UNIT 3 IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON

ENVIRONMENT

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Structure
3.1

Introduction
Objectives

3.2

Impact on Natural Resources

Pollution
Land Degradation
Water Resources
Biodiversity Erosion
Pesticide Residues

3.3

Impact on Climate Change

Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Carbon Dioxide
Methane
Nitrous Oxide

3.4
3.5

Summary
Terminal Questions

3.1

INTRODUCTION

No industry is more vital to our present and future well being than agriculture and few
have shown the unsustainability of its existing practices. In Unit 1 of this course you
have read about the evolution of agriculture, which humankind has been engaged in
for thousands of years. However, earlier agriculture was closely knit at local level. All
farm inputs were locally available. Livestock provided milk and farm power. The
dung from livestock and agricultural residues were used as farmyard manure, which
replenished soil nutrients depleted by the crops.
The high yielding modern intensive farming systems have shown the amazing ability
of human beings to adapt and control the agro-ecosystems. They have been able to
remove or diminish the limitations nature has put on productivity, and to provide a
more favourable environment for crop growth, increasing dramatically their
productive potential.
However, the problem started with the rise in population, and the consequent need for
more food. For producing more food in the same land area, synthetic fertilizers came
in. For protection against the damage caused by insects and pests, pesticides appeared
on the scene. More food production also led to more withdrawal of water from the
limited available sources leading to high water table in ground water, salinization etc.
The high input intensive agriculture has solved the food and nutrient problem for the
growing population but agricultural land has continued to shrink and environmental
threat to the region has become a reality. Thus agriculture has a major influence on the
environment as it accounts for a large portion of the land use and water use patterns.
In 2010, the population of the developing countries of Asia is expected to become
3729 million. The demand for food is expected to be around 959 million tons and the
production is estimated to be around 927 million tons leaving a gap of 32 million tons.
It is estimated that though the region may be able to meet the demand without
excessive imports by 2010, over 200 million people would still suffer from chronic
under-nutrition, for crop yields per ha of land are declining every year alarmingly.
The slow down in agricultural output is due to several factors and one of the
significant ones is that the land is becoming unable to support the burden of intensive
47

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

agriculture as the environmental foundations of sustainable agriculture that is, land,

water, biodiversity and forests are being damaged increasingly.
Agriculture has both primary and secondary environmental effects. A primary effect is
also called on-site effect, i.e., an effect on the area where agriculture takes place. A
secondary effect or off-site effect is an effect on an environment away from the
agricultural site. The impact of agriculture on the environment can be local, which
includes erosion, loss of soil, and increase in sedimentation in the local rivers;
regional that results from the combined effects of agricultural practices in the same
large area; or global which includes climatic changes as well as potentially extensive
changes in the chemical cycles. In this unit we will discuss the impact of modern
agricultural practices on natural resources and climate changes.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

3.2

explain how agriculture is affecting the environment;

identify the practices which are depleting the water resources and causing
salinization and ground water pollution;
explain the effects of pesticides and pesticide residues in fruits, vegetables, milk,
fish, eggs etc., on the environment;
explain how agriculture is affecting bio -diversity;
identify practices which lead to soil degradation;
explain whether agriculture is responsible for global warmingif so, to what
extent;
list the greenhouse gases emitted by agricultural practices and discuss how they
are influencing the climate;
suggest practices/ measures which can mitigate these greenhouse gases;
suggest some measures on policy level to reduce the negative impact of
agriculture on environment; and
describe the positive and negative impact of agriculture on environment.

IMPACT ON NATURAL RESOURCES

Nations in all regions of the world, if they are to provide for long-term well-being of
their citizens, must find the right means to protect the environment to ensure
continued access to natural resources, generation to generation.
Deterioration of natural resources is being caused by various factors. Inappropriate
agricultural development is one such factor. Conventional agricultural practices result
in land degradation, deforestation, pollution of water bodies and loss of biodiversity.
Some hot spots of severe environmental deterioration may be cited:

48

the river basins of the Indus , Tigris and Euphrates in the middle east Asia
(salinization),

the foothills of Himalayas (water erosion),

the forest margins of the lower Amazon (overgrazing and nutrient loss),

the peri-urban areas of Mexico City (po llution from agricultural chemicals),

the humid low land areas of Africa (nutrient depletion, acidification and erosion),

the sub-humid, semi-arid border zone of West Africa (migration from dry land
degradation), and

the North-western plains of India (crisis due to ground water depletion).

In this section we will examine the negative impact of agriculture on environment.

3.2.1

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Pollution

High production levels in modern agriculture are achieved by using nutrients such as
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in the form of chemical fertilizers,
manures, sludge, legumes and crop residues. When nutrients are applied in excess of
plant needs they have the potential to pollute soils, and surface and ground water.
A significant portion of nitrogenous fertilizers leaches through the ground and
increases the nitrate concentration of ground water. When this high nitrate
concentration water is used for drinking, it may cause diseases like
methaemoglobinaemia (blue baby) in bottle fed babies and also cancer. WHO has
prescribed the safe drinking water limit for nitrogen (N) as 45 ppm (part per million).
But the study of nitrate content of ground water in several parts of India has revealed
that in water table aquifers (dug wells), the nitrate concentration at many places is
quite high, more than 100 ppm. (mg/l). Table3.1 shows the worst affected areas in
India having nitrate concentration more than 300 ppm.
Table 3.1: Nitrate concentration in various Indian states exceeding 300 ppm
State

Site

District

West Bengal
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh

Jangipur
Birdha
Bansi
Badshapur
Hastinapur
Mirapur
Bangarmaou

Murshidabad
Hamirpur
Jhansi
Jaunpur
Meerut
Saharanpur
Unnao
Sangrur
Bhatinda
Hoshiarpur
Ambala
Faridabad-1
Faridabad-2
Sirsa
Hissar
Hisar-2
Hisar-3
Gurgaon-1
Gurgaon-2
Gurgaon-3
Mahendragarh-1
Mahendragarh-2
Mahendragarh-3
Mahendragarh-4
Mahendragarh-5

Punjab
Haryana

Jammu & Kashmir

Himachal
Orissa
Bisam
Bihar

NIL
NIL
Koraput
NIL

Nitrate Concentration (ppm)

480
434
558
300
694
300
390
362
567
435
990
560
430
325
419
363
610
310
450
722
1310
300
393
385
830

310

Though the nitrate in water is harmful for drinking purposes, it is beneficial for crops.
Most of the plants/crops take nitrogen in the form of nitrate or ammonium. When this
water having high nitrate concentration is used for agriculture, the requirement of
nitrogen fertilizer is reduced accordingly. For example, 10 cm irrigation with ground
water containing 100 ppm nitrate (mg/l) will contribute 44.5 kg of NO 3-N. If a farmer
is using the recommended dose of 120 kg N, then three irrigation of such water will
49

