further call for those without the mark-that is, for Christiansto abstain from beneficial contact with pagan society. John hints in ch.
18 that trading relations with Rome were a source of concern in this
respect. 13.17 reflects Rome's ability to direct the ancient economy
through its great resources. It encourages readers who were merchants
to consider whether they should be engaging in trading relations with
Rome at all. The implication at any rate is that those who buy and sell
bear the mark of the beast and that this is opposed to the sealing of
God's elect. But we have no way of telling what concrete forms of
action the Apocalypse produced among its readers. We can only note
the different possibilities.
The number of the beast is given as the cipher '666'. This is said to be
'the number of a person' (13.18). Greek and Hebrew letters had a
designated numerical value in antiquity (a practice called 'gematria').
The question of who this figure identifies is much discussed in the commentaries. The most common solution is that it stands for Nero when
the Greek term Nertm Kaisar is transliterated into Hebrew. This view is
not without problems, for it requires a defective spelling of 'Caesar' and
there are manuscript variants at this point. The variant '616' which is
found in some of the manuscripts evidently derives from the calculation
'Nero Caesar' when the words are given in their Latin form. Nero's
name is not mentioned by the earliest commentators on Rev. 13.18. The
identification with Nero seems likely but it is not finally proven. Perhaps
the figure is deliberately allusive, like the reference to the 'great city' in
11 .8, which can bear more than one interpretation. If Nero is the correct identification, the fact that he is introduced under a cipher means
that John is not so much interested in the historical Nero as in a
Revelation 13 101
Revelation 14 103
Revelation 14
Chapter 14 purposefully contrasts with ch. 13. The portrait of the Lamb
and his elect on Mount Zion is set against the domination of the dragon
and the two beasts. This chapter contains a collection of material that
reinforces John's warning of judgment for those w h o do not keep to
strict ethical standards. John promises that those who do what he asks
will pass through the judgment and enjoy the Messiah's kingdom. He
sets the experience of lh~ing in the Roman social world in its true light
as the Lamb contrasts with the mythical creatures (14.1).
TheL~bandtheVkwns
14.1-5 is a vision of God's elect as they stand with the Lamb on Mount
Zion (cf. 4 Ezra 2.42-47). The 144,000 bear his name and the name of
his Father on their foreheads in contrast to the mark of the beast which
is displayed by other people. This vision embodies a series of contrasts.
The elect stand on Zion; the beasts come from the sea (13.1) and from
the earth (13.11). Zion towers over them. This shows that those who
follow the Lamb cannot be thwarted by the beasts. Some commentators
worry that only the martyrs are designated by this passage (as by ch. 7),
but it would be wrong to confuse this symbolic vision with John's actual
eschatological expectations. This (apparently limited) figure is symbolic
of all Christians inasmuch as they represent the true Israel of God. The
fact that only adult male warriors are mentioned here again does not
exclude women and children from the kingdom any more than does
ch. 7 (see below).
In 14.2 John h ears a loud voice from heaven. This sounds like many
waters and like thunder, even like a harp (cf. Ezek. 1.24). It emerges
from 14.3 that it is the new song that is sung by the redeemed. The text
of this song is probably given by 15.3 (which is called 'the song of
Moses ... and the Lamb '). It represents the human contribution to the
heavenly liturgy. The reference calls to mind Phil. 2.9-11 where representatives of the whole created order-not just the angels-worship the
heavenly Jesus. There are parallels for humans joining the heavenly
chorus also in the Qumran literature (e.g. 1QH 3.21-22). It is said here
that only the Christian redeemed can learn the words of this song.
This song is a ' new song'. Its 'newness' calls to mind Hebrew Bible
passages such as Ps. 96.1 but the adjective has a Christian connotation.
The song is 'new' because it celebrates the sacrifice of Jesus (cf. 2 Cor.
5.17) which the Christians believed had effected a 'new covenant' (cf.
1 Cor. 11 .25). A few years later Pliny would tell Trajan that the Christians rose early on a particular day of the week to sing a 'hymn to Christ
as a God' (Ep. 10.96). This was the religious activity for which they were
known in the ancient world.
The company of the redeemed are described under further images
(14.4-5). They are said not to have defiled themselves with women and
to be virgins; to follow the Lamb wherever he goes; and to have been
redeemed from humankind as first-fruits for God and the Lamb. No lie
is found in their mouth. The warrior imagery is prominent here (as in
ch. 7). The first thing that is said about these wartiors is that they are virgins. Some commentators-perfectly correctly-observe that unchastity
is a regular biblical metaphor for religious infidelity (cf. 2.14, 20). The
force of the allusion, however , is the fact that in the Hebrew Bible
warriors must abstain from sexual relations to be in a state of purity for
battle (see Deut. 23.9-14; 1 Sam. 21.5; cf. Lev. 15.18). The same rule is
found at Qumran (see IQM 7. 1-7: 'No toddling child or woman is to
enter their camps from the moment they leave Jerusalem to go to war
until they return ... All of them are to be men ... unimpaired in spirit and
flesh ... Any man who is not yet cleansed from a bodily discharge on the
day of battle is not to go down with them; for holy angels march with
their hosts'). These 144,000 of Revelation 14 are men on active service.
Their virginity indicates the importance of their mission. That is why
they follow the Lamb wherever he goes and boldly enter the fray. They
are about to undertake the eschatological battle. Their status as the 'firstfruits ' (cf. 1 Cor. 15.20) means that the whole Christian body is included
in the promise of salvation.
This interpretation of the passage means that it would be wrong to
conclude that this passage encourages celibacy in view of the imminent
end. That view was held by some Christians (e.g. Paul in 1 Cor. 7.8;
Marcion and Origen), but the Apocalypse offers no support for it. In any
event, the reference is to virgins and not to celibates. The fact that the
Christian army are called virgins shows the symbolic nature of the reference. Their virginity means that they have not entered into defiling or
compromising relationships. This striking icon shows the readers the
defiling nature of their own condition and urges them to abstain from
what they are doing (cf. 2 Cor. 11. 2). It is far from clear (as with 1QM)
how the material applies to readers' everyday lives, and by no means
certain that any direct connection is intended. It would be wrong to
take this passage out of context and to see celibacy as part of the desired
lifestyle that John imposes on his churches.
14.5 continues the image of putity by saying that these people tell no
lies. This looks back to Zeph. 3. 13 which demands truthfulness of the
remnant of Israel. These Christian redeemed are said to be without
blemish (NRSV 'blameless'). This is an allusion to their priestly state (cf.
Rev. 1.6; 5.10; 20.6). It has a Hebrew Bible background (see Lev. 21.17-
Revelation 14 105
104 Revelation 14
23). There is a further parallel in the passage from 1QM which says that
the eschatological warriors must be 'unimpaired in spirit and flesh' .
Battle-ready purity is the theme of John's symbolism. It has profound
ethical implications for the readers.
obliteration (see Gen. 19.24; Ps. 11.6; Ezek. 38.22; cf. Lk. 17.29). Later
in the Apocalypse, Death and Hades are cast into the lake of fire and
sulphur as their final place of punishment (19.14). 14.9-10 has important
parallels with the Synoptic eschatology where the angels are expected
to witness the destruction of the ungodly by fire in the presence of the
Son of Man (see esp. Mt. 13.41-42; 25.31, 41; cf. also I En. 48.9).
14.11 pronounces the everlasting character of this destruction. John
says that the smoke of their torment will rise for ever and that t~ey will
have no rest. This contrasts with the rising incense that symbolized the
prayers of the saints in ch. 8. The incense floats upwards in heaven; the
smoke of destruction merely covers the earth. The statement that 'there
is no rest day and night for those who worship the beast' is a significant
one in early Christian eschatology. Several texts present 'rest' as the
eschatological reward of the righteous (see 2 Thess. 1.7; Heb. 4-5; Asc.
Jsa. 4.15). These texts understand 'rest' as an earthly blessing that will
result from the return of Jesus from heaven. The statement that those
who worship the beast will lack 'rest' means that they will be excluded
from the eschatological benefits. This explains the weighty language
about punishment that is used throughout this chapter. One should
beware of interpreting early Christian references to eschatological 'rest'
as promising freedom from specific kinds of oppression. The term
denotes eschatological emancipation in a general sense. It is founded on
the notion of 'rest' that occurs in Ps. 95.11, with its background in Exod.
33.14. It cannot be taken as evidence that the Christians were suffering
from Roman persecution.
14.12 gives this material an ethical application: 'Here is a call for the
endurance of the saints, those who keep the commandments of God and
hold fast to the faith of Jesus' (cf. 12.10). The vision of the Lamb and his
elect jars with the earlier vision of the beasts. It gains its meaning from
the angelic announcement of judgment for the ungodly. As throughout
the Apocalypse, John implies that people fall into one or the other
category. Those who do not stand on Mount Zion-which depends on
the behaviour required by 14.4-will suffer as explained in 14.9-11. In
the light of 14.12, we can see a potentially sinister meaning in the figure
of 144,000 (14.3). This limitation of numbers (despite the statement
about 'first-fruits' in 14.4b) implies that some may distance themselves
from Christ's kingdom through their behaviour. That is a theme also of
the Gospel tradition (see Lk. 13.22-30). 14.12 warns people not to let
this happen and to persevere in their ethical separation because only
this kind of behaviour will yield the eschatological benefits.
106 Revelation 14
dead who from now on die in the Lord'. The Spirit (who is distinguished
from this voice) adds that the dead rest from their labours and that their
deeds follow them (14.14).
Death was a problem that increasingly troubled first-century churches
as the return of Jesus proved further delayed (see 1 Thess. 4.14; 1 Cor.
15; 2 Cor. 5). The words 'from now on' on the face of it suggest that
only those who die after the writing of the Apocalypse will be blessed,
but this can hardly be the meaning of the verse. John offers assurance
that all the dead will find 'rest '. The 'from now on' looks back to the
sacrifice of Jesus which is the decisive moment in Revelation's eschatology. The succeeding verses give the meaning of this passage. We read
there of the judgment over which the Son of Man presides. This blessedness is thus the emancipation of the elect which depends on the
removal of the ungodly from God's kingdom.
The next vision describes the judgment (14.14-20). John sees a white
cloud on which is seated 'one like the Son of Man'. He wears a golden
crown and holds a sharp sickle. The Son of Man is here presented as the
eschatological judge, as he is in the Gospels (cf. Mt. 13.41). His crown
denotes authority and presents him as a regal figure , clearly as the
Messiah. His sickle is for 'reaping', which means judgment. There is a
close correspondence between this passage and the parable of the tares
in Mt. 13.24-43 where the Son of Man sends out his angels to remove sin
and the perpetrators of sin from the kingdom. It is clear that the direction of the Son of Man's movement in 14.14 is again from heaven to
earth. This is a vision of the return of Jesus and of the judgment that his
earthly appearance inaugurates.
In 14.15 an angel calls to Christ and tells him to begin the reaping
because the harvest is ripe. This command clearly comes from God. It is
mediated by the angel. Some commentators think that Christ sends out
the angel who here reports back to him. Whatever the exegesis of this
passage, Christ himself is said to reap the earth (14.16). There is no
doubt that he is the agent of destruction and the angel merely a
mediator.
In 14.17 another angel appears. In 14.18 yet another angel, one who
has the power over fire , comes from the altar and tells the angel of
14.17 to reap the clusters of vine from the earth. Perhaps John has the
'vine of Sodom' of Deut. 32.2 in mind at this point because it is clear
that these vines are destined for destruction. The vine is reaped by the
angel after Christ has removed his elect. If readers think instinctively of
the vine as a symbol of Israel, John effects a startling transition that stops
them in their tracks.
This vintage is not for wine. It is thrown into 'the great wine press of
the wrath of God' which is trodden outside the city (14.19-20). Blood
flows from the winepress in copious quantities. This is a violent image
of destruc tion. The background to it is Isa. 63.6 ('I trampled down
Revelation 14 107
peoples in my anger ... I poured out their lifeblood on the earth'). There
is an interesting parallel in the Targumic version of Gen. 49.11 where it
is said that the Messiah will redden the mountains with the blood of the
slain and resemble one who treads a winepress. That the judgment takes
place 'outside the city' has a symbolic meaning. Jesus died outside Jerusalem (Heb. 13.12), as did Stephen (Acts 7.56). Executions were done
there to avoid the ritual impurity that was associated with death near
the holy place. John promises that God will punish the non-Christian
world in a similar way to avoid the defilement that would otherwise be
caused to his holy people.
Revelation IS 109
Revelation 15
Chapter 15 falls into two halves. 15.1-4 describes the singing of the song
of Moses in heaven. 15.5-8 describes how the angels prepare to cast the
bowls of divine wrath onto the earth. This will be done inch. 16. On my
reading, 15.2-4 celebrates the end of the third woe which was
announced as early as 11.14.
110 Revelation IS
glory of God and his power', and entry is barred until the plagues have
ended (15.8). (The background to this verse is the Hebrew theophanic
tradition, especially perhaps Isa. 6.1-4 [cf. 1 Kgs 22.19] which says that
the temple 'filled with smoke', evidently from the incense). The smoke
symboliz~s the presence of God and especially his arising for judgment.
