C h a p t e r XIX

Modal Analysis
Modal analysis is used to determine the vibration modes of a structure. These
modes are useful to understand the behavior of the structure. They can also be used
as the basis for modal superposition in response-spectrum and modal time-history
Load Cases.
Basic Topics for All Users
Overview
Eigenvector Analysis
Ritz-Vector Analysis
Modal Analysis Output

Overview
A modal analysis is defined by creating a Load Case and setting its type to
Modal. You can define multiple modal Load Cases, resulting in multiple sets of
modes.
There are two types of modal analysis to choose from when defining a modal Load
Case:

Overview

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Eigenvector analysis determines the undamped free-vibration mode shapes
and frequencies of the system. These natural modes provide an excellent insight into the behavior of the structure.
Ritz-vector analysis seeks to find modes that are excited by a particular loading. Ritz vectors can provide a better basis than do eigenvectors when used for
response-spectrum or time-history analyses that are based on modal superposition
You can request that static correction modes be calculated along with eigenvectors.
They are automatically included with Ritz vectors. Static correction-modes can be
very important for getting accurate response at stiff supports. Their use is generally recommended.
Modal analysis is always linear. A modal Load Case may be based on the stiffness
of the full unstressed structure, or upon the stiffness at the end of a nonlinear Load
Case (nonlinear static or nonlinear direct-integration time-history).
By using the stiffness at the end of a nonlinear case, you can evaluate the modes under P-delta or geometric stiffening conditions, at different stages of construction, or
following a significant nonlinear excursion in a large earthquake.
See Chapter Load Cases (page 313) for more information.

Eigenvector Analysis
Eigenvector analysis determines the undamped free-vibration mode shapes and frequencies of the system. These natural Modes provide an excellent insight into the
behavior of the structure. They can also be used as the basis for response-spectrum
or time-history analyses, although Ritz vectors are recommended for this purpose.
Eigenvector analysis involves the solution of the generalized eigenvalue problem:
[ K - W 2 M ]F = 0
where K is the stiffness matrix, M is the diagonal mass matrix, W 2 is the diagonal
matrix of eigenvalues, and F is the matrix of corresponding eigenvectors (mode
shapes).
Each eigenvalue-eigenvector pair is called a natural Vibration Mode of the structure. The Modes are identified by numbers from 1 to n in the order in which the
modes are found by the program.

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The eigenvalue is the square of the circular frequency, w, for that Mode (unless a
frequency shift is used, see below). The cyclic frequency, f, and period, T, of the
Mode are related to w by:
T=

1
f

and

f =

w
2p

You may specify the number of modes to be found, a convergence tolerance, and
the frequency range of interest. These parameters are described in the following
subtopics.

Number of Modes
You may specify the maximum and minimum number of modes to be found.
The program will not calculate more than the specified maximum number of
modes. This number includes any static correction modes requested. The program
may compute fewer modes if there are fewer mass degrees of freedom, all dynamic
participation targets have been met, or all modes within the cutoff frequency range
have been found.
The program will not calculate fewer than the specified minimum number of
modes, unless there are fewer mass degrees of freedom in the model.
A mass degree of freedom is any active degree of freedom that possesses translational mass or rotational mass moment of inertia. The mass may have been assigned
directly to the joint or may come from connected elements.
Only the modes that are actually found will be available for use by any subsequent
response-spectrum or modal time-history Load Cases.
See Topic Degrees of Freedom (page 30) in Chapter Joints and Degrees of Freedom.

Frequency Range
You may specify a restricted frequency range in which to seek the Vibration Modes
by using the parameters:
shift: The center of the cyclic frequency range, known as the shift frequency
cut: The radius of the cyclic frequency range, known as the cutoff frequency
The program will only seek Modes with frequencies f that satisfy:
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| f - shift | cut
The default value of cut = 0 does not restrict the frequency range of the Modes.
Modes are found in order of increasing distance of frequency from the shift. This
continues until the cutoff is reached, the requested number of Modes is found, or
the number of mass degrees of freedom is reached.
A stable structure will possess all positive natural frequencies. When performing a
seismic analysis and most other dynamic analyses, the lower-frequency modes are
usually of most interest. It is then appropriate to the default shift of zero, resulting
in the lowest-frequency modes of the structure being calculated. If the shift is not
zero, response-spectrum and time-history analyses may be performed; however,
static, moving-load, and p-delta analyses are not allowed.
If the dynamic loading is known to be of high frequency, such as that caused by vibrating machinery, it may be most efficient to use a positive shift near the center of
the frequency range of the loading.
A structure that is unstable when unloaded will have some modes with zero frequency. These modes may correspond to rigid-body motion of an inadequately
supported structure, or to mechanisms that may be present within the structure. It is
not possible to compute the static response of such a structure. However, by using a
small negative shift, the lowest-frequency vibration modes of the structure, including the zero-frequency instability modes, can be found. This does require some
mass to be present that is activated by each instability mode.
A structure that has buckled under P-delta load will have some modes with zero or
negative frequency. During equation solution, the number of frequencies less than
the shift is determined and printed in the log file. If you are using a zero or negative
shift and the program detects a negative-frequency mode, it will stop the analysis
since the results will be meaningless. If you use a positive shift, the program will
permit negative frequencies to be found; however, subsequent static and dynamic
results are still meaningless.
When using a frequency shift, the stiffness matrix is modified by subtracting from
it the mass matrix multiplied by w0 2 , where w0 = 2 p shift. If the shift is very near a
natural frequency of the structure, the solution becomes unstable and will complain
during equation solution. Run the analysis again using a slightly different shift
frequency.
The circular frequency, w, of a Vibration Mode is determined from the shifted eigenvalue, m, as:

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w=

Modal Analysis

m + w0 2

Automatic Shifting
As an option, you may request that the eigen-solver use automatic shifting to speed
up the solution and improve the accuracy of the results. This is particularly helpful
when seeking a large number of modes, for very large structures, or when there are
a lot of closely spaced modes to be found.
The solver will start with the requested shift frequency, shift (default zero), and
then successively then shift to the right (in the positive direction) as needed to improve the rate of convergence.
If no cutoff frequency has been specified (cut = 0), automatic shifting will only be
to the right, which means that eigenvalues to the left of the initial shift may be
missed. This is not usually a problem for stable structures starting with an initial
shift of zero.
If a cutoff frequency has been specified (cut > 0), automatic shifting will be to the
right until all eigenvalues between shift and shift + cut have been found, then the
automatic shifting will return to the initial shift and proceed to the left from there.
In either case, automatic shifting may not find eigenvalues in the usual order of increasing distance from the initial shift.

Convergence Tolerance
SAP2000 solves for the eigenvalue-eigenvectors pairs using an accelerated subspace iteration algorithm. During the solution phase, the program prints the approximate eigenvalues after each iteration. As the eigenvectors converge they are
removed from the subspace and new approximate vectors are introduced. For details of the algorithm, see Wilson and Tetsuji (1983).
You may specify the relative convergence tolerance, tol, to control the solution; the
default value is tol = 10-9. The iteration for a particular Mode will continue until the
relative change in the eigenvalue between successive iterations is less than 2 tol,
that is until:
1 m i + 1 - m i

tol
2 m i + 1

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where m is the eigenvalue relative to the frequency shift, and i and i +1 denote successive iteration numbers.
In the usual case where the frequency shift is zero, the test for convergence becomes approximately the same as:
T - Ti

i+1
tol
Ti + 1

or

f
- fi

i+1
tol
fi

provided that the difference between the two iterations is small.

