Conflict Resolution in Community Setting (Part-II)
Conflict Resolution in Community Setting (Part-II)
Conflict Resolution in Community Setting (Part-II)
Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Contents
Why to resolve Conflicts ......................................................................................................................... 3
Different types of strategies in approaching to Conflicts .......................................................................... 3
Diagram: Conflict Management .............................................................................................................. 4
Conflict Resolution - Strategies of Community Organization ................................................................... 5
Confrontation Negotiation Co-operation Co-optation ............................................................................... 5
A. Steps in Managing Conflict ............................................................................................................. 6
Step 1: Analyze the conflict. ................................................................................................................ 6
Step 2: Determine management strategy. ............................................................................................. 6
Step 3: Pre-negotiation ........................................................................................................................ 6
Step 4: Negotiation. ............................................................................................................................. 6
Step 5: Post-negotiation. ...................................................................................................................... 6
Key features of conflict analysis .............................................................................................................. 7
Tips for Transforming Conflict ................................................................................................................ 7
Tips for Transforming Conflict ................................................................................................................ 7
Cycle of Conflict & Conflict Resolution .................................................................................................. 8
Methods of Conflict Resolution ............................................................................................................... 8
Different options for managing conflict ................................................................................................... 9
Different options for managing conflict ................................................................................................... 9
Box: Managing Conflict ........................................................................................................................ 10
Managing Conflict ................................................................................................................................. 10
Box: Process & Types of Conflict Resolution ........................................................................................ 12
Table: Strengths and limitations of various methods of conflict resolution ............................................. 13
Diagram: The ten steps of conflict management ..................................................................................... 14
Table: The major elements we need to understand before deciding a strategy ......................................... 14
Box: Resolving Conflict - Making a community to perform ................................................................... 15
Diagram: Thomas and Kilmann Conflict Modes .................................................................................... 16
Table: Basic Causes, Causes that Escalate and Institutional Capacity to handle conflict ......................... 17
Problems in Negotiation: ....................................................................................................................... 19
Tactics used by the Community Organizations to get into the negotiating table: ..................................... 19
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Conflict Resolution
Why to resolve Conflicts
It is a new field (dating from the 70’s, bringing together various other disciplines, such as
Political Science, Psychology and Sociology. Different cultures have different approaches to
conflicts. Some cultures choose to address the dispute
directly and some choose to avoid facing the clash. In Why to resolve Conflicts
some cultures, voicing frustrations is regarded as be harmful to individuals or groups
have positive results
normal, and yet in others it is rude to do so. help define and sharpen
Even the word ‘conflict’ itself might have diverse community issues to improve
connotations in different languages. decisions
help gain recognition for a group
Conflict resolution is a range of methods for alleviating increase bitterness, alienation, and
or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict divisiveness
resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the increase unity, cohesion, and
solidarity within a group
term dispute resolution or alternative dispute strengthen group boundaries
resolution (ADR). Processes of conflict resolution aid in the formation of a new
generally include negotiation, mediation & diplomacy. group
The processes of arbitration, litigation & formal weaken or destroy a group
complaint processes such as ombudsman processes are increase tension within or between
usually described with the term dispute resolution, groups
although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." result in restructuring a group
lead to alliances with other groups
Processes of mediation & arbitration are often referred
disrupt normal channels of
to as alternative dispute resolution. cooperation
Different types of strategies in approaching to Conflicts
become violent
Different types of strategies in
There are many ways to resolve conflicts - surrendering, approaching to Conflicts
running away, overpowering your opponent with Conflict Prevention: An approach that
seeks to resolve disputes before violence
violence, filing a lawsuit, etc. The movement toward breaks out.
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR), sometimes Conflict Management: Aims to
referred to simply as conflict resolution, grew out of the prevent the eruption of destructive
belief that there are better options than using violence or conflict by facilitating a move from
violent to spoken conflict
going to court. Today, the terms ADR and conflict Conflict Transformation: Enabling a
resolution are used somewhat interchangeably and refer transformation from conflict to lasting
to a wide range of processes that encourage nonviolent peace by addressing root causes and
dispute resolution outside of the traditional court system. effects of conflict.
Peacemaking: Peacemaking transforms
The field of conflict resolution also includes efforts in the conflict from violent to spoken, and
schools and communities to reduce violence and further, toward the definition of a
bullying and help young people develop communication common peaceful solution.