The barrmg of entry into the temple shows that an important event is
under way. We read the details of the plagues inch. 16.
Revelation 16
John now sees the plagues poured from the bowls by the angels. A voice
commands the angels to pour the bowls onto the earth. The owner of
the voice is not identified. It might be God's, but it could equally be an
angel's or Christ's. There is no doubt, however, that the command to
pour comes with the authority of God. God is the source of the plagues
which are caused by and represent his wrath.
The outpouring of God's wrath begins. The .first angel pours his bowl
onto the earth (16.2). Those with the mark of the beast break out in
sores like the Egyptians of Exod. 9.9-11. Where once the mark provided
security, now it yields the most unpleasant effects. There is an implied
reminiscence of the sealing (ch. 7) which protects the servants of God
from the sores (again in perpetuation of the Exodus tradition).
The second angel pours his bowl onto the sea (16.3). The sea turns to
blood and all the fish die. This statement recalls Exod. 7.20-21. The
phrase 'like the blood of a corpse' shows the horrid effect of this plague.
The third angel pours his bowl into the rivers and fountains (16.4) .
They all tum to blood. This metamorphosis recalls Ps. 78.44. The implication is that people have no good water to drink. The supernatural
disaster produces unpleasant effects in the human world (cf. 8.11).
The pouring of the third bowl is followed by a liturgical interlude
(16.5-7). The 'angel of the waters' sings that the Holy One is just in his
judgment (cf. 15.3-4). This judgment is just because its victims have
shed the blood of saints and prophets and so must be given blood to
drink (16.6). From the altar-where the martyrs are (6.9)-comes the
reply that God is certainly just and true in his judgments (16.7). There is
a sense in which the determinism of 13.9-10 (the proverb about the
inevitability of persecution) is turned here against those who are responsible for the persecution. The people who shed the blood of saints and
prophets are made to drink their blood. There is possibly a distant echo
of the tradition recorded in Mt. 23.34-35 that the blood of the righteous
in Israel will be requited on the eschatological generation (and cf. Rev.
18.24 in this context).
The fourth angel pours his bowl on the sun (16.8). The sun scorches
people. Despite their torment, they foolishly fail to recognize the true
significance of the plagues. Instead of repenting and acknowledging
God 'who had authority over these plagues', they blaspheme his name
(16.9). Readers can only ponder the folly of those who act in this way.
The .fifth angel pours his bowl onto the throne of the beast. Its kingdom
is plunged into darkness (16.10). People gnaw their tongues in pain.
112
Revelation 16 113
Revelation 16
Another Interlude
16.13-16 is another interlude before the outpouring of the seventh bowl.
This interlude heightens the dramatic effect of the chapter. In 16.13,
three foul spirits like frogs come from the mouths of the dragon, the
beast and the false prophet. It is difficult to relate this material to the
description of the sixth bowl (and even to decide whether a formal connection is warranted). 16.15 in particular seems ill suited to its context.
Charles (characteristically) wonders whether the text is disturbed at this
point (Critical and Exegetical Commentary, I, p. 49). But the material
must be interpreted in its present form. The dragon has been introduced
inch. 12. The 'false prophet' is presumably the second beast of 13.1117. John's entourage of mythical creatures reappears as a prelude to
their final destruction. In this context, their deceitful character is heavily
emphasized. The spirit that comes from their mouths is called a 'foul
spirit', which means a 'lying spirit'. One thinks here of the 'spirit of
falsehood' that features in the Qumran literature (see 1QS 3.13-4.1). As
in the Gospels, evil spirits are connected with the opponents of Jesus
and his followers. There are further parallels with 1 Jn 4.3 which speaks
of 'the spirit of the antichrist'.
These foul spirits assemble the forces of the nations for the final
conflict (16.14). The spirits are called 'demonic' and are said to perform
'signs'. In the language of early Christian eschatology, this means that
they presage the end (cf. Mt. 24.24; Asc. !sa. 4.4-11). The notion that
'the kings of the whole world' join the conflict comes from Ps. 2.2 (cf.
Acts 4.26); 'the great day of God the Almighty' from Zeph. 1.14 (cf. Jude
6). 16.14 preserves the general apocalyptic notion, found in the book of
Daniel (chs. 10-12), of a great world conflict, but gives it a specifically
Christian orientation in the belief that these hostile powers will perish
before the kingdom of Christ (cf. 1 Cor. 15.24). There is perhaps the
sense, given that the spirits are the principal actors, that the 'kings' are
morally neutral agents in the drama and inspired by supernatural
opponents.
16.15a repeats the saying about the thief in the night (which has
several New Testament parallels) from 3.3. This saying derives in one
form from Jesus (Mt. 24.43). It was reinforced by its repetition on the
lips of Christian prophets (like John himself). The frequent occurrence
of this saying in the New Testament literature reflects the problem that
the delayed return of Jesus was felt to cause for Christian eschatology.
John offers reassurance that Christ will come but he leaves the timescale
of this intervention tactfully imprecise. A non-specific prophecy of the
parousia holds its currency much more easily than a precise and specific one.
A second prophecy is appended to this saying (16.15b). John adds a
macarism which praises the person who keeps awake and does not let
his nudity be exposed. This too has parallels in the preaching of Jesus,
notably the parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt. 25.1-13). The
point of that parable is that not even substantial delay means that the
bridegroom will never come. John reflects the characteristic Jewish
horror of nudity at this point. As opposed to Paul in 2 Corinthians 5,
who uses nudity as a symbol for death, John calls his readers to a state of
eschatological alertness. He says that those who claim to be Christians
must stay alert or else they will face the judgment.
16.16 predicts that the kings of the world will assemble at the place
called Harmagedon in Hebrew. Harmagedon means 'mountain of
Megiddo'. Megiddo was well known as a battlefield in the ancient Near
East (see, e.g., Judg. 4-5). Commentators who accept this etymology are
puzzled by the knowledge that Megiddo is a plain and not a mountain;
but, as throughout the Apocalypse, symbolism is more important to John
than topographical accuracy. The alternative etymologies proposed for
Harmagedon are all unconvincing. This reference to Megiddo may have
been suggested by Judg. 5.19-20 (cf. Wis. 5.17) which says that the stars
fought there for Israel. John perhaps understands the stars as angels and
takes the reference to imply a conflict in which heavenly forces become
involved (cf. Dan. 10-12).
114 Revelation 16
This means that the final judgment of God has been undertaken (cf. Jn
19.30). Suddenly there is lightning, thunder and an earthquake such as
has never been seen before (16.18; cf. 4.5; 8.5; 11.19). The 'great city'
splits into three parts (16.19). The other cities and nations fall. John says
that God 'remembers' Babylon and makes her drain the cup of his wrath
(16.19).
The 'great city' and 'Babylon' are both names for Rome (cf. 11.8).
Some have disputed this identification, but John expects that every city
will fall. Under those circumstances, it is natural for Rome to head the
list. The fall of Rome is described in more detail in the next two chapters of the Apocalypse. The notion that God 'remembers' is used in the
Hebrew Bible both of J;lis mercy for Israel (Gen. 9.15; Lev. 26.45) and of
his punishment of sinners (Ps. 137.7; Hos. 7.2; 8.13). The word here
carries the second and more sinister sense. The reference to the cup
repeats the image of 14.10 ('they will also drink the wine of God's
wrath') and shows that this prediction is fulfilled in the seer's concluding visions.
The islands and mountains disappear (16.20). There is a similar
description in I En. 1.6 ('mountains and high places will fall down and
be frightened'). This (much earlier) reference shows the apocalyptic
ambience from which this passage is constructed. Hailstones drop from
heaven (16.21). Each weighs a hundredweight (cf. Josh. 10.11; Ezek.
38.22). But, once again, humankind curses God in a further demonstration of its folly (16.21b).
Revelation 17
Chapter 17 continues the description of the final judgment. John turns
his attention specifically to Rome. He portrays the Roman Empire under
the image of the whore and the beast in terms that recall the language of
ch. 13. This chapter further demonizes Rome, and encourages its readers to stand their distance from the conventions of Asian urban life.
One of the angels of the bowls tells John that he w ill see the judgment
of the 'great whore' who is 'seated on many waters' (17.1). The whore
stands for Rome in John's apocalyptic symbolism. The term has the
implied meaning that life under Rome means obeisance to pagan gods.
The angel continues that the 'kings of the earth' have committed 'fornication' w ith her and that people have become drunk with the w ine of
her fornication (17.2). In my discussion of the letters I showed that
'fornication ' means social accommodation (e.g. 2.14, 20) in a context
where the eating of meat sacrificed to idols is mentioned. John again
uses the Jewish ho11or of unchastity to encourage social distinctiveness
among his urban readers.
In 17.3 the angel carries the seer in the spirit into the wilderness.
There, John sees a woman seated on another scarlet beast full of blasphemous names and with seven heads and ten horns. The promise of
17.1 is here fulfilled. There is a tradition in both the Hebrew Bible (1 Kgs
19) and Christian literature (Mt. 4; Asc. /sa. 2.7-11) that apocalyptic
experience takes place in the desert. Perhaps solitude contributed to the
experience of revelation. We are evidently to think of John as once
again on earth and transported by the spirit in a mysterious journey
similar to that described by Ezekiel (Ezek. 11.1). This beast recalls the
two crean1res of ch. 13, especially the first beast with its ten horns and
seven heads (13.1). The scarlet colour emphasizes the woman's status as
a whore. The seven heads symbolize the seven hills of Rome. 17.9 will
say that they stand for seven emperors.
The whore is clothed in purple and scarlet and covered with jewels
(17.4). She holds a golden cup full of 'abominations and the impurities
of her fornication' . Purple was a royal colour (see Dan. 5.7) and scarlet
splendid , despite its pejorative overtones. Revelation reserves the colour
white and the plainness of linen for the faithful servants of God (e.g. 3.3;
19.8; cf. Ezek. 9.3; Dan. 10.5). The woman's gaudy appearance contrasts
with the earlier description of the martyrs (see 3.4-5 , 18; 4.4; 6. 11). This
makes for an important subversion of images. The splendours of life
under Rome, symbolized by loud colours, are presented as a false glory
in view of the purity that John demands. This point is also made by the
116 Revelation 17
reference to the cup. Its colour may be golden but it contains only abominations (cf. 17.2). What is superficially attractive has been poisoned by
corruption.
The whore has a mysterious name on her forehead (17.5). Evidence
from Seneca (Controv. 1.2) and Juvenal (Sat. 6.123) shows that this was
the practice of Roman courtesans. John picks up this tradition to criticize Roman domination. The adjective 'mysterious', which has sometimes (but incorrectly) been taken as part of the inscription (as by the
AV), gives the meaning of 'the name' and shows that it has a cryptic
meaning (cf. 2 Thess. 2. 7). John proceeds to disclose this meaning:
'Babylon the great, mother of whores and of earth's abominations. ' This
revelation of the whore's name contrasts with John's refusal to disclose
the hidden name of God (3 .1 2). John thereby distinguishes between
true Christian apocalypticism (with its heavenly origin) and its demonic
and inferior imitation.
17 .6 introduces a yet more grotesque image. This idolatrous woman is
said to be drunk with the blood of the saints and the martyrs of Jesus.
The Neronian Persecution (64 CE) remained an enduring Christian
memory as we know from Asc. !sa. 4.3, 1 Clem. 5.4 and Ignatius, Rom.
4.3. The author presents Rome as gorging herself on Christian blood in a
striking reminiscence of that event. It is not necessary to suppose that
Revelation addresses a cu1rent situation of persecution to explain this
imagery. The language is primarily symbolic but it recalls earlier events.
It involves a further development of the 'drinking blood' theme from
16.6 which makes the point that Rome will be punished for her arrogant
behaviour. The image is a vivid one which rightly engages all readers of
the Apocalypse.
The angel promises to tell John the 'mystery' of the woman and the
beast (17.7). Frustratingly for modern commentators, John is more
concerned to show that the forces of God will overcome the powers of
evil than to identify this beast in detail. We do not know whether a
more explicit identification had already featured in John's teaching
before his writing of the Apocalypse, but this is perhaps not unlikely.
John says that the beast 'was, and is not, and is about to ascend from
the bottomless pit and go to destruction' (17.8). The first part of this
statement is modelled on the earlier descriptions of God (1.4; 4.8) and
Christ (1.18; 2.8). It presents the beast as their demonic and inferior
counterpart who has no permanent existence. The 'was' alludes to his
earlier activity-probably to the Neronian persecution, but also more
generally to t11e whole history of Roman domination. John says that the
beast currently 'is not'. This alludes to his imminent unleashing on earth:
'he is to ascend from the bottomless pit'. That reflects the Christian
eschatological belief, found earlier in the Apocalypse, that a powerful
opponent will appear immediately before the kingdom of Christ (cf.
2 Thess. 2.3-8). The 'pit' is the dwelling-place of Abaddon/Apollyon
Revelation 17 117
which was mentioned in 9.11 (cf. 11.7). 20.3 presents it as the dragon's
place of intermediate confinement.