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

meet the entire nitrogen requirement of the crop thus making any additional nitrogen
unnecessary.
In crop production the main emphasis is on the use of synthetic N fertilizers. As an
example, in Haryana N, P (P 2O5), K (K2O) is used in the ratio of 48:11:1 showing the
heavy dose of nitrogen application as compared to P and K. If the NO3 concentration
in ground water is not taken into consideration and additional nitrogen is applied, it
will further accentuate the nutrient imbalance and ground water pollution may go on
accumulating further. Excessive nitrogen is also not good for plants because it affects
the maturity of crop adversely. It may cause lodging and even reduce the sugar
content in beetroot and sugarcane crops.
Besides giving the required elements to the crop, the chemical fertilizers used in
agriculture also supply heavy metals to the soils. Though some of them like copper
(Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe) in low concentrations are beneficial to
the crops as micronutrients, some of the other heavy metals like cadmium, lead,
arsenic are toxic and may pollute the soils resulting in uptake of these toxic heavy
metal by plants and enter the food chain for humans and animals. It is therefore,
necessary to know about such fertilizers, which contribute more heavy metals thereby,
exceeding the safe limits.
Table 3.2: Heavy metal contents (ppm) of some of the fertilizers
Fertilizer
Single super phosphate
Urea
Calcium Am. Nitrate
Muriate of Potash

Cu
26
0.36
0.2
3

Zn
60-165
0.5
6
3

Mn
65-270
0.5
11
8

Mo
3.5
0.2
0.2

Pb
609
4
200
88

Cd
187
1
6
14

Rock Phosphate is also responsible for heavy metal pollution.

Impact on air pollution
Though agriculture is not polluting the atmosphere directly, there are incidences when
air pollution occurs and becomes responsible for human health hazards. It is mainly
during the accidents and gas leaks in factories where pesticides are manufactured.
You would recall that a major accident that occurred in December 1984 when a
poisonous gas called Methyl Isocyanide leaked from the Union Carbide factory in
Bhopal, India, causing hundreds of deaths and injuring and disabling many others.
Many cases of illness have been reported from Karnataka and Kerala during pesticide
spraying in the cashew nut plantations (Down to Earth, 2001).
Gaseous emissions from fertilizer manufacturing units are also responsible for air
pollution. (Emission of greenhouse gases from agriculture is discussed later in this
unit).
SAQ 1
a) How does agriculture lead to nitrate pollution of ground water?
b) What should be done to prevent further nitrate pollution?

3.2.2

Land Degradation

In terms of direct impact on the environment, farming activities are major contributors
to soil erosion, land salinization and loss of nutrients. For example, it has been
estimated that about 25 percent of soil degradation in Asia and Pacific region has
occurred directly from agricultural activities.
50

One of the most serious impact of intensive agriculture is the clearing of forest land
and burning of vegetation. In fact agriculture is the most important cause of forest loss
in Southeast Asia. Subsequent burning of the remaining vegetation after land clearing
had been responsible for the haze that covered much of South-east Asia in 1997 and
1998. The burning of vegetation in Kalimantan and Sumatra, after land clearing for oil
palm plantations, got out of hand and spread to forest areas that were not supposed to
be burnt. The problem became more serious when the peat just below the soil surface
also started burning. Once the peat land catches fire it is very difficult to extinguish it.
The smoke produced mainly contributed to the haze experienced in South-east Asia
during last two years.

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Decline in Soil Nutrients and Soil Biological Activity

Soil fertility and soil health are two major attributes of soil. Intensive agriculture
without proper care is responsible for depletion of soil nutrients. A fertile soil has all
major and micro and secondary nutrients, which are needed by crops. Once you grow
a crop with excessive fertilizers (say nitrogenous) the crop also draws many other
nutrients, which are not supplied, by these fertilizers. A crop may draw zinc, sulphur
or any other element and the soil may become depleted in that.
Soil biological activity is another important attribute of the soil. By indiscriminate use
of fertilizers and pesticides, soil microbial activity is affected. Even earthworms and
other soil organisms are affected by intensive agricultural practices.
Decline in Soil Structure
Take the example of bricks. If the bricks are just kept haphazardly one over the other,
it will form an unstable heap. But if the same bricks are arranged properly and
mutually bounded, they can form a house or factory. In the same manner soil can be a
loose and unstable assemblage of random particles or it can be a properly structured
pattern of inter -bonded particles associated into bigger aggregates having regular sizes
and shapes. The manner in which the soil particles are packed and held together in a
continuous spatial network is commonly called soil matrix or fabric. The arrangement
and organization of the particles in the soil is called soil structure.
Soil structure is strongly affected by changes in climate, biological activity and soil
management practices. It is vulnerable to destructive forces of mechanical and
physico-chemical nature. Soil structure also affects the retention and transmission of
fluids in soil, including infiltration and aeration.
Agricultural practices responsible for decline in soil structure are

Excessive cultivation/ tillage;

Overgrazing and loss of soil cover;
Excessive Animal / machine movement on wet soils (Fig. 3.1).

(a)

(b)

Fig.3.1: Some of the agricultural practices responsible for declining soil structure: a) Excessive
movement of heavy machines; and b) Overgrazing

51

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

Whenever soil is disturbed it becomes loose and may move with water or wind. There
is natural erosion of soils, especially in hilly areas. But there too human
activity/agricultural activity enhances soil erosion. Levelling of the land and the
drainage system also cause environmental problems.
Soil erosion in humid tropics is a very serious problem especially on slopes.
Poor cultivation techniques, overgrazing, lack of vegetative cover are agricultural
practices that lead to soil erosion.
Much of the eroded soil ends up in waterways. Downstream sedimentation is a serious
impact of modern agricultural practices. Sedimentation fills in productive water
reservoirs, destroys fisheries, coral reefs in tropical waters and as we had said earlier
sediments carry ammonia, nitrates, and other chemicals in downstream waters causing
eutrophication.
Soil Salinization
The soil or water containing excessive salts is classified as saline. The degree of
salinity is measured by the concentration of salts. The easiest way to quantify the
concentration of salts in a soil is to measure its electrical conductivity (EC). Its unit is
Siemens/m. Soil with less salt will have low electrical conductivity. As the amount of
salts increases its EC also increases. A soil is classified as saline if its EC becomes
more than 4 dS/m. A number of factors are responsible for salinity build-up. Some of
them are nature and content of soluble salts in irrigation water, soil type, water table,
nature of crops grown, and the water management practices.
The agricultural practices responsible for saline soil problems are:

Excessive drawing of ground water

Water logging
Use of improper fertilizers/pesticides
Too frequent irrigation
Use of brackis h water for irrigation.