Note that the error in the eigenvectors will generally be larger than the error in the
eigenvalues. The relative error in the global force balance for a given Mode gives a
measure of the error in the eigenvector. This error can usually be reduced by using a
smaller value of tol, at the expense of more computation time.

Static-Correction Modes
Static correction-modes can be very important for getting accurate response at stiff
supports. Their use is generally recommended.
You may request that the program compute the static-correction modes for any Acceleration Load or Load Pattern. A static-correction mode is the static solution to
that portion of the specified load that is not represented by the found eigenvectors.
When applied to acceleration loads, static-correction modes are also known as
missing-mass modes or residual-mass modes.
Static-correction modes are of little interest in their own right. They are intended to
be used as part of a modal basis for response-spectrum or modal time-history analysis for high frequency loading to which the structure responds statically. Although
a static-correction mode will have a mode shape and frequency (period) like the
eigenvectors do, it is not a true eigenvector.
You can specify for which Load Patterns and/or Acceleration Loads you want static
correction modes calculated, if any. One static-correction mode will be computed
for each specified Load unless all eigenvectors that can be excited by that Load
have been found. Static-correction modes count against the maximum number of
modes requested for the Load Case.
As an example, consider the translational acceleration load in the UX direction, mx.
Define the participation factor for mode n as:
f xn = j n T m x

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Modal Analysis

The static-correction load for UX translational acceleration is then:

m x0 = m x -

n-M

f xnj n

n =1

The static-correction mode-shape vector, j x0 , is the solution to:

K j x0 = m x0
If m x0 is found to be zero, all of the modes necessary to represent UX acceleration
have been found, and no residual-mass mode is needed or will be calculated.
The static-correction modes for any other acceleration load or Load Pattern are defined similarly.
Each static-correction mode is assigned a frequency that is calculated using the
standard Rayleigh quotient method. When static-correction modes are calculated,
they are used for Response-spectrum and Time-history analysis just as the
eigenvectors are.
The use of static-correction modes assures that the static-load participation ratio
will be 100% for the selected acceleration loads. However, static-correction modes
do not generally result in mass-participation ratios or dynamic-load participation
ratios of 100%. Only true dynamic modes (eigen or Ritz vectors) can increase these
ratios to 100%.
See Topic Modal Analysis Output (page 321) in this Chapter for more information on modal participation ratios.
Note that Ritz vectors, described next, always include the residual-mass effect for
all starting load vectors.

Ritz-Vector Analysis
Research has indicated that the natural free-vibration mode shapes are not the best
basis for a mode-superposition analysis of structures subjected to dynamic loads. It
has been demonstrated (Wilson, Yuan, and Dickens, 1982) that dynamic analyses
based on a special set of load-dependent Ritz vectors yield more accurate results
than the use of the same number of natural mode shapes. The algorithm is detailed
in Wilson (1985).

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The reason the Ritz vectors yield excellent results is that they are generated by taking into account the spatial distribution of the dynamic loading, whereas the direct
use of the natural mode shapes neglects this very important information.
In addition, the Ritz-vector algorithm automatically includes the advantages of the
proven numerical techniques of static condensation, Guyan reduction, and static
correction due to higher-mode truncation.
The spatial distribution of the dynamic load vector serves as a starting load vector
to initiate the procedure. The first Ritz vector is the static displacement vector corresponding to the starting load vector. The remaining vectors are generated from a
recurrence relationship in which the mass matrix is multiplied by the previously obtained Ritz vector and used as the load vector for the next static solution. Each static
solution is called a generation cycle.
When the dynamic load is made up of several independent spatial distributions,
each of these may serve as a starting load vector to generate a set of Ritz vectors.
Each generation cycle creates as many Ritz vectors as there are starting load vectors. If a generated Ritz vector is redundant or does not excite any mass degrees of
freedom, it is discarded and the corresponding starting load vector is removed from
all subsequent generation cycles.
Standard eigen-solution techniques are used to orthogonalize the set of generated
Ritz vectors, resulting in a final set of Ritz-vector Modes. Each Ritz-vector Mode
consists of a mode shape and frequency. The full set of Ritz-vector Modes can be
used as a basis to represent the dynamic displacement of the structure.
When a sufficient number of Ritz-vector Modes have been found, some of them
may closely approximate natural mode shapes and frequencies. In general, however, Ritz-vector Modes do not represent the intrinsic characteristics of the structure in the same way the natural Modes do. The Ritz-vector modes are biased by the
starting load vectors.
You may specify the number of Modes to be found, the starting load vectors to be
used, and the number of generation cycles to be performed for each starting load
vector. These parameters are described in the following subtopics.

Number of Modes
You may specify the maximum and minimum number of modes to be found.
The program will not calculate more than the specified maximum number of
modes. The program may compute fewer modes if there are fewer mass degrees of

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Modal Analysis

freedom, all dynamic participation targets have been met, or the maximum number
of cycles has been reached for all loads.
The program will not calculate fewer than the specified minimum number of
modes, unless there are fewer mass degrees of freedom in the model.
A mass degree of freedom is any active degree of freedom that possesses
translational mass or rotational mass moment of inertia. The mass may have been
assigned directly to the joint or may come from connected elements.
Only the modes that are actually found will be available for use by any subsequent
response-spectrum or modal time-history Load Cases.
See Topic Degrees of Freedom (page 30) in Chapter Joints and Degrees of Freedom.

Starting Load Vectors

You may specify any number of starting load vectors. Each starting load vector
may be one of the following:
An Acceleration Load in the global X, Y, or Z direction
A Load Pattern
A built-in nonlinear deformation load, as described below
For response-spectrum analysis, only the Acceleration Loads are needed. For
modal time-history analysis, one starting load vector is needed for each Load Pattern or Acceleration Load that is used in any modal time-history.
If nonlinear modal time-history analysis is to be performed, an additional starting
load vector is needed for each independent nonlinear deformation. You may specify that the program use the built-in nonlinear deformation loads, or you may define
your own Load Patterns for this purpose. See Topic Nonlinear Deformation
Loads (page 249) in Chapter The Link/Support ElementBasic for more information.
If you define your own starting load vectors, do the following for each nonlinear
deformation:
Explicitly define a Load Pattern that consists of a set of self-equilibrating
forces that activates the desired nonlinear deformation
Specify that Load Pattern as a starting load vector

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The number of such Load Patterns required is equal to the number of independent
nonlinear deformations in the model.
If several Link/Support elements act together, you may be able to use fewer starting
load vectors. For example, suppose the horizontal motion of several base isolators
are coupled with a diaphragm. Only three starting load vectors acting on the diaphragm are required: two perpendicular horizontal loads and one moment about the
vertical axis. Independent Load Cases may still be required to represent any vertical
motions or rotations about the horizontal axes for these isolators.
It is strongly recommended that mass (or mass moment of inertia) be present at
every degree of freedom that is loaded by a starting load vector. This is automatic
for Acceleration Loads, since the load is caused by mass. If a Load Pattern or nonlinear deformation load acts on a non-mass degree of freedom, the program issues a
warning. Such starting load vectors may generate inaccurate Ritz vectors, or even
no Ritz vectors at all.
Generally, the more starting load vectors used, the more Ritz vectors must be requested to cover the same frequency range. Thus including unnecessary starting
load vectors is not recommended.
In each generation cycle, Ritz vectors are found in the order in which the starting
load vectors are specified. In the last generation cycle, only as many Ritz vectors
will be found as required to reach the total number of Modes, n. For this reason, the
most important starting load vectors should be specified first, especially if the
number of starting load vectors is not much smaller than the total number of Modes.
For more information:
See Topic Nonlinear Modal Time-History Analysis (FNA) (page 133) in
Chapter Nonlinear Time-History Analysis.
See Chapter Load Patterns (page 297).