The beast's appearance is said to amaze 'the inl1abitants of the earth'
(17 .8). This is due to the fact that 'those whose names have not been
written in the book of life from the foundation of the world' (cf. 3.5) fail
to recognize its demonic character. They are completely taken in by the
beast. John reminds his readers that they have been enlightened about
the beast's place in the eschatological scheme and that their knowledge
will help secure their place in the Messiah's kingdom (provided that
they remain faithful to the ethical teaching John gives them in the
Apocalypse).
118 Revelation 17
Revelation 17 119
and removes any lingering doubt about its meaning. The force of the
statement is not merely to identify the 'great city' as Rome but to indicate both the universal nature of Rome's tyranny and the punishment
that this will bring. The judgment begins with Rome because Rome
rules the Mediterranean world.
Revelation 18 121
Revelation 18
Chapter 18 describes the fall of Babylon (Rome). This is the final act of
destruction. It precedes the Messiah's return from heaven in 19.11. This
chapt~r voices a powerful economic critique of the Roman Empire. It
explams the consequences of Rome 's fall for those who enjoy trading
relations with the city.
Revelation 18 123
122 Revelation 18
like the great city?' (cf. Ezek. 27.32). In 18.19, these people cast dust on
their heads. John here offers an important historical commentary on the
position that Rome enjoyed in the first-century world: 'All ':ho had
ships at sea grew rich by her wealth!' Bauckham's study (Cltm~x of
Prophecy, pp. 338-83) shows that this is not hyperbole but conta1~s a
considerable truth. The effect of the divine judgment is well descnbed
in the stark conclusion of this passage: 'For in one hour she has been
laid waste' (18.19). This is a sharp reminder of the complete transformation that John expects God's judgment to effect.
Heavenly Rejoicing
18.20 changes the tone from mourning to rejoicing. It is an isolated
oracle which tells the 'saints, apostles and prophets' to rejoice over
Babylon's judgment. 'Saints' designates human beings as well as angels
in Jewish and Christian literature (cf. Rom. 1.7; 15.26; 1 Cor ..6 ..1).
Human beings are obviously meant here. 'Prophets' means Chnsttan
prophets and not their Hebrew Bible counte~part~ (cf. 1 ~or. 12.28;
Eph. 2.20). This call for rejoicing has a special piquancy if some of
John's readers were profiting from trade with Rome. We re~ember that
the function of the heavenly chorus is to give the true meanmg of earthly
events. In 18.21, the fall of Babylon is depicted in further symbolic
terms as an angel picks up a stone like a millstone and casts it into. ~e
sea. The millstone, being a large stone, plummets to the bottom. This IS
the force of the allusion. The fall of Rome is a mighty catastrophe. The
following verses show the consequences of this fall in a further list of
revealed information.
18.22-23 is a list of things that will no longer be seen or heard when
Rome falls. The list begins with harps and minstrels, flutes and trumpets.
Harps are played in the Apocalypse by the elders (5.8) and conq~erors
(15.2); trumpets by the angels (cbs. 8-9). The playing of heavenly mstruments contrasts with the silence that is now imposed on Rome (cf. 8.1).
The city's silence is a sign of mourning if not of total destruction. Babylon will also lose her artisans and corn-grinders, her light and her weddings (cf. Jer. 25.1 0). John says that this is because she has deceived the
nations with her sorcery (18.23). The heavenly chorus has good reason
to celebrate because Rome's fall prepares the way for the coming kingdom of Christ (19.11; cf. 11.15).
18.24 sets the seal on this chapter. It gives in summary the reason for
Babylon's fall: 'And in you was found the blood of prophets and of
saints, and of all who have been slaughtered on earth'. This statement
answers the question of the martyrs that was raised in 6 .10: 'How long
will it be before you judge and avenge our blood on the inhabitants
of the earth?' Chapter 18 offers an apocalyptic demonstration that
this anticipated vengeance has now been achieved. 18.24 comments
124 Revelation 18
Revelation 19
The scene is now set for the introduction of the Messiah's kingdom. The
description of Babylon's fal1 is followed by a victory cry in heaven (19.18). 19.9-10 is a brief interlude in which an angel refuses John's worship.
19.11-21 marks the watershed of the Apocalypse. It describes how
Christ returns from heaven to commence his judgment on earth.
Revelation 19 127
126 Revelation 19
here, as in the parable of the wedding feast (Mt. 22. 1-10), that those
who are invited to the feast spurn the invitation. But there is indeed the
admonition that only the worthy will experience the blessings of the
end time.
19.8 states that the bride is arrayed in fine linen. This linen recalls the
dress of the 24 elders in 4.4 and the promise made to the righteous in
3.4. It is interpreted at the end of this verse as 'the righteous deeds of
the saints'. Here we have a further call for ethical action. John cons tructs a scenario in which Christ returns from heaven to claim his
bride. It is implied that the bride must be in a pure condition for the
wedding. The linen dress symbolizes this state of purity. As before, the
Christian eschatological hope is made the basis of John's ethical appeal.
John tells his readers that only the pure belong in the church. Those
who want to share Christ's kingdom must adopt the behaviour that John
recommends. The fine linen is the righteous deeds of the saints (19.8).
Those who do not do 'righteous deeds' do not wear the linen, nor will
they share the eschatological destiny that it represents.
We must not underestimate the realism with which the first-century
Christians hoped for the return of Christ and for the establishment of his
kingdom as an earthly entity. Whether or not John expects a banquet in
the literal sense, he clearly does anticipate the return of Christ from
heaven quite literally. John is at one with all of first-century Christianity
in this. That his language is symbolic does not obscure the realism of his
future hope, which takes the distinction between heaven and earth
seriously. 20.4 will describe the earthly rule of Christ as the preparation
for the re-creation of heaven and earth in 21.1.
128 Revelation 19
disagrees with other apocalypses (and indeed with 10.4b), that the
words of the prophecy must not be sealed because 'the time is near'
(22.1 0). The knowledge disclosed in the Apocalypse is authoritative
knowledge because it has been gained through revelation. The rationale
of the Apocalypse is that this can now be revealed because the eschatological age is impending.
As earlier, the white colour is referred to the fact that Christ's garment
is dipped in blood (19.13; cf. 7.14). This clash of imagery refers to the
sacrifice of Jesus from which the Christology of the Apocalypse takes its
cue (cf. 5.6; 14.19-20; and the Palestinian Targum to Gen. 49.11). That
the returning Messiah wears bloodstained robes confirms that his victory
has been won. It shows the price of that victory. Christ's return to earth
is the end of a contest whose outcome has never been in doubt in the
apocalypse.
The first of Christ's mystical names is 'The Word of God' (19.13). This
was a familiar title in early Christology (seeJn 1.1-18; cf. Heb. 4.12). This
passage has a background in earlier Jewish literature, especially the
description of Wisdom in Wis. 19.15-16 where the Word of God is said
to be a warrior who leaps down from heaven. John's Gospel is relevant
too. Where Jn 1.1-18 describes the enfleshment of the Word of God,
John the Apocalyptist describes his second appearance on earth. Revelation's language is further reminiscent of the Hebrew Bible theophanies
(e.g. Zech. 14.5) where God himself appears on earth for judgment.
The heavenly Christ is followed by the angel hosts (cf. Mt. 13.41), as
God is attended by angels in the Hebrew theophanies (19.14; e.g. Zech.
14.5; 1 En. 1.9). The angels' white linen dress indicates their heavenly
origin and implies their ethical purity. The distinctive feature of this
passage is that the angels, like Christ, are seated on white horses. From
the mouth of Christ proceeds a sharp sword with which he will strike
down the nations (19.15; cf. Isa. 11.14). John holds in common with
Heb. 4.12 the belief that the word of God has an irresistible power. The
Apocalypse has much to say about the power of demonic opponents.
John says here that Christ will vanquish all opposition at a single stroke.
The swiftness of his victory contrasts with the protracted opposition to
the Christians before the eschatological age was born.
Christ will now 'rule' the nations with a rod of iron (19.15). The
Greek word 'to rule' -poimainein-was used in 7.17 to describe
Christ's tender care for his redeemed. 19.15 deliberately recalls that passage and says that Christ's care involves the subjection of those who
oppress the people of God. The implied note of vengeance in this
passage derives from Ps. 2.9. The last phrase of 19.15 ('he will tread the
wine press of the fury of the wrath of God the Almighty') recalls the
imagery of 14.19-20.
19.16 discloses more mysterious names of Christ. On his robe and
thigh are inscribed the words, 'King of Kings and Lord of Lords' .
Revelation 19 129
1 Timothy 6.15 shows this title was not invented by John but that it
circulated more widely. Its source is the divine acclamation 'Lord of
lords' in Deut. 10.17 (cf. Ps. 136.3) and the epithet 'King of kings' of
Ezek. 26.7 and elsewhere. The attribution of this title to Christ is
another example of the transference of titles for God to Jesus in early
Christianity (cf. Phil. 2.9-11 in this context). This mystical name,
although purportedly revealed to the readers, is not in fact new to them
for it has been mentioned already in 17.14.
In 19.17 an angel announces the 'great supper of God'. This is a variation on the wedding feast of 19.7 which we have seen to denote the
eschatological banquet. This angel is said to be 'standing in the sun' .
That is probably a symbolic declaration that the kingdom of darkness
has been brought to an end (cf. 9.2). Righteous figures are often
connected with the sun in Revelation (see, e.g., 1.16; 7.2; 10.1; 12.1).
This angel calls to the birds of heaven and tells them to eat the flesh of
the vanquished (19.18). 19.18 mentions several different groups of vanquished. The impression is that all of these have perished in the eschatological battle and that, because of their deeds, they will not enjoy the
kingdom of Christ. There are echoes here of the procession to the caves
in 6.15-16 where people try in vain to hide from the wrath of the Lamb.
Chapter 19 confirms that this procession is futile and that no one (of
whatever rank) can shelter from the wrath of the Lamb which is now
quite visibly displayed.
These people will perish in the final battle. 19.19 describes this event
which was anticipated in 16.16 (but the name, Harmagedon, is not mentioned here). The beast and the kings of the earth (the imagery comes
from ch. 17) gather to make war on the heavenly army. The beast is captured along with the false prophet (19.20). Both are cast into the lake of
fire and sulphur (2.20b). The combination of these punitive elements
denotes the severity of their punishment.
The armies of the beast are destroyed in the wake of their leaders
(19.21). They are killed by the sword from the mouth of Christ. The
birds gorge themselves on their flesh. It becomes clear from 20.12-15
that this is merely an intermediate punishment. It precedes the general
resurrection and the 'second death' that are mentioned in the next
chapter.
Revelation 20 13 1
person restrains the strength of even the strong o ne. Satan's imprisonment is a provisional declaration that his rule is over (cf. 12 .7-9). His
tyranny will finally be eradicated in the middle of this chapter.
Revelation 20
Chapter 20 describes what happens on Christ's return. John mentio ns
Satan's imprisonment (20.1-3) and Christ's rule on earth with the martyrs (20.4-6). This is followed by the further activity of Satan (20.17) and
the general resurrection and judgment (20.11-15). All of this is preliminary to the re-creation of heaven and earth which are described in
ch. 21.
Satan's Imprisonment
In 20. 1-3 John sees an angel descend from heaven with the key of the
'bottomless pit' and a 'great chain'. This pit is the abyss which was mentioned in 9.2 and which was said to be opened in that verse. Now the
angel seizes the dragon, binds him and throws him into the pit (cf. 1 En.
88.1) in preparation for his final punishment. Chapter 20 makes it clear
that this abyss is a 'holding-place' and not the place of final perdition. At
the end of the thousand-year period 'he must be let out fo r a little while'
(20.3). This prediction is fulfilled in 20.7-10 w hen Satan reappears to
receive his final destruction.
John carefully distinguishes the punishment of the dragon (20.1-3)
from that of the beast and the false prophet in 19.20. The thought is that
the dragon, or Satan, as the instigato r of the opposition and the source
of the beast's authority (13 .4), has not yet been vanquished (as these
others have been). He has more work to do. This is why his final punishment is postpo ned until 20 .10. The eschatology of the Apocalypse has
some distinctive features when compared with the other New Testament documents. We shall note these as our reading of the final c hapters proceeds.
Satan is initially said to be bound in the pit for the pe riod of a 'thousand years' (20.2). This figure derives from Ps. 90.4 ( 'For a thousand
years in your sight are like yesterday w hen it is past, or like a watch in
the night'). The same figure appears in later Christian eschatological
calculation through the influence of the book of Revelation. Its use here
is related to the belief that the saints w ill reign undisturbed on earth
with Christ for a thousand years before the general resurrection (20.4).
In 20.3 the pit is loc ked and sealed to prevent Satan's escap e. This
means that, despite his seeming power, Satan is subjected to the authority of God. The coming of Christ's kingdom m eans that there is no place
for the kingdom of Satan. As in t11e parable of the strong person (Mt.
12.29), which John conceivably knew, the coming of the stronger
Revelation 20 133
132 Revelation 20
there will be two resurrections. The notion of more than one resurrection probably derived from the eschatology of Dan. 12.1-2 which
appears to describe a selective resurrection in which 'many' of the dead
will arise to receive appropriate reward or punishment. The notion of a
temporary messianic kingdom features in 4 Ezra 7.28-29 and 2 Bar.