Canal Water Irrigation

Expansion of irrigation has been one of the key strategies in achieving self-sufficiency
in food production in the region. For example, India has increased net irrigated area
from 20 M ha in 1950 to about 45 M ha in 1995. A major expansion in the irrigated
area has been achieved through transported canal irrigation. In almost all such cases
the ground water table, which was several meters deep prior to introduction of
irrigation canals, has risen. When ground water table reaches within 2 m of the
surface, the ground water table contributes significantly to evaporation from soil
surface and causes soil salinization. In most canal-irrigated areas, soil deterioration
due to accumulation of salts has assumed a ser ious dimension. According to one
estimate about 50% of the canal-irrigated areas are affected by salinity.
Ground Water Irrigation
Salt problems have also increased where saline ground waters have been used for
irrigation in the absence of good quality irrigation water. Ground waters are being
exploited to supplement the water requirement for producing more food, fodder and
fibre. In India about 40% of the net irrigated area receives irrigation through ground
waters drawn through wells. A large number of ground water aquifers especially in
the states of Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh are unfit for irrigation as their use
leads to salinity.

52

In coastal areas, excessive exploitation of ground water for agriculture has caused
intrusion of sea water, res ulting in worsening of salinity related problems.

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Soil acidification
When pH of a soil becomes less than 6.5 it becomes acidic. Normally
soils having pH between 6.5 and 7.5 are classified as neutral soils. If the soil pH
becomes lower than 6.5 it becomes acidic and if it becomes higher than 7.5 it is
classified as alkaline.
Agricultural practices that may cause soil acidification are:

Excessive use of acidifying fertilizers.

Use of shallow rooting pastures.

SAQ 2
What is soil structure and what agricultural practices disturb it?

3.2.3

Water Resources

The growth of agriculture and urbanization has imposed growing pressure on the
South Asian regions already strained water resources in terms of both quality as well
as quantity. This is evident in the gradual decline in per capita availability of water
throughout the region. In India, for instance, the per capita availability fell from 6000
cubic meters in 1947 to 2300 cubic meters in 1998. Estimates for the year 2030
predict acute shortage of water in India (TERI 2000). Use of groundwater for
irrigation has led to the depletion of underground aquifers in several parts of the
region.
In some parts of the Indian states of Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab and Gujarat the
extent of over exploitation ranges from 100%-260% as compared to the critical levels
of 85%. In Bangladesh excessive withdrawal of water has led to water logging and
salinity and to land subsistence in cities like Dhaka (TERI 2000).
Water quality is affected through intensive agriculture in the following ways:

Soil salinity due to water logging in irrigated areas;

Soil salinity due to water logging in dry land;

Contamination of ground water by nitrogen through nitrate;

Eutrification of rivers, marshes and lakes; and

Contamination of water by agrochemicals.

Lowering of Water Table

Due to excessive withdrawal of water for irrigation, the ground water table is lowered.
In some cases it has gone down at the rate of 2-3 meters per year.
The methods of irrigation presently used are not very scientific. With a lot of gadgets
now available for measuring the status of water/ moisture in the soil or when the crop
requires water, we can make judicious use of water and save a significant quantity of
water. Standing water throughout the rice crop is not essential. There are better
methods of irrigation like drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation to save water
(Fig.3.2). These methods have several advantages over conventional methods of
irrigation.
53

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

India has on the whole good

rainfall and reasonable water
resources. We can manage
with water available provided
we follow Gandhis adviceNature provides for every
body 's need but not for
everybody's greed. (Quoted
from DR. M.S. Swaminathans
article on Greening a Nation
published in Times Agricultural
Journal Nov-Dec, 2001)

It is worth mentioning how a water scarce country like Israel has solved this problem
by modern methods of irrigation, timely application of water, recycling of water etc.

(a)

(b)

Fig.3.2: a) Drip irrigation; and b) sprinkler irrigation is more useful for saving water

SAQ 3
How can we save water and still fulfil the requirements of the crops?

3.2.4

Biodiversity Erosion

Within the Asia-Pacific region, overall habitat losses have been the most acute in the
Indian Subcontinent. The underlying causes are international trade in timber;
introduction of non-native species, improper use of agro-chemicals, excessive hunting
and poaching (TERI 2000).
Intensive agriculture has resulted in loss of biodiversity in the following ways:

Pests are undesirable

competitors, parasites, or
predators.

Pressure on habit at of wild organisms;

Loss of species when the habitats are degraded;

Abandoning of traditional varieties in favour of high yielding varieties; and

Practice of monoculture for more production of a particular variety (Pusa basmati

in rice). This is normally done either because of high yields or some varieties
which are more in demand. You will learn more about biodiversity erosion in Unit
8 of the next block of this course.

3.2.5

Pesticide Residues

All types of agriculture suffer from pest infestation. Even today with modern
technology the total losses from all pests are huge. The major agricultural pests are
insects, diseases and nematodes, and weeds and vertebrates (mainly rodents and birds)
that feed on grain and fruits.
Before the Industrial Revolution, farmers could do little to prevent pests except
remove them when they appeared or use farming methods that tended to decrease their
density.
With the advances in modern agricultural sciences, chemical pesticides were
developed. The use of pesticides has grown, reaching $31.25 billion worldwide in
1996. About 80% of the pesticides in use are applied in developing countries.

54

Pesticides are a group of chemicals meant for preventing/ destroying any pest
detrimental to man or his interest during production, processing, storage,

transportation and distribution of food items like cereals, fruits, vegetables and other
crops. These include insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, nematicides,
chemosterilents, mollusides, fungicides, plant growth regulators, defoliants, desiccants
attractants, and repellents.
Box 3.1: Chemical pesticides

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Chemical pesticides like DDT, aldrin and carbendazim etc. have created a revolution
in agriculture. However, in addition to the negative environmental effects of
individual chemicals such as DDT, their use has other major drawbacks. One such
problem is known as secondary pest outbreaks, which occur after extended use (and
possibly because of extended use) of a pesticide. Secondary pest outbreaks can come
about in two ways: (1) reduction in one target species reduces competition with a
second, which then increases and becomes a pest or (2) the pest develops resistance
to the pesticides through evolution and natural selection, which favour those in the
population with a greater immunity to the chemical. Developed resistance has
occurred with many pesticides.
It has been estimated that the crop losses in India because of pests and diseases vary
from 10% to 30 % depending upon the crop, climate and region. In financial terms
these losses amount to Rs. 290 billions per year (Table 3.3).
Table 3.3: Estimated crop losses due to pests and diseases in India
Crop
Rice
Wheat
Jowar
Pulses
Oilseeds
Cotton
Sugarcane

Loss in %
18.6
11.4
10.0
7,0
25.0
22.0
15.0

Financial loss in million Rs.