Number of Generation Cycles

You may specify the maximum number of generation cycles, ncyc, to be performed
for each starting load vector. This enables you to obtain more Ritz vectors for some
starting load vectors than others. By default, the number of generation cycles performed for each starting load vector is unlimited, i.e., until the total number, n, of
requested Ritz vectors have been found.
As an example, suppose that two linear time-history analyses are to be performed:

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Modal Analysis

(1) Gravity load is applied quasi-statically to the structure using Load Patterns DL
and LL
(2) Seismic load is applied in all three global directions
The starting load vectors required are the three Acceleration Loads and Load Patterns DL and LL. The first generation cycle creates the static solution for each starting load vector. This is all that is required for Load Patterns DL and LL in the first
History, hence for these starting load vectors ncyc = 1 should be specified. Additional Modes may be required to represent the dynamic response to the seismic
loading, hence an unlimited number of cycles should be specified for these starting
load vectors. If 12 Modes are requested (n = 12), there will be one each for DL and
LL, three each for two of the Acceleration Loads, and four for the Acceleration
Load that was specified first as a starting load vector.
Starting load vectors corresponding to nonlinear deformation loads may often need
only a limited number of generation cycles. Many of these loads affect only a small
local region and excite only high-frequency natural modes that may respond
quasi-statically to typical seismic excitation. If this is the case, you may be able to
specify ncyc = 1 or 2 for these starting load vectors. More cycles may be required if
you are particularly interested in the dynamic behavior in the local region.
You must use your own engineering judgment to determine the number of Ritz vectors to be generated for each starting load vector. No simple rule can apply to all
cases.

Modal Analysis Output

Various properties of the Vibration Modes are available as analysis results. This information is the same regardless of whether you use eigenvector or Ritz-vector
analysis, and is described in the following subtopics.

Periods and Frequencies

The following time-properties are printed for each Mode:
Period, T, in units of time
Cyclic frequency, f, in units of cycles per time; this is the inverse of T
Circular frequency, w, in units of radians per time; w = 2 p f
Eigenvalue, w2, in units of radians-per-time squared

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Participation Factors
The modal participation factors are the dot products of the six Acceleration Loads
with the modes shapes. The participation factors for Mode n corresponding to
translational Acceleration Loads in the global X, Y, and Z directions are given by:
f xn = j n T m x
f

yn

=j nT m y

f zn = j n T m z
where j n is the mode shape and mx, my, and, mz are the unit translational Acceleration Loads.
Similarly, the participation factors corresponding to rotational Acceleration Loads
about the centroidal axes parallel to the global X, Y, and Z axes are given by:
f rxn = j n T m rx
f ryn = j n T m ry
f rzn = j n T m rz
Here mrx, mry, and, mrz are the unit rotational Acceleration Loads.
These factors are the generalized loads acting on the Mode due to each of the Acceleration Loads. These values are called factors because they are related to the
mode shape and to a unit acceleration. The modes shapes are each normalized, or
scaled, with respect to the mass matrix such that:
j n T M j n =1
The actual magnitudes and signs of the participation factors are not important.
What is important is the relative values of the six factors for a given Mode.
Important: Although the rotational accelerations are applied in load cases about
the origins of the specified coordinate systems, the modal participation factors and
the various modal participation ratios described below for the rotational accelerations are reported about the center of mass for the structure. This makes the rotational participation factors and ratios are more meaningful because they do not include any contribution from the translational accelerations

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Modal Analysis

For more information, See Topic Acceleration Loads (page 310) in Chapter
Load Patterns.

Participating Mass Ratios

The participating mass ratio for a Mode provides a measure of how important the
Mode is for computing the response to the six Acceleration Loads in the global coordinate system. Thus it is useful for determining the accuracy of responsespectrum analyses and seismic time-history analyses. The participating mass ratio
provides no information about the accuracy of time-history analyses subjected to
other loads.
The participating mass ratios for Mode n corresponding to translational Acceleration Loads in the global X, Y, and Z directions are given by:
rxn =

( f xn ) 2
Mx
(f

r yn =

r zn =

yn )

( f zn )
Mz

where fxn, fyn, and fzn are the participation factors defined in the previous subtopic;
and Mx, My, and Mz are the total unrestrained masses acting in the global X, Y, and Z
directions.
The participating mass ratios corresponding to rotational Acceleration Loads about
centroidal axes parallel to the global X, Y, and Z directions are given by:
rrxn =

rryn =

rrzn

( f rxn ) 2
M rx
( f ryn ) 2
M ry

(f )
= rzn
M rz

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where frxn, fryn, and frzn are the participation factors defined in the previous subtopic;
and Mrx, Mry, and Mrz are the total rotational inertias of the unrestrained masses acting about the centroidal axes parallel to the global X, Y, and Z directions.
The cumulative sums of the participating mass ratios for all Modes up to Mode n
are printed with the individual values for Mode n. This provides a simple measure
of how many Modes are required to achieve a given level of accuracy for
ground-acceleration loading.
If all eigen Modes of the structure are present, the participating mass ratio for each
of the Acceleration Loads should generally be unity (100%). However, this may
not be the case in the presence of Asolid elements or certain types of Constraints
where symmetry conditions prevent some of the mass from responding to translational accelerations.

Static and Dynamic Load Participation Ratios

The static and dynamic load participation ratios provide a measure of how adequate
the calculated modes are for representing the response to time-history analyses.
These two measures are printed in the output file for each of the following spatial
load vectors:
The three unit Acceleration Loads
Three rotational Acceleration loads
All Load Patterns specified in the definition of the modal Load Case
All nonlinear deformation loads, if they are specified in the definition of the
modal Load Case
The Load Patterns and Acceleration Loads represent spatial loads that you can explicitly specify in a modal time-history analysis, whereas the last represents loads
that can act implicitly in a nonlinear modal time-history analysis.
For more information:
See Topic Nonlinear Deformation Loads (page 249) in Chapter The
Link/Support ElementBasic.
See Chapter Load Patterns (page 297).
See Topic Acceleration Loads (page 310) in Chapter Load Patterns.
See Topic Linear Modal Time-History Analysis (page 367) in Chapter Linear Time-History Analysis .