40.3, both of which were written around the same time as Revelation.
One wonders whether John was influenced at this point by apocalyptic
traditions that were circulating in the later first century CE. It would be
wrong to call Rev. 20.4 a 'temporary' messianic kingdom in the sense
that Christ's rule is destined to be replaced by something else within the
existing order. It is, however, true to say that 20.4 is merely an intermediate stage and not the goal of Revelation's eschatology, which is the
recreation of heaven and earth inch. 21.
The distinction between the first and the second resurrections must
be seen in this light. The notion of the first resurrection reflects the
long-established Jewish belief that the martyrs will be vindicated by God.
The distinction between the two resurrections highlights the importance of this vindication as John presents it. The second resurrection
means that the ungodly will be punished when the vindication of the
martyrs has begun. The Apocalypse thus retains belief in universal resurrection but distinguishes different phases within it in order to make
judgment a prominent feature. The resurrection of the ungodly permits
their judgment and eternal punishment in the lake of fire (20.15). John's
scheme ensures that the godly are rewarded and the ungodly justly
punished.
Satan is Released
20.7-8 describes what happens when the thousand-year period of 20.4
ends. Satan will be released from his prison and emerge to deceive the
nations 'at the four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog'. He will gather
them for battle (20.8). This passage is probably to be linked with the
reference to Harmagedon in 16.16 and the unnamed battle of 19.19. We
now find the absolutely final conflict in which the forces of evil are
destroyed for ever. Gog and Magog are symbols for the world as it stands
opposed to God (cf. Ezek. 38.2, 9). 20.7-8 is a dramatic and pictorial
representation of the stance that readers must take against the delights
of the world in their various communities. This is a battle in which the
forces of God will prove victorious, John tells his readers.
20.9-10 describes the downfall of the enemy forces. The nations
march from all over the earth and 'surround the camp of the saints and
the beloved city' (cf. 4 Ezra 13.1-12; Hab. 1.6). This image derives from
Ps. 34.7 where the angel of God encamps around those who fear God
and delivers them. John applies this Hebrew background to the forces of
Satan. Fire comes down from heaven and consumes them (20.9b), as in
the story of Elijah where fire from heaven consumes the enemy soldiers
(see 2 Kgs 1.10-12; cf. Lk. 9.51-54).ln 20.10 the devil is thrown into the
Jake of fire and sulphur as his place of final punishment. He joins the
beast and the false prophet (19.20) to experience everlasting torment.
Revelation 21 135
Revelation 21
Chapter 21 explains what happens after the enemies of God have been
destroyed. The chapter anticipates the recreation of heaven and earth
(21.2) and the descent of the heavenly Jerusalem (21.2). This is the final
goal of John's eschatology.
Eschatological Re-creation
The Messiah is now on earth and presiding over his kingdom . The
victory has been won and the ungodly judged and destroyed. John turns
his imagination to the renewal of the created order. The existing creation-heaven and earth-vanishes to be replaced by a new and perfect
counterpart (21.1). There are parallels in this with what Paul says in
Rom. 8.18-25. Paul speaks of the 'hope that the creation will itself be set
free from its bondage to decay and will obtain the freedom of the glory
of the children of God'. Revelation uses different language but the hope
for the renewal of creation is strikingly similar in the two texts. This
correspondence shows that it was a major item of hope in the context
of early Christian eschatology.
The background to this eschatology is the Isaianic hope that the
'former things' will pass away (e.g. Isa. 65.17; 66.22). Isaiah mentions
the specific hope for the recreation of heaven and earth on which John
draws at this point. The hope for the renewal of all things is found in
other Jewish apocalypses such as 1 En. 45.4-5; 4 Ezra 7.30-31; and 2
Bar. 74.2-3. The real difference between the eschatology of Paul and
that of the Apocalypse lies in the timing of the earthly kingdom (20.4).
John separates this from the renewal of all things by the description of
Satan's further activity (20.7-10). John 's contact with Pauline eschatology shows that the Apocalypse stands nearer the mainstream of the New
Testament than is sometimes imagined.
John does not say that the heavens and earth will be destroyed
(although that may be implied), but merely that they will 'vanish'. The
reason for this is that their perfect counterparts have now appeared.
The language of apocalyptic is to the fore here. Like the new Jerusalem
in 21.2, the new heaven and earth appear as pre-existent realities that
are revealed from heaven by the will of God. The one significant feature
of this new creation is that it has no sea (21.2). Probably this is because
the sea is regarded as the domain of chaos in the Hebrew Bible (see,
e.g., lsa. 27.1) which the kingdom of Christ has subdued. This does not
detract from the fact that the gulf between heaven and earth is breached
136 Revelation 21
repeats the statement, 'I am the Alpha and the Omega', from 1.8 (21.6).
This means that the God who created the world will bring it to perfection. Creation and eschatology are part of a homogeneous process in the
Apocalypse. This is related to belief in the uniqueness of the Jewish God
by which John sets much store. To this is added the statement that God
will give the thirsty water from the spring of the water of life (lsa. 55.1).
As is appropriate to the last times, scriptural prophecy is now shown as
being fulfilled.
21.7 repeats the promise that those who 'conquer' will inherit these
benefits. This sets the seal on the Apocalypse and repeats its basic
theme. 'Conquering' means 'persevering till the end'. This promise is set
in the future tense to provide a warning to the readers. John says that
(only) those who persevere will know the intimate presence of God.
Repetition emphasizes the ethical aspect of the message and shows that
John is not writing an eschatological treatise alone. He is using (his version of) the Christian eschatological tradition to call his readers to a
separate form of life, so that eschatology undergirds the ethical appeal.
21.8 states the other side of this picture by reasserting the warning of
judgment for the ungodly. There follows a list of ungodly. Those mentioned here are types. There is really only one distinction, between those
who do and those who do not follow what John says. The different
groups all have relevance for the situation John addresses. 'The cowardly' head the list because they lack the courage or motivation to stand
out against the attractions of Asian urban life. 'The faithless' abandon
their principles by acting in this way. The rest of the list criticizes such
people in the familiar language of the Pentateuch (sorcerers, idolaters,
liars and the like). It introduces an ethical dualism which reinforces the
urgency of the challenge: only those who obey the message will escape
the lake of sulphur that awaits the ungodly and that is here again called
'the second death' (cf. 20.6, 14).
Revelation 21 13 7
138 Revelation 21
Revelation 22
Chapter 22 brings the Apocalypse to its full conclusion. The chapter
falls into two parts. 22.1-5 completes John's vision of the eschatological
climax. 22.6-21 is an epilogue. It consists of a collection of oracles and
sayings that makes the work complete.
In 22. 1-2, the angel shows John the water of life. This is bright as
crystal and it flows from the throne through the streets of the city. This
image alludes to the story of creation in Genesis 1-3 and perhaps also to
Ezekiel's description of the sacred river (Ezek. 47. 1-12). On either side
of the river stands the tree of life w hich produces its fruit each month.
The leaves of this tree are for the healing of the nations (22.2). The statement that the tree provides 12 different fmits draws on the numerical
speculation which pervades the Apocalypse and to w hic h the 12 foundation jewels (21.19-20), the numbers of the sealed (7.5-8) and the dimensions of the city (21.16) are related. This makes it a thoroughly Christian
tree in John's symbolic logic.
John's vision completes what is lacking in the Genesis story of creation. According to Genesis, Adam and Eve's crime was to eat from the
tree of the knowledge of good and evil. This resulted in their expulsion
from the Garden of Eden. Their banishment prevented access to the tree
of life that offered the prospect of immortality. Now, J ohn declares, the
tree of life is freely offered even to the nations-the Gentiles-who are
healed by its leaves. What was inaccessible in the primaeval age has
become accessible in the eschatological age, just as God and the Lamb
are now accessible beings. In this sense, it seems, the end is almost
better than the beginning and it completes what was lacking even in the
early chapters of Genesis.
Nothing accursed (i.e. forbidden by the Law) is found in the new
Jerusalem (22.3-4). The throne of God and the Lamb is there (22.3; cf.
3.21; 5.6). The servants of God see God's face as they worship (22.4). In
apocalyptic Judaism the vision of the face of God is reserved for certain
angels alone (cf. Tob. 3.16-17). It is specifically denied to Moses in the
context of the Sinai theophany (see Exod. 22.20b)-and even to John
earlier in the Apocalypse (ch. 4). John now says that the servants of God
enjoy the same vision of God as the angels. The knowledge enjoyed by
heavenly beings is shared between people on earth because the barrier
between heaven and earth has been breached. 22.4 says further that the
name of God will be written on p eople's foreheads. This c alls to mind
the sealing of the saints (ch. 7) and the refere nce to the mystical names
in 3. 12 whose force we saw to be both mystical and eschatological.
140 Revelation 22
Where the beast had branded ills followers (13 .16), the servants of Jesus
declare their true identity with the opponents removed from the scene.
22.5 repeats the promise that night will be no more. John says that
the Lord God will be the light of his people and that 'they will reign forever and ever'. This passage indicates that the new order will be without
limitation of duration. This is related to the view that death has been
destroyed which is expressed in 20.14. It also reflects the provision of
fruit from the tree of life which is made available in 22.2. This means
that it is possible to detect a clear eschatological scheme in Revelation.
This involves the parousia (19.11), the establishment of Christ's kingdom (20.4) and the recreation of heaven and earth (21.2). This is by no
means different to what Paul believes (Rom. 8.18-25), but John sets it in
the context of his unique apocalyptic imagination.
Epilogue
Revelation 22 141
contrasts with the command to 'seal up' what the seven thunders disclosed in 10.4. The implication of 22.10 is that the revelation need not
be sealed because its fulfilment is nigh. This bold declaration of eschatological proximity does much to explain the absence of pseudonymity in
the Apocalypse. John assures readers that what he promises will soon
come to pass. This encourages them to be vigilant about their social separation.
22.11 is an odd proverb which tells people-both evil and righteous-to persist in their behaviour. The meaning is that there is no
time to change because the end is near. There is a faint echo here of
prophetic rhetoric such as Jer. 13.23 ('Can Ethiopians change their skin
or leopards their spots?'). Early Christian literature (including the Apocalypse) does allow people opportunity for repentance before the return
of Christ (see, e.g., 1 Thess. 4-5). 22.11 is rhetorical mockery which
encourages and does not prohibit repentance.
22.12 repeats the promise about Christ's imminent coming. John combines this with the theme of retribution which is familiar from other
New Testament literature (see esp. 2 Thess. 1.7-8). 22.13 repeats the
Alpha and Omega from 1.8 and 21.6. Here, the title is applied to Christ
and not to God. 22.14 describes the character of those who enter the
new Jerusalem. These are said to be those who have washed their robes
(sc. in the blood of the Lamb, 7.14). In ch. 7 it is made clear that this
means faithful Christians, who are consequently in a state of purity.
22.14 contains further veiled ethical exhortation and warns people not
to miss out on the eschatological benefits by ignoring the words of
John's prophecy. 22.15 by contrast describes life outside the city. It
looks back to 14.20 and 21.8 and the description of those who perish in
the wrath of God. The in1plication is that only the righteous will enter
the new Jerusalem and that everyone else will be punished. Here, the
message of the Apocalypse is summarized to bring the text to conclusion.
22.16 makes Jesus send the angel of revelation to the churches. The
titles 'the root', the 'descendant of David' and 'the bright morning star'
(cf. 2.28; 5.5) all have messianic connotations. 22.17 is a poetic passage
that makes the Spirit and the bride say 'Come'. The bride here is the
church, the idea being that the Holy Spirit operates in the church in the
period before the return of Christ. This verse offers the water of life to
those who will receive it. This develops the prophetic invitation of Isa.
55.1 ('Ho, everyone who thirsts, come to the waters') with reference to
John's own imagery of the water of life (22.1; with parallels in the
Fourth Gospel, Jn 4.14; 7.38).
22.18-19 warns readers not to augment or subtract from the words of
the prophecy. The model for this is Deut. 4.2. The similar statement the
Letter of Aristeas 310-11 shows that John employs a common formula at
this point. John says that those who ignore the words of the prophecy
142 Revelation 22
will lose their share in the tree of life and the holy city. 22.20 reinforces
the urgency of this ethical appeal with a further eschatological assertion
couched in the first-person form. }esus-'the one who testifies to these
th~gs'-says unambiguously, 'Surely, I am coming soon'. This gives the
ethical appeal an urgency through the promised nearness of the eschatological climax. 22 .21 concludes the Apocalypse with a benediction. This
reflects the (partially) epistolary form of the text (cf. 1 Cor. 16.23) and
reinforces the impression of eschatological urgency to which its ethics
are constantly related.
Conclusion
So far, I have offered a chapter-by-chapter reading of the Apocalypse and
tried to find the meaning of the different parts of the text. I said in the
Introduction that I would do this before I considered the structure of
the Apocalypse. I do not intend to suggest by this that structure is an
unimportant issue. Indeed, my readers will have observed that in places
I have commented on structural matters already. This is inevitable in the
reading of any text. I now wan~ to consider this matter more formally
and examine the way in which the Apocalypse is put together. I shall
make some observations on the way in which this issue affects our interpretation of the text.