55, 120
14,150
1,732
4,840
41,800
20,000
13,360

Monitoring of Pesticide Residues

All India Coordinated project on Pesticide Residues conducted analysis of 4100 fruits
and vegetable samples collected from different states of India. Out of these
2265(55%) samples were found contaminated with pesticides. However , only 9% of
them exceeded the MRL (Maximum Residue Limit) as you can see from Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Region wise contamination of fruits and vegetables by pesticides
State/Centre

No of samples analysed

Haryana
H.P.
Tamil Nadu
Gujarat
A.P.
U.P.
W.B.
Kerala
Punjab
Orissa
Delhi
Assam
Rajasthan
Karnataka
M.P.
Maharashtra
Total Average

1236
436
85
104
275
244
75
72
148
105
68
32
388
370
195
278
4111

% samples
contaminated
56.2
19.5
91.8
80.8
29.8
100
56
100
58.1
51.4
77.9
46.9
53.4
19.7
96.5
73.4
55.1

% samples
above MRL
4.5
1.4
15.3
13.5
45.9
52.8
4.7
12.4
12.1
7.3
1.5
13.7
9.5
55

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

The analysis has shown that pesticide residues affect most of the crops. A comparative
analysis is given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Contamination of fruits and vegetables crops by pesticides (crop wise)
Crop
Tomato
Cucumber
Apple
Okra
Cabbage
Smooth Gourd
Pointed Gourd
Brinjal
Capsicum
Indian Bean
Bitter Gourd
Ridge Gourd
Pea grains
Potato
Cauliflower
Pea
Beans
Spinach
Mustard
Cowpea
Cluster bean
French bean
Bottle Gourd
Snake Gourd
Carrot
Fenugreek
Pigeon pea
Total Average

No of samples
598
186
142
468
302
81
15
843
124
22
125
46
161
219
376
20
8
40
12
55
24
51
33
36
14
12
12
4111

% of samples
contaminated
45.3
52.5
18.3
60.0
62.6
64.2
46.7
58.5
31.5
72.7
65.6
47.8
47.8
62.6
66.2
65.0
62.5
85.0
41.7
81.8
50.0
17.6
45.6
80.5
57.1
41.7
100
55.1

% samples
above MRL
5.4
6.5
-15.8
7.0
--9.8
12.1
9.1
6.4
-7.5
9.6
16.8
--7.5
-32.7
4,2
15.7
3.0
19.4
-8.3
58.3
9.5

Pesticides residues were also found in milk samples collected from the following
locations showing that the cows and buffalo were eating such fodder or feed material
which contained pesticide residues and then these residues entered in the food chain of
milch cattle and in the milk (Table 3.6).
Table 3.6: Residues of HCH and DDT in whole milk in India
(a) HCH (Hexachloro cyclohexane)
Location
New Delhi
Ludhiana
Hissar
Kanpur
Hyderabad
Coimbatore
Pusa Bihar
Bangalore
Bhubaneshw ar
Jorhat
Jaipur
Anand
Vellyani

No. Analyzed
12
30
25
24
38
90
24
30
45
12
20
60
25

MRL in dai ry milk HCH = 0.01 mg/kg

56

No. contaminated
12
30
25
24
38
90
8
25
45
12
20
60
25

No. above MRL

7
30
25
24
38
60
8
25
45
12
17
59
12

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

(b) DDT (Dichloro diphenyle trichloro ethane)

Location
New Delhi
Ludhiana
Hissar
Kanpur
Hyderabad
Coimbatore
Pusa Bihar
Bangalore
Bhubaneshwar
Jorhat
Jaipur
Anand
Vellyani

No. Analyzed
12
30
25
24
21
80
24
30
45
31
16
60
18

No. contaminated
12
30
25
19
21
80
11
26
36
31
16
60
18

No. above MRL

12
25
02
09
3
22
9
02
11
22
10
52
10

MRL for dairy milk DDT = 0.05 mg/kg

Pesticide Residues in Fish

The data on pesticide residue in fish suggests that fish in India are relatively less
contaminated. Out of 82 samples analyzed, only 40% were found contaminated with
residues of insecticides and none of the samples was above MRL. These samples were
collected from Kerala, Assam and Andhra Pradesh and residue analysis was
conducted for HCH, DDT, Endosulphan, monocrotophos and quinaphos .
Pesticide Residues in Poultry and Poultry Feed
Chicken and eggs are the preferred food in a non-vegetarian diet. In India samples of
eggs and chicken were analyzed for the residues of HCH, DDT, aldrin and
carbendazim (a fungicide). The analysis of chicken flesh have shown that residues of
DDT, HCH and aldrin, were either non-detectable or below MRL. But surprisingly
residues of carbendazim fungicide used to control fungal diseases were much higher
than its MRL value. The presence of high amounts of carbendazim in poultry feed
clearly shows that these are coming from feed particularly maize as maize grains are
treated to control fungal diseases.
The area under pesticide cover has in creased from 6 Mha in 1960 to 125 Mha in 1990.
At present there are about 145 pesticides in use and annual consumption is about
85000 t. The consumption of pesticides in India is the maximum among the South
Asian countries. During the last five decades this has increased by about 500 times,
i.e., from 154 t in 1953 to 85,000 t in 1998.India is also the largest producer of
pesticides in South Asia, with more than 500 industries producing it.
Notwithstanding this fact, the consumption of pesticides in India is quite low (about
0.5 kg /ha) as compared to countries like Korea and Japan where its consumption rate
is 6.6 and 12.0 kg/ha, respectively . There is widespread contamination of food
commodities with pesticide residues. In a recent survey by ICMR (Indian Council of
Medical Research) it was revealed that 51% of our food items were contaminated with
pesticides out of which 20 % had pesticides residues above MRL (Maximum Residue
Limit). In spite of the warnings and bans the use of pesticides in India is increasing at
the rate of 2-5 % per year and is likely to grow in future as well unless strict measures
are taken. On a regional level, agricultural run-off has also contributed to ocean
pollution. An estimated 1800 t of pesticides enter the Bay of Bengal annually and
increased use of pesticides in some areas has resulted in contamination of molluscs
and fish species.
57

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

Shrimp breeding in coastal swamps has accelerated the depletion of mangroves in

estuaries, lagoons and bays and threatens such important natural processes as soil
binding, nutrients recycling and prevention of soil erosion and silt accumulation.
SAQ 4
Why are pesticides used in agriculture? Find out the MRL of pesticide residue in your
area.

3.3

IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGE

So far we have discussed the local and regional effects of agriculture on the
environment. Global effects are not so obvious, though they are equally serious. In
this section, we will examine and assess the global impact of modern agriculture on
climate change. Intensification of agriculture has resulted in heavy reliance on
irrigation, increased fertilizer and pesticides use and crop residue burning. All of them
have a direct impact on global climate change via emission of greenhouse gases.