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See Topic Nonlinear Modal Time-History Analysis (page 133) in Chapter

Nonlinear Time-History Analysis.
Static Load Participation Ratio
The static load participation ratio measures how well the calculated modes can represent the response to a given static load. This measure was first presented by Wilson (1997). For a given spatial load vector p, the participation factor for Mode n is
given by
f n =j nT p
where j n is the mode shape (vector) of Mode n. This factor is the generalized load
acting on the Mode due to load p. Note that f n is just the usual participation factor
when p is one of the six unit Acceleration Loads.
The static participation ratio for this mode is given by
2

rnS

fn

wn

=
uT p

where u is the static solution given by Ku = p. This ratio gives the fraction of the total strain energy in the exact static solution that is contained in Mode n. Note that
the denominator can also be represented as u T Ku.
Finally, the cumulative sum of the static participation ratios for all the calculated
modes is printed in the output file:
j T p
wn
n
n =1
=
T
u p
N

R S = rnS
n =1

where N is the number of modes found. This value gives the fraction of the total
strain energy in the exact static solution that is captured by the N modes.
When solving for static solutions using quasi-static time-history analysis, the value
of R S should be close to 100% for any applied static Loads, and also for all nonlinear deformation loads if the analysis is nonlinear.

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Note that when Ritz-vectors are used, the value of R S will always be 100% for all
starting load vectors. This may not be true when eigenvectors are used without
static correction modes. In fact, even using all possible eigenvectors will not give
100% static participation if load p acts on any massless degrees-of-freedom, or if
the system is sensitive or ill-conditioned. Static-correction or Ritz modes are highly
recommended in these cases.
Dynamic Load Participation Ratio
The dynamic load participation ratio measures how well the calculated modes can
represent the response to a given dynamic load. This measure was developed for
SAP2000, and it is an extension of the concept of participating mass ratios. It is assumed that the load acts only on degrees of freedom with mass. Any portion of load
vector p that acts on massless degrees of freedom cannot be represented by this
measure and is ignored in the following discussion.
For a given spatial load vector p, the participation factor for Mode n is given by
f n =j nT p
where j n is the mode shape for Mode n. Note that f n is just the usual participation
factor when p is one of the six unit Acceleration Loads.
The dynamic participation ratio for this mode is given by
D
rn

2
fn)
(
=

aT p

where a is the acceleration given by Ma = p. The acceleration a is easy to calculate

since M is diagonal. The values of a and p are taken to be zero at all massless degrees of freedom. Note that the denominator can also be represented as a T Ma .
Finally, the cumulative sum of the dynamic participation ratios for all the calculated modes is printed in the output file:

(j n T p)
N

R D = rnD = n =1
n =1

a p

where N is the number of modes found. When p is one of the unit acceleration
loads, r D is the usual mass participation ratio, and R D is the usual cumulative mass
participation ratio.

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When R D is 100%, the calculated modes should be capable of exactly representing

the solution to any time-varying application of spatial load p. If R D is less than
100%, the accuracy of the solution will depend upon the frequency content of the
time-function multiplying load p. Normally it is the high frequency response that is
not captured when R D is less than 100%.
The dynamic load participation ratio only measures how the modes capture the spatial characteristics of p, not its temporal characteristics. For this reason, R D serves
only as a qualitative guide as to whether enough modes have been computed. You
must still examine the response to each different dynamic loading with varying
number of modes to see if enough modes have been used.

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Response-Spectrum Analysis
Response-spectrum analysis is a statistical type of analysis for the determination of
the likely response of a structure to seismic loading.
Basic Topics for All Users
Overview
Local Coordinate System
Response-Spectrum Function
Modal Damping
Modal Combination
Directional Combination
Response-Spectrum Analysis Output

Overview
The dynamic equilibrium equations associated with the response of a structure to
ground motion are given by:
K u( t ) + C u&( t ) + M u&&( t ) = m x u&&gx ( t ) + m y u&&gy ( t ) + m z u&&gz ( t )
Overview

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where K is the stiffness matrix; C is the proportional damping matrix; M is the di& and u&& are the relative displacements, velocities, and accelagonal mass matrix; u, u,
erations with respect to the ground; mx, my, and mz are the unit Acceleration Loads;
and u&&gx , u&&gy , and u&&gz are the components of uniform ground acceleration.
Response-spectrum analysis seeks the likely maximum response to these equations
rather than the full time history. The earthquake ground acceleration in each direction is given as a digitized response-spectrum curve of pseudo-spectral acceleration
response versus period of the structure.
Even though accelerations may be specified in three directions, only a single, positive result is produced for each response quantity. The response quantities include
displacements, forces, and stresses. Each computed result represents a statistical
measure of the likely maximum magnitude for that response quantity. The actual
response can be expected to vary within a range from this positive value to its negative.
No correspondence between two different response quantities is available. No information is available as to when this extreme value occurs during the seismic loading, or as to what the values of other response quantities are at that time.
Response-spectrum analysis is performed using mode superposition (Wilson and
Button, 1982). Modes may have been computed using eigenvector analysis or
Ritz-vector analysis. Ritz vectors are recommended since they give more accurate
results for the same number of Modes. You must define a Modal Load Case that
computes the modes, and then refer to that Modal Load Case in the definition of the
Response-Spectrum Case.
Response-spectrum can consider high-frequency rigid response if requested and if
appropriate modes have been computed. When eigen modes are used, you should
request that static correction vectors be computed. This information is automatically available in Ritz modes generated for ground acceleration. In either case, you
must be sure to have sufficient dynamical modes below the rigid frequency of the
ground motion.
Any number of response-spectrum Load Cases can be defined. Each case can differ
in the acceleration spectra applied and in the way that results are combined. Different cases can also be based upon different sets of modes computed in different
Modal Load Cases. For example, this would enable you to consider the response at
different stages of construction, or to compare the results using eigenvectors and
Ritz vectors.

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Response-Spectrum Analysis
Z, 3

ang

Global

csys

ang
Y

ang
X
1

Figure 70
Definition of Response Spectrum Local Coordinate System

Local Coordinate System

Each Spec has its own response-spectrum local coordinate system used to define
the directions of ground acceleration loading. The axes of this local system are denoted 1, 2, and 3. By default these correspond to the global X, Y, and Z directions,
respectively.
You may change the orientation of the local coordinate system by specifying:
A fixed coordinate system csys (the default is zero, indicating the global coordinate system)
A coordinate angle, ang (the default is zero)
The local 3 axis is always the same as the Z axis of coordinate system csys. The local 1 and 2 axes coincide with the X and Y axes of csys if angle ang is zero. Otherwise, ang is the angle from the X axis to the local 1 axis, measured counterclockwise when the +Z axis is pointing toward you. This is illustrated in Figure 70 (page
349).