144 Conclusion
Conclusion 145
the fir~t hearing of the text. Bauckham notes as an example the seven
ma~ansms of the Apocalypse which have no structural significance
(Clzmax of Prophecy, p. 29). It is likely that these and similar features
would have become fully obvious only after the initial reading of the
A?ocalypse. This shows that the Apocalypse is very far from a hasty and
disposable composition. Its full intricacy becomes evident only on
further and repeated study. Tllis intricacy suggests that the text was not
designed to be read merely once but that John's intention was for it to
be read on a number of occasions so that its full impact could register in
the minds of the audience.
So to ~he major divisions of the Apocalypse. These for the most part
are relatl~ely clear. 1.1-3 is a prologue that introduces the Apocalypse
~d explams the nature and grounds of the revelation. 1.4-20 (the salutatiOn) greets the churches and amplifies this information. John describes
his experience of revelation on Patmos (1.9-11) and his vision of the
heavenly Christ (1.12-20). Chapter 1 gives the strong impression that the
Apocalypse is conceived as a letter to the churches, whatever similarit~es i~ dis~lays wit~ the genres of prophecy and apocalypse. This impresswn 1s reinforced m chs. 2-3 where the churches are directly addressed
by Christ in the form of the letters.
. This identification of prologue, salutation, and epistolary introduction
IS matched by the observation that 22.6-20 has the nature of a conclusion or epilogue. John's vision of the new Jerusalem ends in 22.5 with
the statement that the Christian redeemed 'will reign forever and ever'.
There is a discernible shift in tone at this point. It is obvious that
22.6 begins the conclusion of the Apocalypse because its language is
~imilar t~ 1.1. This deliberate repetition, combined with the seemingly
resolved nature of 22.5, shows that the revelation has drawn to a close
and that John begins llis 'signing off. The concluding formula of grace
with its parallels in the New Testament letters (e.g. 1 Thess. 5.28), mean~
that the letter format is retained at the end of the text. This is the major
struc~u~al fram~work into wllich the apocalypse and John's prophetic
conv1ctwns are mserted.
Chapters 4 and 5 belong together. They describe John's vision of the
heavenly court ~~d authenticate the material that follows in the Apocalypse. If the VISion of the heavenly Christ (ch. 1) authenticates the
letters to the churches (chs. 2-3), the vision of God and the Lamb (chs.
4-5) authenticates the rest ofthe text. The unfolding sequence of visions
is carefully introduced in tllis way.
The bod~ of the Apocalypse must be seen as a coherent whole despite
the (sometimes awkward) problems of transition that it raises. It is clear
that John has incorporated more than one cycle of material in his text.
The Apocalypse unfolds in a sequence of explosions, not unlike a fireworks display. This loose unity must be acknowledged as a stylistic
feature that guides any talk of 'structure' in the text.
146 Conclusion
Conclusion 147
righteous and sinners and shows that the outlook of the Apocalypse
is by no means universally pessimistic. There is a sense in which this
description of the woe reinforces the message of salvation for the
righteous through the force of the dualism. The structure of this section
thereby coheres with the ethical appeal John imparts.
The onward transition from 11 .14 is carefully handled. The seventh
tmmpet is blown after the statement that 'the second woe has p assed '
(11.14). Characteristically, a surprise follows . Instead of the third woe,
the heavenly chorus announce that 'the kingdom of the world has
become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Messiah'. (11.15). This leads
to the apocalyptic announcement of 11.19 ('Then God's temple in
heaven was opened, and the ark of llis covenant was seen within his
temple; and there were flashes of lightning, rumblings, peals of thunder,
an earthquake, and heavy hail'). This passage brings the reader to chs.
12-14, whose precise function in t11e Apocalypse has long puzzled interpreters.
It is evident that 15.5 provides a retrospective link back to 11.19 with
its further reference to the angels and the temple. This observation gives
the intervening material a self-contained quality and provides justification, on the basis of 14.4, for the view that it is associated with the third
woe. I have argued that 15.5 has a prominent aural quality which cannot
fail to make an impression when the text is declamed. This means that
chs.12-14 must be understood cumulatively as the third woe. Tllis material contrasts Roman dominance (ch. 13) with the vision of the Lamb
and his elect on Mount Zion (ch. 14). It insists that the dragon cannot
destroy the woman, however hard he tries (ch. 12). The contrast implies
that Roman influence is ephemeral, although it is undoubtedly prominent at the time of writing. The cry of the heavenly chorus in 15.3-4
picks up the chorus of 11.15-18 and gives the meaning of the intervening material. This is that 'the nations raged, but your wrath has come,
and the time for judging the dead' (11.18) and that 'all nations will come
and worship before you, for your judgments have been revealed' . Chapters 12-14-the third woe-celebrate the downfall of the enemy forces
following their futile attempt to discredit the servants of God.
15.5 is prospective as well as retrospective. 15.5-8 brings the reader
to the final outpouring of God's wrath which is described inch. 16 and
leads to 'the judgment of the great whore who is seated on many
waters' (17.1). Chapter 17, unambiguously albeit allusively, identifies
the whore as Rome prior to her destruction. The city's fall is announced
at the beginning of ch. 18. The bulk of ch. 18 laments the city's destruction by various interested parties. This is followed in the first half of ch.
19 by the celebration of the heavenly chams (19.1-8), which relates the
fall of Babylon to the marriage of the Lamb and the bride (19.7).
A new section of the Apocalypse begins in 19.11. This is introduced
by the phrase 'Then I saw heaven opened' (cf. 4.1). John now describes
148 Conclusion
Conclusion 149
17.9-14, leaves no scope for those who would fix the times and seasons
exactly.
Bauckham observes that the precise way in which the three series of
sevens are linked to each other varies in the Apocalypse (Climax of
Prophecy, pp. 8-18). The seven seal-openings are linked to the seven
trumpets by the technique of overlapping or interweaving. In the case
of the seven trumpets and seven bowls, the seventh trumpet (11 .15-19)
is separated from the appearance of the seven angels with the bowls
(15.1) by chs. 12-14, so that the sequence of bowls is clearly marked as
a development of the seventh trumpet. The three series of judgments
are distinguished from the letters to the churches by means of structural
markers. A difference between the letters and the judgments is the
observation that the letters have a 3 + 4 structure but the judgments a 4
+ 3 structure.
The existence of the '4 and 3' structure encourages readers to discern
a sense of order in the text. The seven seals form a paradigm for the
seven trumpets. When it comes to the seven bowls (ch. 16), the reader
knows that these will be presented in a 4 + 3 sequence. Here, however,
there is no intercalation as in the earlier sequences. This, perhaps surprising variation, draws attention to the finality of the end as the bowls
are poured onto the earth w ithout interruption to introduce the eschatological climax.
150 Conclusion
reason alone (and there are many others) the Apocalypse deserves its
place in the New Testament canon, despite its sometimes bizarre qualities.
Our restricted knowledge of John is a sobering reminder that we
cannot get back to the 'actual author', still less to the intentions of the
actual author, from a simple reading of the Apocalypse (however tempting it may be to conclude otherwise). This has an important, and no
doubt an obvious, implication for the nature of the reading process. It
would be wrong to approach a text expecting to discover the full
intentions of the author (and only these) from our encounter with it. We
may, indeed, discover something of what the author wants to communicate. That depends on our skill and interests as readers. This is because
readers construct the meaning of the text through their engagement
with it. Reading is a complex process that depends to a large degree on
the way we habitually respond and on our disposition at the time of
reading. The latter changes with different moods and circumstances. For
this reason, inevitably, I find Revelation a different text now from when
I first seriously encountered it 20 years ago. Something will be wrong if I
do not find different meanings in it 20 years from now. This is an
inevitable and healthy part of the reading process.
One further thing must be said about John's status as the 'actual
author' of Revelation. What little we know about the human mind
shows that our interpretation must allow as much for his unconscious as
for his conscious imagination in the construction of the Apocalypse. The
unconscious is the repository of our total life experiences. These include
the influences and assumptions that were imparted to us at a formative
age, and on which we have subsequently drawn; and everything else
that has happened since infancy. Not even John was consciously aware
of all the influences that operated on him and attended the rebirth of
imagery in his Apocalypse. Unconscious influences are, if anything, more
interesting than conscious influences because they show what the
author's mind is really like beyond his conscious communication. The
concept of 'authorial intentionality' is thus exploded , not just by the
nature of the reading process, but also by what we know about the art
of writing and the hidden cycle of experiences that lies behind it.
The portrait of John that we reconstruct from Revelation is a portrait
of what has come to be called 'the implied author' (see Booth, Rhetoric
of Fiction, pp. 73-74; and Iser, Implied Reader). The 'implied author' is
the impression of the author that the reader gains from reading a text.
This of course depends both on the self-portrait that the actual author
chooses to reveal there and also on the process of discernment that the
reader brings to the text. This is by definition a complex process. The
author will not be aware of all the nuances potentially imparted by the
text to a reader. The reader may even find meanings with which the
actual author would disagree. The implied author is a construct that
Conclusion 151
emerges in the mind of the reader in the act of reading. The implied
author varies from text to text and, conceivably, from one part of a text
to another.
John's 'implied author' in the Apocalypse has approximately the following qualities. His primary face is of a person commissioned by Christ
to write to the churches. The letter form is very marked in Revelation
with its salutation (1.4-5) and formal conclusion (22.21). This is confirmed by cbs. 2-3 whereJohn does indeed write letters to the churches.
That John writes letters at the dictation of a divine being is what the
Apocalypse says the author is doing. This point must be given serious
evaluation when investigating the implied author in the Apocalypse.
Other facets can be added to this portrait. In terms of his literary
exemplars, John self-consciously follows the Hebrew apocalyptic and
prophetic traditions. Apocalyptic was to some extent the child of
prophecy (although prophecy was not its only parent). John is conscious of drawing on both traditions. We should therefore examine both
in tum.
The apocalyptic tradition in Judaism dates from the third century BCE
with the appearance of the earliest sections of 1 Enoch. It is right to say
that parts of the Hebrew Bible-notably, the later chapters of Zechariah-anticipate such material, but we should not speak formally of
'apocalyptic (literature)' any earlier than the sources allow us to do so.
The writing of Daniel in the Antiochian Crisis (c. 165 BCE) marked a
crucial moment in the development of Jewish apocalyptic. Daniel was
addressed to a situation of crisis in Judaism. It prescribes an eschar~
logical remedy for that situation. With Daniel, eschatology became an
indelible feature of the apocalyptic tradition. Himmelfarb distinguishes
two different kinds of apocalypse genre in the history of Jewish
literature (Tours of Hell, pp. 61-62). She claims these are typified by
Daniel and by the early chapters of I Enoch respectively. These two
different types concentrate (a) on the end of human history and (b) on
the more general contours of the heavenly world that are revealed to the
seer in the course of a mystical ascension. Himmelfarb thinks that these
two genres were fused together in the first century CE. Nearer the mark,
perhaps, is the distinction made by Collins and others in 1979 between
a Type 1 apocalypse, with no otherworldly journey, and a Type 2 apocalypse where an other-worldly journey is a central feature. This distinction is important for defining the wider phenomenon of apocalypticism,
which is the world-view that emerges from the apocalypses and is found
even in texts that are not apocalypses. Any interpretation of apocalypticism must be broad enough to accommodate this interest in eschatology, but also the wider interest in other information which the literature
displays.
John's use of the apocalyptic tradition lets him present his ethical
perspective as a heavenly mystery and claim that this has been revealed
152 Conclusion
Conclusion 153
needs careful exposition. Apocalyptic must be seen as a parallel, if formally distinct, mode of revelation that resembled the prophetic literature in its claim for visionary access to tl1e divine presence. Apocalyptic
breathes the confidence of authority which stems from that revelation.
Secondly, Wis. 14.28 clearly knows the activity of prophets, albeit false
prophets, so that prophets were clearly sufficiently prominent at the
time to attract critical attention. Prophets featured also in the Pauline
churches (1 Cor. 12.28). This evidence certainly qualifies the bald statement that prophecy ceased in Israel with the death of Malachi. It suggests that there was a reluctance to acknowledge new revelation but
with significant exceptions.
John's use of the term 'prophecy' shows that he sees his work by
analogy with the Hebrew prophets. This conviction also requires careful
statement. John does not think that his work replaces the prophets, or
even enjoys a status identical with the prophets. The fact that he often
cites or paraphrases the prophets shows that he regards their work as
possessed of irreplaceable authority. But there is nevertheless a considerable claim to authority in John's statement that he writes 'prophecy'
(1.3) and in his interpretation of the prophetic writings. This process of
interpretation, found throughout the Apocalypse, implies that John discloses the authentic meaning of what the prophets said. This is evident,
for instance, in his use of the 'water' motif. Two passages in Revelation
show that Isa. 55.1 ('Ho, everyone who thirsts, come to the waters') features prominently among the sources of this motif. These are 7.17 (' he
will guide them to springs of the water of life') and 21.6 ('to the thirsty I
will give water as a gift from the spring of the water of life'). In these
two references John takes up Isaiah's theme of the provision of water
and makes Christ tl1e source by whom the commodity is provided. John
gives the impression that he provides the true meaning of Isaiah's prophecy. This interpretation is related to his eschatological view that the
kingdom of Christ will soon appear. A similar christological and eschatological understanding of Scripture is found also in Paul (1 Cor. 10.4; cf.