3.3.1

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Green house effect is the warming of the lower atmosphere and surface of a planet by
a complex process involving sunlight, gases and particles in the atmosphere.
All hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation at a range of wavelengths depending on
the temperature of the object. The higher the temperature is, the shorter the
wavelength of the radiation, and vice versa. The sun, with a surface temperature of
over 6000oC, emits radiation with wavelengths 200nm to 4m.
The earth is enveloped by gaseous atmosphere and gases in the atmosphere absorb
radiation selectively. When the short-wave radiation from the sun passes through
these gases, they allow it to fall on the earth. As a result, the earth absorbs some of the
radiation and it gets heated to a mean temperatur e of about 15oC. In turn, the earth
radiates long wave infrared radiation some of which is absorbed by the atmospheric
gases and particles. As a result the gases and particles are heated. Sending out infrared
rays of their own then cools them. Some of these rays go into space. The remainder
radiate back towards the earths surface adding to the warming of the surface layer of
air (Fig. 3.3). The heat trapping gases of the atmosphere are known as greenhouse
gases.

Fig.3.3: Greenhouse effect; refers to the wavelength of the radiation. Short implies greater
energy and long radiation has less energy

58

The greenhouse gases are: carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, nitrous oxide and
ozone. The natural greenhouse gases keep the earth roughly 33oC warmer than what it
would be if there was no atmosphere. However, on an average for the earth as a
whole, the incoming solar energy is balanced by outgoing terrestrial radiation. It is
important to understand that the green house effect is a natural phenomenon that has
been occurring for millions of years on earth as well as other planets of our solar
system. The majority of natural greenhouse warming is due to water in the atmosphere
but the gases we are concerned with are those that result in part from anthropogenic
processes, that is, those that occur due to human activities.

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Increases in the concentration of greenhouse gases will reduce the efficiency with
which earth cools. More of the outgoing terrestrial radiation from the surface is
absorbed by the atmosphere and emitted at higher altitudes and colder temperatures.
This results in an enhanced greenhouse effect which tends to warm the lower
atmosphere and surface. This effect has operated in the earth's atmosphere for billions
of years due to the naturally occurring greenhouse gases: water vapour, carbon
dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrous oxide.
Anthropogenic aerosols (small particles) in the troposphere, derived mainly from the
emission of sulphur dioxide from fossil fuel or biomass burnin g can absorb and reflect
solar radiation. They create a negative effect and cool the climate. But these aerosols
have a much shorter lifetime (days to weeks) as compared to most greenhouse gases
(decades to centuries) so their presence responds much more quickly but for short
duration.
Any change in the radiative balance of the earth whether due to greenhouse gases or
aerosols will tend to alter atmospheric and oceanic temperatures and the associated
weather patterns (hydrological cycles, cloud distribution and rainfall patterns).
As explained above, the presence of these green house gases has raised the earths
surface temperature from 19 C to 15 C.
It is quite clear that not only the presence of these gases but their contribution in
raising the temperature is also equally important. Some gases contribute more and
some less depending upon their concentration and warming potential (Table 3.7).
Table 3.7: Greenhouse gases influences by anthropogenic activities

Gas
Pre-industrial
atmospheric
concentration
Current
concentration
Current
annual
increase (%)
Atmospheric
life time
(Yrs)
Global
warming
potential
relative toCO 2

CH4

N2 O

CFC-12

280 ppmv

0.70 ppmv

280 PPBV

370 ppmv

1.72 ppmv

310 ppbv

5.03 pptv

0.25%
(0.75 ppbv)

4%
(18 -20 pptv )

CO2

0.5%
(1.5 to1.8
ppmv)

0.8%
(0.013
ppmv)

50-200

12-17

150

102

24.5

320

4000

The table shows that from many thousand years to about 200 years ago the
concentration of these green house gases in the atmosphere was almost the same/
unchanged. The changing trend started only 200 years ago mainly because of
59

increased anthropogenic activities. Not only this, some of the gases (CFCs) which
were not present in the atmosphere earlier entered into atmosphere from the year 1930
onwards. Though their concentration is very low, their overall contribution to global
warming is very high.

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

The rise in the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is caused

primarily because of human and industrial activities. The increasing levels of CO2, the
most important greenhouse gas, are mostly because of fossil fuel combustion.
Similarly, CFC emissions are only caused due to industrial processes and products.
On the other hand the increased agricultural activities and organic waste management
are contributing to the build-up of methane and nitrous oxide (Fig. 3.4).

Deforestation/
land use changes

CO2

Fossil fuel combustion

Fertilizers

N 2O

Biomass burning

Land conversion
to agriculture
CH4

Ruminants
Rice paddy
cultivation
Aerosol spray
propellants

Natural gas
releases
Solvent

CFC
Refrigerants

Foam packaging

Fig. 3.4: Greenhouse Gases and their anthropogenic sources

The composition of greenhouse gases is shown in Fig. 3.5. Note that carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide are directly related with agriculture.

TRACE GASES
Carbon dioxide
(CO 2)

Nitrous
oxide (N 2O)

49.0%

6.0%
18.0%

13.0%
14.0%

Methane (CH4)

Agricultural Contribution
Fertilizer, cultivated
natural soil, biomass
burning
Ruminants, rice
paddies, biomass
burning

13%

Land use conversion

(deforestation)

10%

Other

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Fig.3.5: Composition and source of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

60

2.6%

While it is certain that agriculture is a source of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide, it can also be considered as a sink of carbon dioxide and to some extent
methane. We will discuss each gas separately in the following subsection.

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

SAQ 5
a) Why does the sun radiate in the short wave range (mainly UV and visible) while
the earth radiates long wave radiation?
b) Why is global warming known as greenhouse effect?

3.3.2

Carbon Dioxide

Agriculture is not a major source of carbon dioxide. It mainly comes from the burning
of fossil fuels for energy (electrical power, vehicles etc). However, agriculture and
forestry play an important role in land use conversion, (land clearing and forest
burning for cultivation or grazing) which is the second largest cause of increased
carbon dioxide emission. The net effect is carbon loss from both biomass and soils.
Main source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by agriculture is through tillage. The
tillage operation increases the biological decomposition of soil organic matter
resulting in release of CO2. The second pathway is use of machinery where fuel
(diesel) releases CO2. The third important source of CO2 is burning of crop residue.

Inter Government Panel on

Climatic Change (IPCC)

It may be noted the agriculture is also a sink for CO2. During plant growth, the
process of photosynthesis absorbs atmospheric CO 2. Due to this very reason the global
Climate Change Community does not consider agriculture as a source of CO2. (In
official GHG (Greenhouse Gases) accounting procedures as supported by IPCC).
Carbon dioxide from Tillage Operations
During a tillage operation, soil aggregates are broken, increasing oxygen supply and
surface exposure to soil organic matter and thereby promote its decomposition.