Response-Spectrum Function
The response-spectrum curve for a given direction is defined by digitized points of
pseudo-spectral acceleration response versus period of the structure. The shape of

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40

PseudoSpectral
Acceleration
Response

30

20

10

Period (time)

Figure 71
Digitized Response-Spectrum Curve

the curve is given by specifying the name of a Function. All values for the abscissa
and ordinate of this Function must be zero or positive. See (page 345).
The function is assumed to be normalized with respect to gravity. You may specify
a scale factor sf to multiply the ordinate (pseudo-spectral acceleration response) of
the function. This should be used to convert the normalized acceleration to units
consistent with the rest of the model. The scale factor itself has acceleration units
and will be automatically converted if you change length units.
If the response-spectrum curve is not defined over a period range large enough to
cover the Vibration Modes of the structure, the curve is extended to larger and
smaller periods using a constant acceleration equal to the value at the nearest defined period.
See Topic Functions (page 322) in this Chapter for more information.

Damping
The response-spectrum curve chosen should reflect the damping that is present in
the structure being modeled. Note that the damping is inherent in the shape of the

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Response-Spectrum Analysis

response-spectrum curve itself. As part of the response-spectrum function definition, you must specify the damping value that was used to generate the response-spectrum curve. During the analysis, the response-spectrum curve will automatically be adjusted from this damping value to the actual damping present in
the model.
If zero damping is specified for either the response-spectrum function or the response-spectrum load case, no scaling will be performed.

Modal Damping
Damping in the structure has two effects on response-spectrum analysis:
It modifies the shape of the response-spectrum input curve
It affects the amount of statistical coupling between the modes for certain
methods of response-spectrum modal combination (e.g., CQC and GMC)
The damping in the structure is modeled using uncoupled modal damping. Each
mode has a damping ratio, damp, which is measured as a fraction of critical damping and must satisfy:
0 damp < 1
Modal damping has three different sources, which are described in the following.
Damping from these sources are added together. The program automatically makes
sure that the total is less than one.
Modal Damping from the Load Case
For each response-spectrum Load Case, you may specify modal damping ratios
that are:
Constant for all modes
Linearly interpolated by period or frequency. You specify the damping ratio at
a series of frequency or period points. Between specified points the damping is
linearly interpolated. Outside the specified range, the damping ratio is constant
at the value given for the closest specified point.
Mass and stiffness proportional. This mimics the proportional damping used
for direct-integration, except that the damping value is never allowed to exceed
unity.

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In addition, you may optionally specify damping overwrites. These are specific
values of damping to be used for specific modes that replace the damping obtained
by one of the methods above. The use of damping overwrites is rarely necessary.
Composite Modal Damping from the Materials
Modal damping ratios, if any, that have been specified for the Materials are converted automatically to composite modal damping. Any cross coupling between the
modes is ignored. These modal-damping values will generally be different for each
mode, depending upon how much deformation each mode causes in the elements
composed of the different Materials.
Effective Damping from the Link/Support Elements
Linear effective-damping coefficients, if any, that have been specified for
Link/Support elements in the model are automatically converted to modal damping. Any cross coupling between the modes is ignored. These effective
modal-damping values will generally be different for each mode, depending upon
how much deformation each mode causes in the Link/Support elements.

Modal Combination
For a given direction of acceleration, the maximum displacements, forces, and
stresses are computed throughout the structure for each of the Vibration Modes.
These modal values for a given response quantity are combined to produce a single,
positive result for the given direction of acceleration. The response has two parts:
periodic and rigid. You can control the contribution of these two parts by specifying controlling frequencies that are properties of the seismic loading.
In addition, you can choose the statistical method used to compute the periodic response. Modal damping, as described in the previous topic, may affect the coupling
between the modes, depending upon the method chosen for periodic modal combination.

Periodic and Rigid Response

For all modal combination methods except Absolute Sum, there are two parts to the
modal response for a given direction of loading: periodic and rigid. The distinction
here is a property of the loading, not of the structure. Two frequencies are defined,
f1 and f2, which define the rigid-response content of the ground motion, where f1
f2.

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For structural modes with frequencies less than f1 (longer periods), the response is
fully periodic. For structural modes with frequencies above f2 (shorter periods), the
response is fully rigid. Between frequencies f1 and f2, the amount of periodic and
rigid response is interpolated, as described by Gupta (1990).
Frequencies f1 and f2 are properties of the seismic input, not of the structure. Gupta
defines f1 as:
f1 =

S Amax
2p S Vmax

where S Amax is the maximum spectral acceleration and S Vmax is the maximum
spectral velocity for the ground motion considered. The default value for f1 is
unity.
Gupta defines f2 as:
1
2
f2 = f1 + f r
3
3
where f r is the rigid frequency of the seismic input, i.e., that frequency above
which the spectral acceleration is essentially constant and equal to the value at zero
period (infinite frequency). Others have defined f2 as:
f2 = f r
The following rules apply when specifying f1 and f2:
If f2 = 0, no rigid response is calculated and all response is periodic, regardless
of the value specified for f1.
Otherwise, the following condition must be satisfied: 0 f1 f2.
Specifying f1 = 0 is the same as specifying f1 = f2.
For any given response quantity (displacement, stress, force, etc.), the periodic response, R p , is computed by one of the modal combination methods described below. The rigid response, R r , is always computed as an algebraic (fully correlated)
sum of the response from each mode having frequency above f2, and an interpolated portion of the response from each mode between f1 and f2. The total response,
R, is computed by one of the following two methods:
SRSS, as recommended by Gupta (1990) and NRC (2006), which assumes that
these two parts are statistically independent:

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R = R 2p + R r2
Absolute Sum, for compatibility with older methods:
R = R p + Rr
Please note that the choice of using the SRSS or Absolute Sum for combining periodic and rigid response is independent of the periodic modal combination or the directional combination methods described below.

CQC Method
The Complete Quadratic Combination technique for calculating the periodic response is described by Wilson, Der Kiureghian, and Bayo (1981). This is the default method of modal combination.
The CQC method takes into account the statistical coupling between closelyspaced Modes caused by modal damping. Increasing the modal damping increases
the coupling between closely-spaced modes. If the damping is zero for all Modes,
this method degenerates to the SRSS method.

GMC Method
The General Modal Combination technique for calculating the periodic response is
the complete modal combination procedure described by Equation 3.31 in Gupta
(1990). The GMC method takes into account the statistical coupling between
closely-spaced Modes similarly to the CQC method, but uses the Rosenblueth correlation coefficient with the time duration of the strong earthquake motion set to infinity. The result is essentially identical to the CQC method.
Increasing the modal damping increases the coupling between closely-spaced
modes. If the damping is zero for all Modes, this method degenerates to the SRSS
method.

SRSS Method
This method for calculating the periodic response combines the modal results by
taking the square root of the sum of their squares. This method does not take into
account any coupling of the modes, but rather assumes that the response of the
modes are all statistically independent. Modal damping does not affect the results.

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Response-Spectrum Analysis

Absolute Sum Method

This method combines the modal results by taking the sum of their absolute values.
Essentially all modes are assumed to be fully correlated. This method is usually
over-conservative. The distinction between periodic and rigid response is not considered for this method. All modes are treated equally. Modal damping does not affect the results.

NRC Ten-Percent Method

This technique for calculating the periodic response is the Ten-Percent method of
the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 1.92 (NRC, 2006).
The Ten-Percent method assumes full, positive coupling between all modes whose
frequencies differ from each other by 10% or less of the smaller of the two frequencies. Modal damping does not affect the coupling.