1 Cor. 10.11). The implied claim to authority in both writers is a striking
one.
This aspect of John's role as implied author should also be compared
with the self-understanding of the Teacher of Righteousness in the Qumran community: 'And God told Habakkuk to write down that which
would happen to the final generation, but he did not make known to
him when time would come to an end' (lQpHab 6). This statement
shows the rationale of Bible reading among the Essenes. It recognizes
the primacy of the biblical text but asserts that there is more to the
meaning of the text than was disclosed by the original auth or. The
Habakkuk Commentary states that the Teacher of Righteousness
knows the timing of the end and thus the actual meaning of the prophecy. The Teacher thereby accepts the authority of the Bible but has
Conclusion 155
154 Conclusion
156 Conclusion
Conclusion 157
strategy. 2.14 is an example of this: 'You have some there [i.e. Pergamum] who hold to the teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to put a
stumbling block before the people of Israel, so that they would eat food
sacrificed to idols and practise fornication.' John does not so much
expound the nature of the situation as offer a symbolic commentary on
it. The Balaamite reference is John's evaluation of what was happening.
His condemnation of full social integration is made with reference to the
Hebrew Bible.
Reading the Apocalypse, as we have done, draws the reader to John's
vision of the recreated order with which his text concludes. This is not
done to provide a systematic description of Christian eschatology for its
own sake, but to draw attention to John's foregrounded link between
ethics and eschatology. At the end of the Apocalypse, 22.19 warns of
the consequences of diluting John's message of judgment. Readers are
thereby encouraged to do what the Apocalypse says and to let the often
bizarre symbolism impact on them and challenge their perception of
reality as the pagan social world with all its glory is destroyed before
their eyes.
This is the message John wants his readers to hear. His apocalypse
presents them with a dualistic world-view and a starkness of choice
which leaves little doubt about how they should act. In response to the
letters, they must leave the sinful collaborators and stand their distance
from the pagan world. In so doing, they will enjoy the first resurrection
and pass through the kingdom of Christ to the recreated order which is
the goal of John's eschatology.
158 Conclusion
Theology
Theology is a major concern of all early Christian literature, including
the Apocalypse. It is equally a concern of the Jewish apocalypses. What
we read about God in Revelation stands firmly in both traditions.
There is more than one kind of theological expression in Revelation.
In the first place, John draws extensively on the visual symbolism that
pervades the Apocalypse. This is obvious in ch. 4 when he enters the
heavenly throne-room. We should include John's vision of the heavenly
Christ (1.12-16) in this category. Another expression of theology is what
I shall call 'affirmations of the divine character'. These are statements
about what God is like: often liturgical statements with a biblical base.
The most obvious example is the description of God as 'him who is and
who was and who is to come' which is found in 1.4 and elsewhere.
These expressions of theology are mutually complementary within
the shifting pattern of John's language and imagery. John 's theology
Conclusion 159
160 Conclusion
Conclusion 161
- - - - - - - - - -162 Conclusion
which is addressed 'to the one seated on the throne and to the Lamb'
(italics added). This passage associates the Lamb with God over against
the angels. His reception of worship makes the Lamb unquestionably a
divine being.
This portrait of Christ has an important background in Jewish and
Christian theology. I shall briefly consider the Jewish evidence. The
term 'monotheism' is often employed to describe the nature of Jewish
theology in the pre-Christian period. By this is meant the belief that
there is only one tme God and that he alone must be worshipped. The
(admittedly rather scarce) evidence from post-biblical Judaism indicates
that, although angels are sometimes venerated in several different ways,
this is never conceived as a substitute for the worship of God (see
Sn1ckenbmck, Angel Veneration, pp. 45-204). This consistent worship
of the one God alone is the determining factor in Jewish religion.
The roots of the Jewish interest in angels lie deep in the Pentateuch.
The strand of material that describes the 'Angel of the Lord' sometimes
seems to confuse the Angel with the Lord in a way that permits an
ambiguous interpretation. There is an example of this in Exod. 3.1-6 (the
angelic manifestation to Moses at Horeb). Exodus 3.2 says of this
experience that 'the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire
out of a bush'. The narrator continues: 'When the Lord saw that [Moses]
had turned aside to see, God called to him out of the bush ... ' What
began as an angelophany now appears as a theo phany. The redactor's
combination of sources doubtless explains this ambiguity, but the final
form of text is striking nonetheless. It makes God address Moses when
the narrator has said that an angel appears. This ambiguity allowed later
exegetes to find described here the appearance of a second divine being
who is introduced as an angel. Thus Philo referred the angelophany to
the Logos ( Vit. Mos. 1.66) and justin Martyr to Christ (Dial. 59-60;
I Apol. 62-63).
In the post-biblical literature we find a burgeoning angelology. One
strand of belief describes how an angel appears on earth as a man. Tobit
3. 16-17 explains how God told Raphael to descend from heaven to
perform two acts of healing on earth. The beginning of Tobit 5 finds
Raphael on earth, apparently in human form. Of this angelophany the
narrator says, 'Tobias . .. went out and found the angel Raphael standing
in front of him; but he did not perceive that it was an angel of God'
(5.4). This is because Raphael has assumed the form of a man. The mse
is sustained until ch. 12 where Raphael tells his astonished fellowcharacters: 'I am Raphael, one of the seven angels who stand ready and
enter before the glory of the Lord' (12.15). Raphael then vanishes at the
moment when they perceive his true identity. This material bears a
striking affinity to the notion of the divine Word who appears as Jesus
which is found in the Prologue to the Fourth Gospel Qn 1.1-18).
Another form of this angelic influence is found in the second-century
Conclusion 163
164 Conclusion
This definition allows for a connection between the human and the
heavenly world and for a broader understanding of the term 'angel' than
is suggested by the romantic conception of a heavenly being with wings
and flaming eyes that emerges from the Gospels. An angelomorphic
Christology recognizes that Christ has connections with both the human
and the heavenly world (however the relation between them is
expressed) and that he is not merely an angel but transcends the angels
through his unique relation to God.
The origins of Christology lies in the experience of Jesus' disciples
after the resurrection. All four Gospels (but not Paul) refer to the empty
tomb of Jesus. The Gospels (except the original Mark) and Paul also
describe visionary experience of Jesus either in connection with or after
the discovery of the empty tomb. The appearance of the heavenly Christ
to the disciples in this way convinced them that something unprecedented had happened in his death. This 'unprecedented something' was
the belief that Jesus had come to share the glory of God and that he was
now a divine being entitled to worship. Paul articulates this conviction
in 1 Cor. 8.6: 'For us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all
things and for whom we exist, and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through
whom are all things and through whom we exist.' The earliest source
that we have for the worship of]esus is Phil. 2.10-11: 'At the name of
Jesus every knee should bend, in heaven and on earth and under the
earth, and every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the
glory of God the Father. '
This Pauline passage helps to explain the Christology of Revelation.
Revelation always presents Christ as a divine being. In Rev. 5.13, for
instance, we find worship addressed to God and the Lamb. We must
acknowledge a subordinationist strand in Revelation's Christology. By
this, I mean that John does not present the Lamb as God's equal in every
respect. We saw that in 1.5 Jesus is not said to have eternal existence
and that he is introduced as 'the firstborn of the dead'. In the description of the heavenly throne-room (chs. 4-5), the Lamb's position in
heaven depends on the fact that God occupies the throne. This subordinationism agrees with other New Testament Christology. John 14.28
(roughly contemporary with the Apocalypse) makes Jesus say that the
Father is greater than he. In 1 Cor. 15.24, Paul says that Christ will hand
over the kingdom to the Father at the eschatological climax. To this Paul
adds in 1 Cor. 15.28 that 'then the Son himself will also be subjected to
the one who put all things in subjection under him, so that God may be
all in all'. Revelation once again follows the wider path in this subordinationism. The technical definition of Christ as 'of the same substance'
as the Father (the so-called homoousion formula) would not be formally
adopted by Christianity until the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE.
Revelation is strongly influenced by an angelomorphic Christology.
John's thought is deeply rooted in the Hebrew Bible. He turns naturally
Conclusion 165
Trinitarianism
It is often, and correctly, said that the Apocalypse offers a 'trinitarian'
166 Conclusion
Testament literature. Nor are the three divine beings ever mentioned in
Revelation in a formula akin to the baptismal charge of Mt. 28.19 where
the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are mentioned together without
discrimination of precedence between them. The Apocalypse presents a
theology in which God and the Lamb are divine beings who receive
worship but where the status of the Spirit is much less clearly defined.
The author speaks of 'the Spirit' as the agent of revelation (e.g. 1.10; 2.7;
4.2-3) but also of the 'seven spirits' who stand before the throne of God
(1.4; 3.1; 4.5; 5.6).
One wonders what to make of this ambiguous evidence. Revelation
1.4b-5 knows of a threefold divine source of grace and peace, even if the
second member of the formula is said to be 'the seven spirits who are
before his throne' (cf. 4.5). It is possible that John's language is deliberately archaic or else that it has been modified to accord with the
sequence of 'sevens' which we have seen is an important structural
device of the Apocalypse. John does speak elsewhere of the Spirit in the
singular (e.g. 22.17) and we must presume that, if he had a connection
with the Johannine school, he would have had a high understanding of
the Spirit imparted to him in the course of his Christian formation.
The Spirit's role in the Apocalypse in many ways resembles that
attributed to the Spirit of God by Ezekiel (Ezek. 2.2; 3.12; 11.1). This
resemblance may be deliberate. The Spirit is said to be the moving force
in Ezekiel's theophany (Ezek. 1.12, 20). We know from Rev. 1.12-16 that
John drew on this passage in writing his Apocalypse. It would be natural
for him to borrow the idea of the Spirit from there. John, however,
never makes the Spirit receive worship. The ambiguity of his pneumatological language indicates the uncertainty that was felt about the
Spirit's status at the time of writing. It is sobering to recollect that the
question of the Spirit's full equality with the Father and the Son would
occupy Christian theologians for centuries to come.
Eschatology
Finally, the eschatology of the Apocalypse. Eschatology undergirded the
whole of the early Christian movement. Jesus proclaimed the imminent
kingdom of God (Mk 1.15). He evidently anticipated a delay before the
kingdom fully arrived, but probably not a substantial one (see Mk 9.1).
After his death, the belief that Jesus is Lord (1 Cor. 8.6) led his followers
to expect that the kingdom of God would be realized through his return
from heaven when the eschatological judgment would take place on
earth. The New Testament sources (including Revelation) are unanimous
that the Messiah's kingdom is to be an earthly one. This view is found in
1 Corinthians 15 where Paul expects the acquisition of a body from
heaven by people on earth to effect their transformation there. There is
a further exposition of this idea in 2 Corinthians 5. The mature Paul continued to expect the earthly kingdom of Christ as we can see from
Conclusion 167
Phil. 3.20-21. This hope was not diminished by his belief that he himself
might achieve the resurrection of life through martyrdom (Phil. 1.23),
for in his theology resurrection was to precede the kingdom so that the
dead would not be deprived of participation in the kingdom.
This hope for the earthly kingdom of Christ continued into the second
century, and indeed beyond it. The author of the Ascension of Isaiah
(c. 120 CE) expects the returning Christ (who is called 'the Beloved
One' in this apocalypse) to preside over an earthly kingdom (4.15)
before the righteous ascend to heavenly immortality ( 4.17). Justin
Martyr (c. 150 CE) knows of Chtistians who were contemptuous of the
hope for an earthly kingdom, but he himself supports it (Dial. 80). Book
5 of Irenaeus's Adv. Haer. (c. 185 CE) is specifically devoted to the question of eschatology. This part of Irenaeus's work anticipates a literal
resurrection of the flesh and an earthly reign of the Messiah, despite the
fact that Irenaeus also subscribes to the theory of recapitulation which
posits a destiny for the human person beyond the present life. The hold
that this belief in literal resurrection exercised on the church was only
broken in the fifth century under the influence of Augustine's City of
God, although it was challenged on a number of occasions before this.
The book of Revelation thus stands within an established tradition
when its author anticipates the future reign of Christ on earth. The
expression of this future hope derives from the language of Christian
eschatology and not exclusively from the apocalypse genre. The author
of Revelation, in company with the Synoptic Eschatological Discourse
(Mk 13 and par.) and Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2, anticipates a sequence
of problems before Jesus returns to establish his kingdom. The Apocalypse offers the most explicit description of the return of Christ and its
effects in the New Testament literature. John states that the return of
Christ will result in the final battle (19.11-21), his temporary reign with
the saints (20.4), the final judgment (20.11-15) and the recreation of
heaven and earth.
The distinctive feature of Revelation's eschatology is the evidence that
ch. 20 offers for belief in more than one resurrection. The first resurrection is said to be that of the martyrs ('those who had been beheaded for
their testimony to Jesus'); the second, of the rest of the dead (20.4-5).