International Maize and

Wheat Improvement
Centre (CIMMYT)

In one long- term trial at CIMMYT, Mexico, the impact of 3-4 cultivations per year
was compared with a no tillage experiment. After 8 years it was revealed that soil
organic carbon in the top 20 cm declined from 1.37% to 1.12 %. The net loss of soil
organic carbon in 8 years was 3.6 t C/ha (equivalent to 450 kg C/ha/yr.).
Where has this carbon gone? It has gone to the atmosphere through CO2 emission.
Fuel Consumption in Agriculture
Heavy diesel fuel used by tractors is also responsible for CO2 emission. It is estimated
that for every litre of diesel consumed, 2.6 kg of CO2 is released to the atmosphere.
Assuming that 150 litres of diesel is used per hectare for tractor and irrigation
pumping in conventional systems, this would amount to 400 kg CO 2 being emitted per
year. An off site source which is often neglected, is the production of CO 2 during the
manufacture of fertilizers. It is estimated that production of I kg of N fertilizer would
release 1.8 kg of CO2.

3.3.3 Methane
Methane is the lightest hydrocarbon having one carbon and four hydrogen atoms. Its
molecular weight is 16. It is also a fuel gas commonly called marsh gas because it is
produced from marshy lands. Biogas or Gobar gas also contains 60-70% of methane.
Even if the concentration of methane is quite low as compared to that of CO 2, its
global warming potential (GWP) is 20 times that of CO2. Rice and ruminant animal
production are the two largest sources of anthropogenic methane. These two sources
together contribute about 40% to global methane budget (Table 3.8).

61

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

Table 3. 8: Estimated sources an d sinks of methane in Tg/ yr (IPCC 1995)

Sources

Individual estimate

Total

Natural
1 Tg = 1 million tons

Wetlands
Termites
Oceans
Others
Total of Natural Sources

115(55-150)
20(10-50)
10(5-50)
15(10-40)
160(110-210)

Anthropogenic Sources
Fossil fuel based
Natural gas
Coal mines
Petroleum Refining
Coal combustion
Total of fossil related

40(25-50
30(15-45)
15(5-30)
? (1-30)
100(70-120)

Biogenic
Enteric Fermentation
Rice paddies
Biomass Burning
Landfills
Animal wastes
Domestic sewage/waste
Total of Bionic Sources
Total (All Identified Sources)

85(65-100)
60(20-100)
40(20-80)
40(20-70)
25(20-30)
25(15-80)
275(200-350)
535(410-660)

Sinks
Atmospheric removal
Troposphere OH
Stratosphere
Soils
Total Sinks

445(360-530)
40(32-48)
30(15-45)
515(430-600)

Implied Total Sources

552(465-640)

Implied Increase

37(35-40)

If domestic waste decomposition through sewage and landfills and burning of

agricultural waste is also included under this category of anthropogenic sources of
methane, its contribution may rise to about 70% (Fig. 3.6).

The methane we release today

could still trap heat more than a
decade from now. It stays in the
atmosphere that long.
Each molecule of methane traps
heat 20 times more effectively
than a carbon dioxide molecule.

CH4 Concentration (ppb)

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
1750

62

1800

1850

1900

1950

2000

Fig.3.6: Methane on the rise. Since 1750 methane in the air has more than doubled due to human
activity. It could double again by 2050.

Methane emission from rice fields

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Methane is produced in soil during microbial decomposition of organic matter and

reduction of CO 2 under strictly anaerobic conditions. The methane emissions are
controlled by two microbial processes, i.e., CH4 production through methanogenic
bacteria and CH 4 oxidation through methanotrophs. While former requires strict
anaerobic environment, the latter requires oxygen for metabolism. The dry terrestrial
soils may also act as sink of atmospheric methane.
The continuously flooded rice fields are the source of methane, because anoxic
conditions favour methanogenesis and production of methane and rice plants serve as
conduit for its release to atmosphere. However , if the fields could be drained or
intermittently irrigated, then the methane production as well as emission could be
significantly reduced.
Global Methane Emission from Rice Fields
The global estimate of methane emission from rice fields started from 200 Tg/yr,
which have come down to 60 (20-100) Tg/yr in 1996.There is a possibility of further
decline in the estimated values of methane budget from rice fields. It is estimated that
methane emission from rice fields is in the range of 25-54 Tg/yr.
Methane from Indian rice fields
Methane from Indian rice fields covering a harvested area of 42.3 Mha was estimated
as 4-6 Tg/yr. There is no doubt that the continuously flooded fields emit considerable
amount of methane, but the question would be the source of carbon substrate, which is
needed for the methane production. This substrate comes from either the native
organic carbon in the soil, or the applied organic carbon added to the soil in the form
of organic manures, rice straw etc.
The rice plants also provide this carbon substrate in the form of organic leachates and
root exudates. The recent measurements using both automatic and manual measuring
system have clearly shown that methane emission is significantly reduced using the
practice of intermittent irrigation as compared to continuous flooding.
The experiments in all parts of the world have shown that addition of organic manures
like green manure, farm yard manure (FYM), biogas slurry, rice straw etc., enhances
the methane emission from rice fields. The experiments conducted at IARI have also
shown that methane emission from rice fields amended with biogas spent slurry is
significantly lower than other organic amendments like green manuring, FYM etc.
Experiments have also shown that there is no significant increase in methane emission
if neem coated urea is used in place of urea, while grain yields are significantly
increased.
The total annual injection of methane into the atmosphere is estimated to be 552 (465640) Tg and its oxidation being less, there is a net accumulation of about 37 Tg/yr. As
a result, the abundance of methane in the atmosphere (which is currently 1.74 ppm) is
increasing at a rate of about 0.7 % per year. Although the increase in annual load of
methane in the atmosphere is only 1/100 that of CO2, its high impaired absorption
amounts to higher contribution (15-20%) in the global warming.
Role of organic wastes under continuously flooded rice fields
Organic wastes are the potential source of methane emission. Normally the wastes
contain lot of water and the dry matter content of a large number of organic wastes is
very low (10-20%). When these wastes are dumped, they remain in partially anaerobic
conditions and produce both carbon dioxide as well as methane .The ratio of CO2/CH4
63