NRC Double-Sum Method

This technique for calculating the periodic response is the Double-Sum method of
the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 1.92. (NRC, 2006).
The Double-Sum method assumes a positive coupling between all modes, with correlation coefficients that depend upon damping in a fashion similar to the CQC and
GMC methods, and that also depend upon the duration of the earthquake. You
specify this duration as parameter td as part of the Load Cases definition.

Directional Combination
For each displacement, force, or stress quantity in the structure, the modal combination produces a single, positive result for each direction of acceleration. These directional values for a given response quantity are combined to produce a single,
positive result. Three methods are available for combining the directional response,
SRSS, CQC3, and Absolute Sum.

SRSS Method
This method combines the response for different directions of loading by taking the
square root of the sum of their squares:

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R = R12 + R 22 + R 32
where R1 , R 2 , and R 3 are the modal-combination values for each direction. This
method is invariant with respect to coordinate system, i.e., the results do not depend
upon your choice of coordinate system when the given response-spectrum curves
are the same in each direction. This is the default method for directional combination, and is closely related to the CQC3 method described next.

CQC3 Method
The CQC3 method (Menun and Der Kiureghian, 1998) is an extension of the SRSS
method of directional combination. It is applicable when the two horizontal spectra
are identical in shape but have different scale factors, as is often assumed. When the
direction of loading for the two spectra is not known, it is necessary to consider the
envelope of loading at all possible angles.
The CQC3 method does this automatically by calculating the critical loading angle
for each response quantity, and reporting the maximum response at that angle. All
that is required is to specify the same response-spectrum function for directions U1
and U2, but with two different scale factors, and to select the CQC3 method for directional combination. The same response will be obtained no matter what value
you specify for the loading angle, ang, in a given coordinate system, csys, since all
angles are enveloped.
The response to vertical loading in direction U3, if present, is combined with the
maximum horizontal response using the SRSS rule. No variation of the vertical direction is considered.
If the horizontal spectra and their scale factors are both identical, the CQC3 method
degenerates to the SRSS method.
If different spectra are specified for the two horizontal directions, the CQC3
method may still be selected and the same calculations will be performed. However, the results are no longer completely independent of loading angle, and they
must be reviewed by an engineer for their significance.
The CQC3 method was originally defined for periodic response and for the CQC
method of modal combination. It has been extended in SAP2000 to apply to all
types of modal combination, and also to include the rigid response, if any. When
the absolute modal combination is used, the CQC3 results are not completely independent of loading angle, but for all quadratic types of modal combination, angular
independence is obtained. CQC3 can be recommended over the SRSS method un-

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less the direction of loading is known. Both methods are independent of the choice
of global coordinate system.

Absolute Sum Method

This method combines the response for different directions of loading by taking the
sum of their absolute values. A scale factor, dirf, is available for reducing the interaction between the different directions.
Specify dirf = 1 for a simple absolute sum:
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3
This method is usually over-conservative.
Specify 0 < dirf < 1 to combine the directional results by the scaled absolute sum
method. Here, the directional results are combined by taking the maximum, over all
directions, of the sum of the absolute values of the response in one direction plus
dirf times the response in the other directions.
For example, if dirf = 0.3, the spectral response, R, for a given displacement, force,
or stress would be:
R = max ( R1 , R 2 , R 3 )
where:
R1 = R1 + 03
. (R2 + R3 )
R 2 = R 2 + 03
. ( R1 + R 3 )
R 3 = R 3 + 03
. ( R1 + R 2 )
and R1 , R 2 , and R 3 are the modal-combination values for each direction.
Unlike the SRSS and CQC3 methods, the absolute sum method can give different
results depending upon your arbitrary choice of coordinate system, even when the
angle between the direction of loading and the principal axes of the structure is
fixed, and even when the magnitude of loading is the same in two or three directions.
Results obtained using dirf = 0.3 are comparable to the SRSS method (for equal input spectra in each direction), but may be as much as 8% unconservative or 4%
over-conservative, depending upon the coordinate system. Larger values of dirf
tend to produce more conservative results.

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Response-Spectrum Analysis Output

Information about each response-spectrum Load Case is available for display,
printing, and export using the SAP2000 database tables. This information is described in the following subtopics.

Damping and Accelerations

The modal damping and the ground accelerations acting in each direction are given
for every Mode.
The damping value printed for each Mode is the sum of the specified damping for
the Load Case, plus the modal damping contributed by effective damping in the
Link/Support elements, if any, and the composite modal damping specified in the
Material Properties, if any.
The accelerations printed for each Mode are the actual values as interpolated at the
modal period from the response-spectrum curves after scaling by the specified
value of sf and modification for damping. The accelerations are always referred to
the local axes of the response-spectrum analysis. They are identified in the output
as U1, U2, and U3.

Modal Amplitudes
The response-spectrum modal amplitudes give the multipliers of the mode shapes
that contribute to the displaced shape of the structure for each direction of Acceleration. For a given Mode and a given direction of acceleration, this is the product
of the modal participation factor and the response-spectrum acceleration, divided
by the eigenvalue, w2, of the Mode.
This amplitude, multiplied by any modal response quantity (displacement, force,
stress, etc.), gives the contribution of that mode to the value of the same response
quantity reported for the response-spectrum load case.
The acceleration directions are always referred to the local axes of the responsespectrum analysis. They are identified in the output as U1, U2, and U3.
For more information:
See the previous Topic Damping and Acceleration for the definition of the
response-spectrum accelerations.

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Response-Spectrum Analysis

See Topic Modal Analysis Output (page 321) in Chapter Modal Analysis
for the definition of the modal participation factors and the eigenvalues.

Base Reactions
The base reactions are the total forces and moments about the global origin required
of the supports (Restraints, Springs, and one-joint Link/Support elements) to resist
the inertia forces due to response-spectrum loading.
These are reported separately for each individual Mode and each direction of loading without any combination. The total response-spectrum reactions are then reported after performing modal combination and directional combination.
The reaction forces and moments are always referred to the local axes of the
response-spectrum analysis. They are identified in the output as F1, F2, F3, M1,
M2, and M3.
Important Note: Accurate base reactions are best obtained when static-correction
modes are included in an eigen analysis, or when Ritz vectors are used. This is particularly true when large stiffnesses are used at the supports and the model is sensitive or ill-conditioned.