John states that the martyrs will reign on earth with Christ for a thousand years before the second resurrection (20.4). This distinction
between the participants gives the idea of the two resurrections its
meaning. The point is that, although the false beast and the prophet
have been destroyed already (19.20), Satan's tyranny is not yet complete. He will be destroyed only after further conflict (20.7-10). In the
logic of Revelation's symbolism (particularly ch. 7), we should assume
that the martyrs of 20.4 are symbolic of the whole Christian body and
not just part of it. The idea of the two resurrections comments on the
168 Conclusion
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Index of References
OLD TESTAMENT
Genesis
1-3
1
2.9
3.22-24
6
14.22-23
15.8
17.4-5
19 .24
36.29
49.9
49.11
Exodus
3.1-6
3.2
3.14
7-8
7.20-21
7.20
9.9-11
9.13-35
10.1-20
10.21-29
10.2 1-23
12. 12
12. 13
12.2 1-27
14.19
14.21
14 . 24
15
15 .1-8
15.11
15 .12
15 .25
19.6
20.4
22.20
24 . 10
1 39
148, 159
44
44
78
83
80
73
80, 105
37
63
107, 128
162
162
33
86
1J 1
76
111
76
78
112
76
so
35
71
82
112
82
109
108
97
94
76
35
99
139
60
24.17
27.17-20
28.4
32.32-33
33. 14
33.20
108
137
39
52
105
70
Leviticus
9
15.18
21.17-23
26
26.3
26.11-12
26.14
26.45
35
103
103
135
135
135
135
114
Numbers
16.30
22
24.17
31.16
94
46
51, 91
46
Deuteronomy
80
1.7
157
10 .14
118, 129
10.17
80
13
13. I
99
86
18.15
21.23
63
23.9-14
J-03
106
32.2
109
32.4
125
32.43
joshua
1.4
10.11
80
114
judges
4-5
5.19-20
113
113
1 Samuel
21.5
103
I Kings
6.20
6.53-54
16.3 1
17
18.38
19
22.19
2 Kings
1
1.10-12
9.22
10.7
137
35
49
86
99
115
59. 110,
159
86
133
49
so
1 Chronicles
60
24.4-6
job
1-2
26.6
93
79
Psalms
2.2
2.8-9
2.9
11.2
11.6
23.1
33.2
33.3
34.7
74.13-14
112
51
92
109
105
74
64
65
132
118
74.14
78.44
79.10
86.9
90.4
95. 11
96.1
98.2
104.2
113. 1
11 5.4
115.6
11 9. 105
135.15
136.3
137.17
139.14
144.17
92
76, I ll
69
109
130, 148
105
102
109
59
125
62
33
159
62
129
114
109
109
Proverbs
3. 1112
15. J 1
Isaiah
1.10
1. 18
2.20-21
6. 14
6.3
7.14
8.3
11.1
11.14
13.2 1
14.12
21.9
22.22
26.17
27. 1
34.4
35.10
40.2
40.11
43.15
46.1
47.78
55
79
49.2
51.9
53.7
54.1
55.1
60. 13
60. 1
60.37
60.5
60.1 0-14
60. 1920
6 1. 5
63.6
65.17
66.22
40
92
64
91
55. 136,
141, 153
138
138
85
138
85
138
51
106
134
134
jeremiah
1.14
2.20
4.24
13.23
17. 10
17. 18
22. 18
25. 10
3 1.1 2
50.39
5 1.7
5 1.9
5 1.45
112
47
70
14 1
50
12 1
37
123
68
120
104
120
120
31
73
70
59, 61, 110,
159
61
91
Lamentations
49
76
3.19
63
128
Ezekiel
120
I
59. 165
51, 76
61
104, 120
1.413
166
1.12
53
60
1.13
91
1.20
166
134
60
1.22
70
102
1.24
135
1.26-28
59
12 1
1.26-27
159, 163
74
108
1.27
53
82
1.28
33
166
2.2
121
2.8-3.3
3.12
9.2
9.3
9.4
10.2-7
l l. l
14.2 1
16. 15
16.374 1
23.25-29
26.7
27
27.32
28
28. 13
37
38.2
38.9
38. 1920
38.22
40-48
40 - 42
40-41
47.1 12
83
166
39
115
71
75
38, 11 5,
166
67
47
118
11 8
129
121
123
59
59
88
132
132
88
105, 114
137
85
137
139
Daniel
1.1 21 5
4
5.7
7
7.2
7.7
7.8
7.914
7.9
7.13
7.24
7.25
7.27
8.10
8.17
10-12
10
10.56
45
104
115
36, 59, 97
58
91
98
59
39. 131
36,39,82
91
86, 98
13 1
91
40
92, 113,
148
165
39. 52, 163,
165
10.5
10.89
10.15
11.2-12.4
11.245
11.36
11.40-45
12.14
12 .1-3
12.12
12.3
12.4
12.7
12.9
12.11
12.1213
12.1719
115
127
40
16
54
98
11 8
17
52
69. 132
39
140
83, 148
83
92
32
88
68
2.24
Amos
140
109
76
76
70
3.7
4.13
5.18
7.4
8.8
4. 10
91
3.2.
4.5
70
70
Apocrypha
1.5
1.6
Tobit
2.17
3.1617
Habakkuk
132
12.15
68
114
11 4
70
82
109
70
86
Nahum
Hosea
87
60, 139,
162
34,65, 75
Zephaniah
76
113
120
103
1.3
1.14
2.14
3. 13
Wisdom of Solomon
5.15
5.17
14.28
19.1516
69
113
153
128
Haggai
joel
1.4
1.6
2.2
2.45
2.4
2.10
39
34
67
36
76
128
88
Malachi
l.ll
Micah
1.6
2.22
7.2
8.13
10.8
11. 10
4.2
4.10
6.18
12.1 0
13.89
14.5
14. 15
78
79
76
79
79
70
88
2.6-7
Zechariah
67
93
60, 87
1.8
3.1
4
1 Maccabees
4.46
13.51
152
72
2 Maccabees
10.7
72
24.43
25.113
25 .30
25 .31-46
25.41
26.28
26.52
28.2
28.9
28.19
52, 113
113. 125
105, 112
168
105
35
98
70
40
159, 166
NEW TESTAMENT
Matthew
1.23
4
6.9
8. 11
8.12
10.32
I 1.1 5
12.29
13.21
13.24-43
13.38
13.39
91
115
157
125
112
52
43
130
37
106
93
93
13.40-42
13.41-42
13.4 1
19.28
22.1 14
22.110
23.3435
24.8
24.21
24.24
24.3235
24.42
161
105
106, 128
10, 51 , 56,
131, 168
125
126
1 11
68
45
99. 112
70
51
Mark
1.10
58
166
35, 166
72
87, 167
76
36
148
104
133
76, 92
105
105
69
128, 162
34
64
64
158
104
112
14 1
59
141
34
93
49
74
11 2
52
59
114, 135
36
113
47
58
107
69
64
so
49
41
19. 10
19.23-41
19.26
20.28
22.15
22.20
26.23
Romans
1.7
2. 16
3.2 1-26
3.25
4.3
5
5.1
6.3
8
8. 15-16
8.18-25
8 .19-21
8.23
8 .34
11.26
13
13. 1-7
13.1
15.12
15.26
54
41
44
35
31
31
34
10.4
10.11
11 .25
15
15.20
15.24
15.26
15.28
15.29
15.44
16.23
31, 123,
153, 154
106, 160,
166
34, 103
90, 11 3,
164
133, 135
70, 164
135
88
142
123
120
35
35
2 Corinthians
45
160
5
106, 1 13,
166
33
5. 10
133
73
168
5. 17
65, 102
6.14-15
76
37
10, 96, 134, 8.9
44
140
11.2
103
168
12
38, 157,
158
35, 37
12.3-4
92
83
138
Galatians
95
96
3. 13
35, 63
4.26
95, 96
135, 137
4.27
63
91
123
5.19-21
81
1 Corinthians
1.3
1.18-25
1.23
5.5
5.7
6.1
6.3
6.20
7.8
8. 1-13
8.4
8.6
12.28
33
63
35
49
64
123
51
65
103
25
43
62, 164,
166
109, 153
16, 153
103
Ephesians
2.20
6.6
6.1 7
Philippians
1.1
1.23
2.6-11
2.9-11
123
31
40
2. 10-11
2 . 11
3.20-2 1
31
45, 69, 167
34
65, 102,
129
164
62
167
Colossians
1.15-20
34
1.18
2.15
34
63, 93
1 Thessalonians
42
2.9
141
4-5
106
4. 14
36
4. 17
52
5.2
144
5.28
2 Thessalonians
161
1.7-9
141
1.7-8
10 5
1.7
69
1.8- 10
87, 167
2
116
2.3-8
98
2.4
116
2.7
99
2.9
2 Peter
1.1
3.4
/john
2.2
2. 18
2.19
4.3
34
129
Heb1ews
4-5
4. 12-13
4.12
6. 19-20
7. 14
9 .12
10. 19-20
12.5-6
12.22
13 .12
10 5
40
128
70
72
65
70
55
135, 137
107
52
99
42
112
2]ohn
7
42
jude
6
8-10
23
113
98
52
Revelation
1
1.1 -3
1.1
1 Timothy
6. 13
6. 15
31
32
1.2
1.3
1.4-20
1.4-8
1.4-5
1.4
1.5-6
1.5
1.6
j a mes
2.18-26
42
1.7
1.8
I Peter
1.19
2.9
3. 18-22
3.22
5.8
64
35
163
64
93
1. 9-20
1.9-16
1.9- 11
1.9
10, 14 , 17,
30, 39, 60,
144
30, 144
30-32, 37,
44, 144
31, 38
14, 27, 32,
152, 153
144
30
151, 166
33, 34, 37,
6 1, 116,
154, 158,
159, 166
35 , 65
32, 34, 84,
160, 164
35, 36, 38,
60, 103
36, 37
37, 136,
141
30
30
30, 37, 144
16, 19, 37,
38, 4 1, 42,
149
1.10-11
1.1 0
1. II
1.12-20
1.12-16
I. 12
1.1 316
1.1 3
1.14
1.16
1.17-20
1.1 7
1. 18
1.19
1.20
2-3
2
2. 1
2.2-3
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8-11
2.8
2.9
2.10
2 .12
2. 13
2 .1 4-1 5
2 .1 4
2. 1 5
2. 16
2. 17
14, 38
38, ! 66
39, 135
144
10, 13, 55,
59, 127,
158, 163,
165, 166
39, 58
39
30, 39
48
39, 129
30
40, 59
116
14 , 40, 83
39, 40, 60
50, 66, 87,
98, 144,
148, 151
14, 41
41
43
41-43, 45
43
43
43
43, 47, 152
43, 166
44
44, 116
26, 28, 44,
so, 56
34, 45
46
19, 2 1, 23,
31, 46
26, 43
25, 42, 43,
46, 47, 49,
50, 56, 80,
97, 103,
115, 152,
155, 156
47, 152
47
27, 48, 52
Index of References
2.2 1
2.22
2.23
2.24-25
2.26
2.27
2.28
3
3. 1-6
3. 1
3.2
3.3
3.4-5
3.4
3.5
3.7
3.8
3.9
3. 10
3. 11
3.12
3. 14
3.15
3. 16
3. 17
3. 18
3. 19-22
3. 19
3.20
3.2 1
4-22
4-5
48
25, 26, 28,
43, 47, 49,
50, 56, 97,
103, 115,
126, 129,
152, 155
49, 80
49
49, 50
50
50
74
51, 9 1, 141
14, 41
51
26, 5 1, 166
51
52, 11 3,
11 5
11 5
48, 52, 55,
126, 127
52, 98, 11 7
53
53
45, 53, 56
54
54
27, 37, 54,
11 6, 127,
139
54
54
54
26, 55
115, 165
55
55
55
55, 56, 60,
64, 74, 92,
125, 139,
161, 165
14
34, 58, 66,
73, 144,
4.1
4.2-3
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4 .6
4.7
4.8
4.9- 11
4. 10
4. 11
5-8
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6- 10
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9-10
5.9
5.10
5.11-14
5. 11
5.12
157, 159,
164
58, 62, 66,
139, 144,
159
13, 38, 39,
58, 147,
158
166
59
24, 59, 137
48, 60, 115,
126, 127,
137
60, 64, 11 4,
159, 166
60, 61 , 108
61
61 , 116
61
62
62, 65, 159
148
58, 61 , 62,
65, 66, 144,
145, 159,
165
62, 145
63
63
63, 162
63, 72, 82,
93, 141,
145
125
56, 62, 64,
125, 128,
139, 161 ,
166
64
64, 75, 123,
137
65
62, 65
60, 66, 103
65
65
39
5. 13
6
6. 1-8
6. 1-2
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.5-6
6.7-8
6.8
6.9-11
6.9-10
6.9
6. 10
6. 1 I
6.12- 17
6. 12
6. 13
6.14
6. 15- 17
6.15-16
6. 16
6. 17
7
7. 1
7.2
7.3-8
7.3
7.4-8
7.4
7.5-8
7.9-10
7.9