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

depends upon the toxic conditions of the dumps. When these wastes become a part of
stagnant water, the amount of methane increas es considerably. Among the various
types of wastes, the most important is the animal excreta. But the crop wastes and
other wastes which are also sometimes used in rice fields also emit methane. The
more the organic matter in the stagnant water, the more methane is expected to come
out. The process also depends upon the temperature and pH. Temperature between 3035C is most favourable for methane production.
The production of methane is reduced as the temperature goes down and below 15C,
the methane production becomes very low. As regards the pH, its range between 6.48.0 is most favourable, on either side of this range, methane production is reduced.
Box 3.2: Methane emission in South Asian Region
Under UNDP-IRRI Inter regional programme, methane emission from rice fields
was measured at eight locations in five rice producing countries (India, China,
Thailand, Philippines and Indonesia) covering main rice ecosystems, i.e., irrigated,
rain fed and deepwater. The results revealed that irrigated rice fields had the
highest emission rates of all rice ecosystems. Seasonal emission varied from 1g/m2
to 50 g/m 2.
Continuously flooded fields emitted more methane. Depending upon local
precipitation, emission from rain fed rice fields may be less than half of the
emission from irrigated fields and w as generally less than 5 g/m 2. In a reference
treatment at all these locations using common cultivar IR72 and continuously
flooded conditions, the seasonal methane emission varied from 1.7 g/m2 to
24.4 g/m2, which may be attributed to soil conditions and climate.
Experiments at IARI during 1994-97 have shown that intermittent irrigation, which
is the usual practice, reduces methane emission unto about 28%. At Pant Nagar
the reduction in methane emission due to intermittent irrigation was found to be
30% as compared to continuous flooded conditions. IPCC in 1996, on the basis of
results obtained by various rice growing countries, have suggested that emission
factors under single and multiple aeration as 0.5 and 0.2 of that against
continuously flooded fields. Using IPCC methodology and countrys default va lue
of 10 g/m2, the methane emission from rice cultivation in India should not exceed
2.5Tg/yr.
The main reason of low methane emission from rice fields in India is that the soils
of major portion of rice growing areas have very low organic carbon. Incubation
studies on some soils of rice growing areas of India have shown large differences
in the methane production potential because of their organic carbon content. The
use of organic manuring is also not very common in India and Indian soils have
very low organic carbon. This is one of the reasons of low methane emission from
Indian rice fields.

Methane Emission from Burning of Crop Residues

The burning of crop residues also contributes to global methane budget. For each ton
of residues that is burnt 2.3 kg of methane is released which is equivalent to 48.3 kg of
carbon dioxide.
In order to clear the field for the next crop, farmers quite often burn the crop residue,
because that appears to them as the easiest way.
As an example take the case of rice-wheat system in Indo-Gangetic plains. Assuming
about 10 t/ha of residue production and if half of the 12 million ha area under rice64

wheat is burnt, a total of 0.14 million tons of methane is emitted. This is equivalent to
20% of the total methane emitted from rice fields in this area. Hence burning of crop
residues is also an important source of methane besides carbon dioxide.

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

Mitigation of methane emission from rice fields

Experiments have shown that methane emission can be reduced significantly
(Table 3. 9) by adopting the following mitigation practices:

Water management: through intermittent irrigation or drainage;

Use of digested manure instead of fresh manure; and

Selection of suitable cultivars which emit less methane.

But studies have also shown that mitigation of methane emission through intermittent
flooding may lead to N2O emission. However, more experiments are needed to
quantify the combined effect of emissions of methane and nitrous oxide from rice
fields. This has become necessary because the global warming potential of N2O is 15
times more than that of CH4.
Table 3.9: Estimated effect of management practices on CH4 emission from
flooded rice
Mitigation Practice
Irrigation management
Nutrient management
New cultivars and other practices
Total

Estimated decrease Mt (CH4)/yr

5 (3.3-9.9)
10 (2.5-15)
5 (2.5-10)
20(8-35)

Methane Emission from Enteric Fermentation

Ruminants are the largest source since they are able to digest cellulose, a type of
carbohydrate, in the presence of specific micro organisms in their digestive tracts. An
adult cow emits about 200 litres of methane every day. The methane production from
the digestive process of domesticated animals is a function of several variables
including quantity and quality of feed intake, the growth rate of the animals, its
productivity (reproduction and/ or lactation) and its mobility.
Feed Intake
Feed intake in terms of dry matter (DM) is most crucial for the estimation of methane
emission from livestock and is generally expressed in terms of energy, i.e., MJ (Mega
Joules) per kg dry matter. The total dry matter intake of an animal is converted to MJ
as gross energy intake using the factor 18.45 MJ/kg.
The gross energy intake value (GE) for each animal category is arrived at, taking into
account the Indian feeding conditions/ situations based on feed intake requirements of
various categories of cattle. The requirement varies according to age, feeding
situation, (stall or housed, pasture, grazing large areas) production level and
performance (maintenance, lactation, work, breeding, growth etc).
Depending upon the population and the methane production potential of different
livestock in India it is seen from Fig. 3.7 that cattle (cows) contribute maximum
followed by the buffalo.

65

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

Cattle
Buffalo
Sheep
Goat
Others

Fig.3.7: Methane Emission from Animal Sector in India.

Among the green house gases emitted from animal (enteric fermentation and manure
management), methane was the highest (99.985%) with N2O accounting for only very
small fraction (0.015%), which is negligible. Methane emission from domestic animal
source (anthropogenic activities) was 10.0 Tg for the year 1994 of which 8.9 Tg
(90%) was from enteric fermentation and the balance 1.1 Tg (10%) came from
manure management. The proportional contribution of emission is almost in the ratio
of 9:1 (enteric fermentation and manure management).
The best way to mitigate the methane emission from enteric fermentation of ruminant
animals is to improve their feed. Several efforts have been made to improve the feed
in such a way that they produce less methane.
SAQ 6
a) Why is methane an important greenhouse gas even if its concentration in
atmosphere is 1.8 ppmv as compared to a high concentration of about 360 ppmv
of CO2?
b) Can other aquatic plants and stagnant water emit methane?

3.3.4

Nitrous Oxide

N2O Concentration (ppb)

Nitrous oxide is one of the oxides of nitrogen. Some other oxides of nitrogen like NO
and NO2 (together called NOx) are pollutants and are emitted by vehicles and other
stationary engines. N2O is another greenhouse gas responsible for climate change.

Year
Fig.3.8: Nitrous oxide on the rise

66

Since 1750, nitrous oxide in the atmosphere has risen by more than 15 percent (see
Fig. 3.8). Each year we add 7 to 13 million tons of nitrous oxide to the atmosphere
mainly by using nitrogen-based fertilizers and disposing of human and animal wastes.