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C h a p t e r XXI

Linear Time-History Analysis

Time-history analysis is a step-by-step analysis of the dynamical response of a
structure to a specified loading that may vary with time. The analysis may be linear
or nonlinear. This Chapter describes time-history analysis in general, and linear
time-history analysis in particular. See Chapter Nonlinear Time-History Analysis (page 411) for additional information that applies only to nonlinear time-history analysis.
Basic Topics for All Users
Overview
Advanced Topics
Loading
Initial Conditions
Time Steps
Modal Time-History Analysis
Direct-Integration Time-History Analysis

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Overview
Time-history analysis is used to determine the dynamic response of a structure to
arbitrary loading. The dynamic equilibrium equations to be solved are given by:
K u( t ) + C u&( t ) + M u&&( t ) = r ( t )
where K is the stiffness matrix; C is the damping matrix; M is the diagonal mass
& and u&& are the displacements, velocities, and accelerations of the strucmatrix; u, u,
ture; and r is the applied load. If the load includes ground acceleration, the
displacements, velocities, and accelerations are relative to this ground motion.
Any number of time-history Load Cases can be defined. Each time-history case can
differ in the load applied and in the type of analysis to be performed.
There are several options that determine the type of time-history analysis to be performed:
Linear vs. Nonlinear.
Modal vs. Direct-integration: These are two different solution methods, each
with advantages and disadvantages. Under ideal circumstances, both methods
should yield the same results to a given problem.
Transient vs. Periodic: Transient analysis considers the applied load as a
one-time event, with a beginning and end. Periodic analysis considers the load
to repeat indefinitely, with all transient response damped out.
Periodic analysis is only available for linear modal time-history analysis.
This Chapter describes linear analysis; nonlinear analysis is described in Chapter
Nonlinear Time-History Analysis (page 411). However, you should read the
present Chapter first.

Loading
The load, r(t), applied in a given time-history case may be an arbitrary function of
space and time. It can be written as a finite sum of spatial load vectors, p i , multiplied by time functions, f i ( t ), as:
r ( t ) = f i ( t ) pi
i

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Overview

(Eqn. 1)

Chapter XXI

Linear Time-History Analysis

The program uses Load Patterns and/or Acceleration Loads to represent the spatial
load vectors. The time functions can be arbitrary functions of time or periodic functions such as those produced by wind or sea wave loading.
If Acceleration Loads are used, the displacements, velocities, and accelerations are
all measured relative to the ground. The time functions associated with the Acceleration Loads mx, my, and mz are the corresponding components of uniform ground
acceleration, u&&gx , u&&gy , and u&&gz .

Defining the Spatial Load Vectors

To define the spatial load vector, pi, for a single term of the loading sum of Equation
1, you may specify either:
The label of a Load Pattern using the parameter load, or
An Acceleration Load using the parameters csys, ang, and acc, where:
csys is a fixed coordinate system (the default is zero, indicating the global
coordinate system)
ang is a coordinate angle (the default is zero)
acc is the Acceleration Load (U1, U2, or U3) in the acceleration local coordinate system as defined below
Each Acceleration Load in the loading sum may have its own acceleration local coordinate system with local axes denoted 1, 2, and 3. The local 3 axis is always the
same as the Z axis of coordinate system csys. The local 1 and 2 axes coincide with
the X and Y axes of csys if angle ang is zero. Otherwise, ang is the angle from the X
axis to the local 1 axis, measured counterclockwise when the +Z axis is pointing toward you. This is illustrated in Figure 72 (page 364).
The response-spectrum local axes are always referred to as 1, 2, and 3. The global
Acceleration Loads mx, my, and mz are transformed to the local coordinate system
for loading.
It is generally recommended, but not required, that the same coordinate system be
used for all Acceleration Loads applied in a given time-history case.
Load Patterns and Acceleration Loads may be mixed in the loading sum.
For more information:
See Chapter Load Patterns (page 297).
See Topic Acceleration Loads (page 310) in Chapter Load Patterns.
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Z, 3

ang

Global

csys

ang
Y

ang
X
1

Figure 72
Definition of History Acceleration Local Coordinate System

Defining the Time Functions

To define the time function, fi(t), for a single term of the loading sum of Equation 1,
you may specify:
The label of a Function, using the parameter func, that defines the shape of the
time variation (the default is zero, indicating the built-in ramp function defined
below)
A scale factor, sf, that multiplies the ordinate values of the Function (the default is unity)
A time-scale factor, tf, that multiplies the time (abscissa) values of the Function
(the default is unity)
An arrival time, at, when the Function begins to act on the structure (the default
is zero)
The time function, fi(t), is related to the specified Function, func(t), by:
fi(t) = sf func(t)
The analysis time, t, is related to the time scale, t, of the specified Function by:
t = at + tf t

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Linear Time-History Analysis

fi(t)
Ramp function after scaling

sf

Built-in ramp function

at

tf

Figure 73
Built-in Ramp Function before and after Scaling

If the arrival time is positive, the application of Function func is delayed until after
the start of the analysis. If the arrival time is negative, that portion of Function func
occurring before t = at / tf is ignored.
For a Function func defined from initial time t0 to final time tn, the value of the
Function for all time t < t0 is taken as zero, and the value of the Function for all time
t > tn is held constant at fn, the value at tn.
If no Function is specified, or func = 0, the built-in ramp function is used. This
function increases linearly from zero at t = 0 to unity at t =1 and for all time thereafter. When combined with the scaling parameters, this defines a function that increases linearly from zero at t = at to a value of sf at t = at + tf and for all time thereafter, as illustrated in Figure 73 (page 365). This function is most commonly used
to gradually apply static loads, but can also be used to build up triangular pulses and
more complicated functions.
See Topic Functions (page 322) in Chapter Load Cases for more information.

Loading

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Initial Conditions
The initial conditions describe the state of the structure at the beginning of a
time-history case. These include:
Displacements and velocities
Internal forces and stresses
Internal state variables for nonlinear elements
Energy values for the structure
External loads
The accelerations are not considered initial conditions, but are computed from the
equilibrium equation.
For linear transient analyses, zero initial conditions are always assumed.
For periodic analyses, the program automatically adjusts the initial conditions at
the start of the analysis to be equal to the conditions at the end of the analysis
If you are using the stiffness from the end of a nonlinear analysis, nonlinear elements (if any) are locked into the state that existed at the end of the nonlinear analysis. For example, suppose you performed a nonlinear analysis of a model containing tension-only frame elements (compression limit set to zero), and used the stiffness from this case for a linear time-history analysis. Elements that were in tension
at the end of the nonlinear analysis would have full axial stiffness in the linear
time-history analysis, and elements that were in compression at the end of the nonlinear analysis would have zero stiffness. These stiffnesses would be fixed for the
duration of the linear time-history analysis, regardless of the direction of loading.

Time Steps
Time-history analysis is performed at discrete time steps. You may specify the
number of output time steps with parameter nstep and the size of the time steps
with parameter dt.
The time span over which the analysis is carried out is given by nstepdt. For periodic analysis, the period of the cyclic loading function is assumed to be equal to this
time span.
Responses are calculated at the end of each dt time increment, resulting in nstep+1
values for each output response quantity.

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Linear Time-History Analysis

Response is also calculated, but not saved, at every time step of the input time functions in order to accurately capture the full effect of the loading. These time steps
are call load steps. For modal time-history analysis, this has little effect on efficiency.
For direct-integration time-history analysis, this may cause the stiffness matrix to
be re-solved if the load step size keeps changing. For example, if the output time
step is 0.01 and the input time step is 0.005, the program will use a constant internal
time-step of 0.005. However, if the input time step is 0.075, then the input and output steps are out of synchrony, and the loads steps will be: 0.075, 0.025, 0.05, 0.05,
0.025, 0.075, and so on. For this reason, it is usually advisable to choose an output
time step that evenly divides, or is evenly divided by, the input time steps.