7. 10
7.1 1-12
62, 161,
164, 165
38, 66, 67,
71, 72, 145
68, 145
67
67
67
68
68
68
80
145
68
36, 69, 111 ,
138, 145
69, 123
69, 115
69
88
70
70
70, 79
129
70
70, 145
67, 71, 72,
75, 77, 78,
102, 103,
111 , 139,
141, 145,
167
71
71, 129,
145
86
71, 145
71, 72
131
37, 71, 72,
98, 100,
139, 152
73
72, 73, 11 7,
125, 131,
145
33, 73
73
60
73
73
52, 73, 128,
141
73
7.15-17
74
7. 15
74
7. 16-17
74, 92, 128,
7.17
153
123
8-9
67, 75, 77,
8
105
67, 71, 75,
8. 1
123, 145
75
8.2
75, 77, 145
8 .3-5
82
8.3
75, 82, 114
8.5
75, 145
8.6
76
8.7
76
8.10-11
111
8.11
76
8.12
76
8.13
13
8. 18
78, 79, 146
9
79, 146
9. 1-11
78
9. 1
78, 129,
9.2
130
78
9.3
78
9.4
78
9.6
79
9.7
79
9.8
79
9.9
79
9.10
79, 117
9.11
79, 82, 88
9.12
9.13-11. 14 79
9.13-11 .13 89
82, 89
9. 13-2 1
11 2
9. 13- 19
80, 137,
9.13
146
80
9 .1 4
80
9.15
7.11
7.13-17
7. 13
7.14
9.16
9.17
9 .18
9. 19
9.20-2 1
9.20
10
10. 1-11.13
10.1
10.2
10.3-4
10.3
10.4
10 .5-7
10.6
10.7-8
10.7
10.8-9
10.10
10.11
11-15
11
11.1-13
11. 1-2
11.1
11.2
11. 3
11. 4
11.5-6
11.7
11 .8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.1 2
11.1 3
11.14-19
11. 14
11 .15- I 9
11.1 5-18
11.1 5
80
80
80
80
80, 89
80
146
82, 89
13, 82, 129
82
148
82
82, 83, 127,
128, 141
83
160
13
82, 83
83
83
34, 84, 146
146
85,88,93
83,85, 86
85, 137
85
85, 86
86, 87
87
86
78, 87, 117
86, 87, 100,
114
87, 92
87
87, 88
88
85, 88, 89,
146
89
79, 80, 82,
85, 88, 108,
146, 147
149
85, 109,
147
80, 89, 9 1,
123, 146,
11.16
11.18
11.19
12- 15
12-14
12
12 .1 -14.20
12. 1-6
12.1
12.2
12 .3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7-12
12.7-9
12 .7
12.9
12.10
12.11
12. 12
12 . 13-17
12.1 3
12. 14
12 .15
12.16
12.17
12.18
13
13. 1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5-6
13. 5
13.6
13.7
13.8
177
147
89
89, 90, 147
80, 82, 8991 , 109,
114, 147
91
89, 147,
149, 161
91, 95, 99,
112, 147,
162
148
91
91, 129
91
91 , 97
91
74, 92
92
91
93, 98, 131
92
92
93, 105
93
93
91, 94
94
86, 94, 148
94, 162
94
94
94
27, 69, 87,
94-97, 102,
115, 127,
147, 148
91, 95, 97,
102, 115
97
97
97, 99, 130
23
95 , 97
95, 98
98
98
Index o f R eferen ce s
111
98
98
11 2
97, 99, 102
99
99
99
99
26, 152
100, 140
100
37, 100,
1 17
102, 103,
1 47
102
37, 102,
127
102
102, 105
103
105, 118,
147
103
104
104
104
1 49
105
104 , 105
105
105
32, 105
106
106
106
106
106
106, 128
14 1
89, 108,
109
148
108
108 , 149
108
15.23
I 5.2
15.3-4
15 .3
15.4
15.5-8
15.5-6
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
16
16.2
16.3
16.5-7
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16 . 10
16.1 1
16.12
16.13-16
16. 13
16.14
16.15
16.16
16. 17
16.18
16. 19-21
16. 19
16.20
16.2 1
17
17. 1
17.2
17.3
125
108, 123
108, 109,
111 , 147
102, 108,
125
80, 146
108, 147
91, 143
80, 109,
147
109
109
89, 110
104, 108,
1 10, 149,
1 59
111
11 1
I ll
I l l , 116
11 1
11 1
11 1
111
1 12
11 2
11 2
11 2
11 2, 11 3
32, 112,
11 3
ll 3, 129,
132
11 3
82, 114
148
87, 114,
120
11 4
11 4
87, 11 5,
127, 129,
1 47
11 5, 11 8,
147
11 5, 116
1 15
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9- 14
17.9-11
17.9
17 . 10-11
17. 10
17. 11
17.12
17. 13
17. 14
17. 15
17. 16
17.17
17. 18
18
18. 1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.11-13
18. 11
18 . 12-13
18.13
18.14
18. 15-17
18 . 15
18. 17
18. 18
18.19
18.20
18.2 1
18.22-23
18.23
18.24
19-20
19
11 5, 120
127
1 16
109, 116
78, 116,
11 7
11 7
18, 19 , 97,
1 17
11 5, 117
11 7
11 7
11 7
1 18
11 8
118, 127,
129
11 8
11 8
11 8
87, 118
100, 104,
120, 123,
147
120
109, 120
120
120
120
120
12 1
26
122
122
122
122
122
26
26, 122
122
123
123
123
123
123
111 , 123
16
125, 129,
19.1-8
19.1-2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19 .7
19.8
19.9- 10
19.9
19.10
19.11-22.5
19.11-2 1
19. 11-16
19.11
19. 12
19.13
19.14
19.15
19. 16
19.17
19.18
19. 19
19.20
19.2 1
20-22
20
20.1-3
20.2
20.3
20.4-6
20.4-5
20.4
135, 147,
148
125, 147
20.5
125
20.6
125
125
20.7-10
125
125
20.7-8
125, 129,
20.8
147
20.9-10
115 , 126
20.9
125, 140
20.10- 15
32, 126,
20. 10
135
40, 126,
20.11-15
127
20. 12-15
148
20. 12
92, 125,
20.14
148, 167
17
20.15
120, 123,
20.17
127, 140,
21-22
147
127, 165
21
127, 128
105, 128
74, 128
127, 128
2 1.1 -22.5
129
2
1.1
129
129, 132
129, 130,
21.2
167
129
21.3
55, 118
21.4
10 , 130,
2 1. 5
148, 167
21.6
78, 130
130
21.7
117, 130
2 1.8
130
167
21.9
20, 35, 51 ,
21.10
55. 60, 65,
21. 11
69, 88, 92,
21. 12
126, 130-
32, 134,
140, 167,
168
131
32, 60, 103,
131, 136
130, 134,
167
132
132
132
132
78
93, 130,
133
130, 167
129
16 1
45, 136,
140
50, 132
130
16, 44, 61,
168
10, 60, 85,
130, 132,
134, 137,
168
51, 148
104 , 126,
127, 134,
168
134-36,
140
135
135
135, 160
135, 136,
141, 153
136
45, 136,
1 41
136
136
137
137
2 1.1 4
21. 15-21
21.15
21.16
21.1 7
21. 18
2 1.1 9-20
2 1. 21
21.22
21.23
2 1. 24
2 1. 25
21.26
22
22.1-5
22.1-2
22. 1
22.2
22.3-4
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6-21
22.6-20
22.6
22.7
22.8-9
22.10
22.11
22.12
22 .1 3
22.14
22.15
22.16
22.17
22. 18-19
22. 19
22.20
22.2 1
179
137
137
135, 137
137, 139
137
137, 138
137, 139
138
36, 85, 138,
159
138
1 38
138
138
139
139
139
141
139, 140
139
139, 161
139
140, 144,
159
139, 148
144
16, 140,
144
32, 140
40, 140
83, 128,
140, 141
141
141
14 1, 161
32, 141
57, 141
51, 141
34, 141 ,
166
141
156
140, 142,
148
142, 151
Apocalypse of Abraham
165
11
165
11.3
16.3
59
Apocalypse of Zephaniah
127
6. 11-15
2 Baruch
4.2-6
24.8
40.3
59.4-11
72
74.2-3
85
48
132
14
127
134
20.2
21.3
37-71
45.4-5
47.2
47.4
48.9
51.2-3
62
62.3
7 1.14
75 .3
88.1
90 .9
90.28-36
108.4
78
76
56, 161
134
69
69
105
56
133
70
60
71
130
64
85
76
3 Baruch
11
1 Enoch
1.6
1.9
9.4
14
14. 15
14.20
14.22
18. 13
65
2 Enoch
3.3
4Ezra
1 14
2.42-47
128
4.35
11 8
58, 60, 157, 7.26
7.28-29
159
7.30-31
58
7.32
82
10.7
65
10.44-59
76
61
12.31-32
13. 1-12
jubilees
2.2
23.29
82
132
60
93
Lette1 of Aristeas
3 10-1 I
141
Psalms of Solomon
10. 1-3
55
17.23-2 7
127
Sibylline Oracles
5. 101
97
104
97
Testament of Benjamin
9.2
85
IQM
7. 1-7
I QpHab
6
1QS
3.13-4 . 1
6.2-5
IlQT
29.8-10
103
153
11 2
125
Talmud
b. B. Bat.
75a
b. /jag.
12b
josephus
War
2.122
5.5.2
162
37
86
2 Clement
11
32
85
b. Sab.
152b
69
168
b. Sanh.
89b
100a
93
138
48
Barnabas
15.3-8
69
135
132
134
69
91
85
Testament of joseph
19.8
64
Testament ofJudah
24.5
63
Testament of Moses
10.1
93
102
Targums
Targ. /sa.
65.5-6
Philo
Vit. Mos.
1.66
61
Ascension of Isaiah
1 15
2.7-11
39
3.15
154
3.21 -3 1
54, 93, 99
4
76, 97
4.1-4
100, 116
4.3
112
4.4- 11
4.11
99
92
4.13
105, 167
4.15
167
4.17
127
7.21-22
52, 133
9
108
9.1
52
9.19-23
64
11.32-33
102
Qumran
1QH
3.21-22
Midrash
Shem. R.
23
b. Yom.
8
148
138
t. Sot.
13.3
157, 158
152
Epiphanius
Haer.
51.33
48
Eusebius
Hist. Eccl.
3.17-20
3.18.1
3.19.1-20.7
3.29.1
3.39.4
7.25
Ignatius
Eph.
4 .1
5. 1-3
5.2
9.1
12.2
Martyrdom of Polycarp
44
12.2
21
18, 21
21
47
19
20
42
42
29
29, 42
69
Phil.
6
53
Rom.
4.3
116
Smym.
8.2
Irenaeus
Adv. Haer.
1.26.3
3.11.11
5
5.30.2
5.30.3
29
47
61
167
72
18, 24
Justin
1 Apol.
62-63
162
Dial.
59-60
61
80
81.4
128
162
109
167
19
109
Life of Polycarp
44
2
Classical Authors
Cicero
Verr.
3.81
68
Dio Cassius
67.8.1
67.14 .2
23
24
Juvenal
Sat.
6. 123
116
Martial
Epi.
10.72
23
Ovid
Met.
15.4 1
48
Plato
Phaed.
llOe
59
Pliny
Ep.
10.96-97
10.96
24
38, 103
Nat. Hist.
8.7
9.105
9.127
18.89
33.39-40
37.2
121
121
121
122
121
121
Pan.
2.12
48.3
52.3
22
22
23
116
Suetonius
Aug.
28.3
121
Calig.
14
97
23
122
1 22
122
122
Dom.
1.3
13
13.2
Tacitus
Ann.
3.53
4.37
22
62
23
Hist.
4.44-46
4.68
Tertullian
Praesc. Her.
33
Virgil
A en.
6.782
121, 122
46
22
22
Index of Authors
47
117
Aune, D.E. 15
Bauckham, R.]. 9, 21, 96, 121, 123,
144, 146, 149
Bauer, W. 29, 33
Berger, P. 27, 29
Booth, W. 150
Bruce, F.F. 76
Lemke, W.E. 13
Longenecker, R.N. 10
Miller, P.D. 13
Mounce, R.H. 9
Neusner,]. 16
Otto, R. 40
Pesce, M. 154
Ramsey, W.M. 51,55
Robinson,J.A.T. 19, 117
Rowland, C.C. 7, 9, 10, 12, 17
Russell, D.S. 16
Schneemelcher, W. 17
Schussler Fiorenza, E. 21
Scott, K. 22, 23
Smalley, S. 9
Stone, M.E. 13, 16
Stuckenbruck, L.T. 10, 127, 162
Sweet,j.P.M. 7, 61,70
Swete, H.B. 48
Iser, W. 150
Jacobson, H. 163
Klijn, A.F.]. 14
Knight, j .M. 18, 24, 165
Kiimmel, W.G. 20
t1 l?n'PMf=:.
Theissen, G. 25
Thompson, L.L. 9, 21-28, 122
Vermes, G. 11
Viell1auer, P. 17