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

The nitrous oxide we release today could still trap heat more than a century from now.
It stays in the atmosphere about that long. A nitrous oxide molecule traps heat about
200 times more effectively than a carbon dioxide molecule.
The Table 3.10 of the sources and sinks of nitrous oxide clearly indicates that there is
a high degree of uncertainty in the emission figures of nitrous oxide. One of the
reasons may be its low concentration in the atmosphere (300 ppbv) and determination
of N 2O concentration at such low levels. But the latest measuring techniques have
made it possible to measure these fluxes at reasonable costs. Hence it has become
necessary to have more and more experimental measurements to come out with more
and more reliable estimations.
Both fertilized and unfertilized soils emit N2O. While the fertilizer is a source in case
of fertilized soils, the inbuilt nitrogen of the soil contributes otherwise to the release of
this gas. Measurement of N2O fluxes from soils as a result of use of N in inorganic or
organic forms is of great importance to the atmospheric scientists because of the effect
of N 2O on ozone destruction and its radioactive forcing. But the soil scientists and
agronomists are also concerned about the nitrogen losses from the applied fertilizers
and manures.
Table 3.10: Sources/sinks of nitrous oxide
Sources
Nitrification
Denitrification
Cultivated soils
Fertilized soils
Unfertilized soils
Tropical soils
Temperate soils
Oceans
Fossil fuel
Biomass burning
Total
Total emission from soil
Sink
Stratospheric reaction
with ozone
Photolysis

Production (Tg N/ yr)

?
?
1.8-5.3
<3
4-5
2.7-5.7
0.6-4.0
1-5
0.7-1.8
0.2-1.0
17-20
5-15

6-11
11

Experiments have shown that both the processes of nitrification and denitrification
contribute to the release of nitrous oxide from the soils.
Experiments in rice fields conducted at IARI have shown that as the redox potential
becomes positive methane emission is decreased, but N2O emission increases. In
another experiment it has been shown that use of nitrification inhibitor DCD along
with urea and ammonium sulphate reduces both the methane and nitrous oxide
emission as compared to their lone use. Though there is lot of uncertainty about the
amount of N2O released, it is suspected that 1-2 % of applied N is lost as N2O.

67

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

Nitrous oxide Emission from Histosols

The high organic soils undergo microbial process (both nitrific ation and
denitrification) resulting in the release of nitrous oxide. It has been reported that these
soils emit 2-15 kg /ha N2O N /yr.
Indirect N2O Emissions from Nitrogen used inAgriculture
The following pathways also contribute to nitrous oxide emissions because of
inorganic and organic fertilizers applied in the fields.
1. Volatilization and subsequent deposition of NH 3 and NOx;
2. Nitrogen leaching and runoff;
3. Human and animal consumption of crops followed by further excreta/sewage;
4. Formation of N 2O in the atmosphere from NH3; and
5. Food processing wastes.
N2O Emissions from Animal Waste Management Systems
Nitrous oxide emission depends on the N 2 excreted by animals, its quantity, quality
and its management. Animals themselves may be very small sources of N 2O but the
proportion of total nitrogen intake that is excreted and partitioned between urine and
faeces is dependent on the type of animal, the intake of dry matter, and the nitrogen
concentration of the diet. Hence there are three potential sources of N2O emissions
related to animal production. These are (a) animals themselves, (b) animal wastes
during storage and treatment, (c) dung and urine deposited by free-range grazing
animals. N2O emission emitted directly from animals is not reported here.
Production of N2O during storage and treatment of animal wastes can occur via
combined nitrification-denitrification of ammoniacal nitrogen contained in the wastes.
The amount released depends on the system and duration of waste management. As
fresh dung and slurry is highly anoxic and well buffered with near neutral pH, one
would expect N2O production to increase with increasing aeration. Aeration initiates
the nitrification-denitrification reactions, and hence makes release of N 2O possible.
SAQ 7
What is the relative global warming potential of nitrous oxide?

3.4

68

SUMMARY

Food, fibre and fodder are the three important produce of agriculture on which
whole mankind is dependent. Even though the impact of agriculture practices on
environment is quite significant, it is certain that only remedial measures can be
adopted to reduce or prevent the negative impacts of agricultural practices on
environment.

Negative impacts of intensive and exploitive agriculture include water pollution,

land degradation and associated problems of soils like soil salinization, soil
acidity, soil acidity, depleting ground water reserves.

Examples of pesticide residue in fruits, vegetables, milk, poultry products creating

human and animal health problems are given.

The emission of greenhouse gases from agriculture is a serious problem which is

responsible for global warming and climate change. One of the important green
house gases emitted by agriculture is methane from rice fields, ruminant animals,
burning of crop residue and animal manure management. The mitigation options
are to be adopted to reduce these emissions from rice fields and ruminant animals.

Impact of Agriculture on
Environment

The second important gas is nitrous oxide, though its actual emission is low, but
in view of its warming potential, it is also contributing significantly to climate
change. Its main sources are Nitrogen fertilizers (both chemical and biological)
and animal waste. The main greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is also being emitted
but since agriculture is also a sink for carbon dioxide its net contribution is not
well known. However, efforts are to be made to reduce these emissions also by
reducing tillage operations.

3.5

TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.

Identify two impacts of agriculture on environment that you think are the most
negative impacts of agriculture.

2.

What types of agricultural practices are responsible for soil degradation?

3.

How secure is India with respect to water resources? Suggest ways in which we
can improve water security.

4.

What are pesticides and why are they used in agriculture?

5.

How can methane emission from rice fields be reduced?

6.

Why is global warming known as greenhouse effect? And why is climate change
being linked with emission of green house gases?

7.

Is agriculture responsible for global warming? If so, to what extent ?

8.

Which greenhouse gases are emitted by agricultural practices?

9.

What is the warming potential of methane / nitrous oxide as compared to that of

carbon dioxide? What agriculture practices emit carbon dioxide?

10. How is methane produced from rice fields? What agricultural practices can
reduce methane emission from rice fields?
11. What is nitrous oxide and why is it classified as a greenhouse gas?
REFERENCES
1. Abrol, I.P. and Sehgal, J: Degraded lands and their rehabilitation in India. In Soil
Management for Sustainable Agriculture in Dry Land Areas; Indian Soc. Soil Sc.
pp. 107-118.
2. Agnihotri, N.P. (1999) Pesticide Safety Evaluation and Monitoring, All India
Coordinated Projecton Pesticide Residues, IARI, New Delhi.
3. Greenhouse gas emissions in India for the base year 1990: Scientific Report
No.11, May 1998, Eds.: Bhattacharya, S. and Mitra, A.P.
4.

Improving the productivity and sustainability of rice-wheat systems: Issues &

Impacts American Society of Agronomy Special Publication (ASA 65) 2003
Eds.: Gupta, R.K. and Ladha, J.K.

5.

The green revolution turns sour Devender Sharma, New Scientist July (2000),
pp. 44-45.
69

Environment-Agriculture
Relationship

6. Dr. M.S. Swaminathans article on Greening a Nation published in Times

Agricultural Journal Nov. -Dec., 2001, pp.12-13.
7. Methane emissions from major rice ecosystems in Asia (2000); Eds. Wassmann,
R., Lantin, R.D. and Neue, H.U., published by Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht / Boston / London.
8. Climate Change (1995) Eds Watson, R.T., Zinyowera, M.C., Moss, R.H. and
Dokken, D.J. Published for IPCC by Cambridge Universe Press, pages 877.
9. Environmental Impact Assessment for Farms (2000) Published by Secretary
General Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo.
10. htpp://www.ghg.online.org

70