Modal Time-History Analysis

Modal superposition provides a highly efficient and accurate procedure for performing time-history analysis. Closed-form integration of the modal equations is
used to compute the response, assuming linear variation of the time functions,
f i ( t ), between the input data time points. Therefore, numerical instability problems
are never encountered, and the time increment may be any sampling value that is
deemed fine enough to capture the maximum response values. One-tenth of the
time period of the highest mode is usually recommended; however, a larger value
may give an equally accurate sampling if the contribution of the higher modes is
small.
The modes used are computed in a Modal Load Case that you define. They can be
the undamped free-vibration Modes (eigenvectors) or the load-dependent Ritz-vector Modes.
If all of the spatial load vectors, p i , are used as starting load vectors for Ritz-vector
analysis, then the Ritz vectors will always produce more accurate results than if the
same number of eigenvectors is used. Since the Ritz-vector algorithm is faster than
the eigenvector algorithm, the former is recommended for time-history analyses.
It is up to you to determine if the Modes calculated by the program are adequate to
represent the time-history response to the applied load. You should check:
That enough Modes have been computed
That the Modes cover an adequate frequency range
That the dynamic load (mass) participation mass ratios are adequate for the
Load Patterns and/or Acceleration Loads being applied

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That the modes shapes adequately represent all desired deformations
Important Note: Accurate base reactions are best obtained when static-correction
modes are included in an eigen analysis, or when Ritz vectors are used. This is particularly true when large stiffnesses are used at the supports and the model is sensitive or ill-conditioned. The use of static-correction modes or Ritz vectors is generally recommended for all modal time-history analyses.
See Chapter Modal Analysis (page 329) for more information.

Modal Damping
The damping in the structure is modeled using uncoupled modal damping. Each
mode has a damping ratio, damp, which is measured as a fraction of critical damping and must satisfy:
0 damp < 1
Modal damping has three different sources, which are described in the following.
Damping from these sources is added together. The program automatically makes
sure that the total is less than one.
Modal Damping from the Load Case
For each linear modal time-history Load Case, you may specify modal damping ratios that are:
Constant for all modes
Linearly interpolated by period or frequency. You specify the damping ratio at
a series of frequency or period points. Between specified points the damping is
linearly interpolated. Outside the specified range, the damping ratio is constant
at the value given for the closest specified point.
Mass and stiffness proportional. This mimics the proportional damping used
for direct-integration, except that the damping value is never allowed to exceed
unity.
In addition, you may optionally specify damping overwrites. These are specific
values of damping to be used for specific modes that replace the damping obtained
by one of the methods above. The use of damping overwrites is rarely necessary.

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Linear Time-History Analysis

Composite Modal Damping from the Materials

Modal damping ratios, if any, that have been specified for the Materials are converted automatically to composite modal damping. Any cross coupling between the
modes is ignored. These modal-damping values will generally be different for each
mode, depending upon how much deformation each mode causes in the elements
composed of the different Materials.
Effective Damping from the Link/Support Elements
Linear effective-damping coefficients, if any, that have been specified for
Link/Support elements in the model are automatically converted to modal damping. Any cross coupling between the modes is ignored. These effective
modal-damping values will generally be different for each mode, depending upon
how much deformation each mode causes in the Link/Support elements.

Direct-Integration Time-History Analysis

Direct integration of the full equations of motion without the use of modal superposition is available in SAP2000. While modal superposition is usually more accurate
and efficient, direct-integration does offer the following advantages for linear problems:
Full damping that couples the modes can be considered
Impact and wave propagation problems that might excite a large number of
modes may be more efficiently solved by direct integration
For nonlinear problems, direct integration also allows consideration of more types
of nonlinearity that does modal superposition.
Direct integration results are extremely sensitive to time-step size in a way that is
not true for modal superposition. You should always run your direct-integration
analyses with decreasing time-step sizes until the step size is small enough that results are no longer affected by it.
In particular, you should check stiff and localized response quantities. For example, a much smaller time step may be required to get accurate results for the axial
force in a stiff member than for the lateral displacement at the top of a structure.

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Time Integration Parameters

A variety of common methods are available for performing direct-integration
time-history analysis. Since these are well documented in standard textbooks, we
will not describe them further here, except to suggest that you use the default
Hilber-Hughes-Taylor alpha (HHT) method, unless you have a specific preference for a different method.
The HHT method uses a single parameter called alpha. This parameter may take
values between 0 and -1/3.
For alpha = 0, the method is equivalent to the Newmark method with gamma = 0.5
and beta = 0.25, which is the same as the average acceleration method (also called
the trapezoidal rule.) Using alpha = 0 offers the highest accuracy of the available
methods, but may permit excessive vibrations in the higher frequency modes, i.e.,
those modes with periods of the same order as or less than the time-step size.
For more negative values of alpha, the higher frequency modes are more severely
damped. This is not physical damping, since it decreases as smaller time-steps are
used. However, it is often necessary to use a negative value of alpha to encourage a
nonlinear solution to converge.
For best results, use the smallest time step practical, and select alpha as close to zero
as possible. Try different values of alpha and time-step size to be sure that the solution is not too dependent upon these parameters.

Damping
In direct-integration time-history analysis, the damping in the structure is modeled
using a full damping matrix. Unlike modal damping, this allows coupling between
the modes to be considered.
Direct-integration damping has three different sources, which are described in the
following. Damping from these sources is added together.
Proportional Damping from the Load Case
For each direct-integration time-history Load Case, you may specify proportional
damping coefficients that apply to the structure as a whole. The damping matrix is
calculated as a linear combination of the stiffness matrix scaled by a coefficient,
c K , and the mass matrix scaled by a second coefficient, c M .

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Linear Time-History Analysis

You may specify these two coefficients directly, or they may be computed by specifying equivalent fractions of critical modal damping at two different periods or frequencies.
For each nonlinear element in the structure, the coefficient c K multiplies the initial
stiffness matrix, i.e., the stiffness of the element at zero initial conditions, regardless of the nonlinear state used to start this analysis. The exception to this rule is that
if the starting nonlinear state has zero stiffness and zero force or stress (such as an
open gap or a cracked concrete material), then zero damping is assumed. In the case
where the initial stiffness is different in the negative and positive direction of loading, the larger stiffness is used.
For cable elements, the damping matrix is proportional to the stiffness matrix for an
equivalent truss element along the current chord having the same axial stiffness
(AE/L), where L is the undeformed length.
The resulting stiffness-proportional damping is linearly proportional to frequency.
It is related to the deformations within the structure. Stiffness proportional damping
may excessively damp out high frequency components.
The resulting mass-proportional damping is linearly proportional to period. It is related to the motion of the structure, as if the structure is moving through a viscous
fluid. Mass proportional damping may excessively damp out long period components.
Proportional Damping from the Materials
You may specify stiffness and mass proportional damping coefficients for individual materials. For example, you may want to use larger coefficients for soil materials than for steel or concrete. The same interpretation of these coefficients applies
as described above for the Load Case damping. Be sure not to double-count the
damping by including the same amount in both the Load Case and the materials.
Effective Damping from the Link/Support Elements
Linear effective-damping coefficients, if any, that have been specified for
Link/Support elements are directly included in the damping matrix.

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