Peace keeping: Peacekeeping missions
and problem-solving skills. are often required to halt violence and
Common forms of conflict resolution include:* preserve peace once it is obtained.
Negotiation *Mediation * Arbitration * Mediation- Peace building: It is utilized to prevent
Arbitration * Early Neutral Evaluation * Community the recurrence of violence, by addressing
the root causes of conflict and creating a
Conferencing * Collaborative Law * Negotiated stable and durable peace.
Rulemaking * Peer Mediation
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Step 2: Determine
management strategy.
Collaboration Compromise
Competition Accommodation
Avoidance
Step 3: Pre-negotiation
Initiation Assessment
Ground rules and agenda
Organization Joint fact-
finding
Step 4: Negotiation.
Interests, Options,Written
agreement
Step 5: Post-negotiation.
Ratification Implementation
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Conflict resolution is a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict
resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution. Processes
of conflict resolution generally include negotiation, mediation and diplomacy. The processes of arbitration, litigation are
usually described with the term dispute resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." Processes of
mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution.
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by
which people handle grievances — standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be
wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat
predicted and explained by the social structure. Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict
resolution
Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for
individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative
dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among
nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called
negotiation theory. Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators. Professional negotiators are often
specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators or may work
under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
Mediation, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more)
disputants in reaching an agreement. The parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached— rather
than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties) states, organizations, communities,
individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the outcome.
Advocacy is the pursuit of influencing outcomes — including public-policy and resource allocation decisions within political,
economic, and social systems and institutions — that directly affect people’s current lives.
Advocacy can be seen as a deliberate process of speaking out on issues of concern in order to exert some influence on behalf
of ideas or persons. Based on this definition, Cohen states that “ideologues of all persuasions advocate” to bring a change in
people’s lives. However, advocacy has many interpretations depending on the issue at stake, which can be different from this
initial value-neutral definition.
Diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find mutually acceptable solutions to a common
challenge, one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non-confrontational or polite manner.
Activism, in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change. This action is in
support of, or opposition to, one side of an often controversial argument.
The word "activism" is often used synonymously with protest or dissent, but activism can stem from any number of political
orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning,
economic activism (such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing preferred businesses), rallies, blogging and street marches,
strikes, both work stoppages and hunger strikes, or even guerrilla tactics.
In some cases, activism has nothing to do with protest or confrontation: for instance, some religious, feminist or
vegetarian/vegan activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than persuade governments to
change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and
generally does not lobby or protest politically.
Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach that attempts to help students question and challenge domination, and the beliefs
and practices that dominate. In other words, it is a theory and practice of helping students achieve critical consciousness.
Critical pedagogue Ira Shor defines critical pedagogy as "Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath
surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere
opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action,
event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse."
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Encourage participation by community members, and Have been supplanted by courts and administrative laws.
respect local values and customs. Are challenged by the increasing heterogeneity of
Are more accessible because of their low cost, their communities resulting from cultural change, population
flexibility in scheduling and procedures, and their use of movements and other factors that erode the social
the local language. relationships supporting customary conflict management.
Encourage decision-making based on collaboration, with There may also be long-standing problems of access on
consensus emerging from wide-ranging discussions, the basis of gender, class, caste or other considerations.
often fostering local reconciliation. Often cannot accommodate conflict among communities
Contribute to processes of community empowerment. or between a community and the State.
Informal and even formal leaders may serve as Local leaders may use their authority to pursue their own
conciliators, mediators, negotiators or arbitrators. self-interest, or that of their affiliated social groups or
Long-held public legitimacy provides a sense of local clients.
ownership of both the process and its outcomes. Decisions and processes may not be written down for
future reference.
Strengths and limitations of national legal systems
Use of official legal systems strengthens the rule of State Are often inaccessible to the poor, women, marginalized
law, empowers civil society and fosters environmental groups and remote communities because of cost,
accountability. distance, language barriers, political obstacles, illiteracy
Are officially established with supposedly well-defined and discrimination.
procedures. May not consider indigenous knowledge, local institutions
Take national and international concerns and issues into and long-term community needs in decision-making.
consideration. May involve judicial and technical specialists who lack the
Involve judicial and technical specialists in decision- expertise, skills and orientation required for participatory
making. natural resource management.
Where there are extreme power imbalances among the Use procedures that are generally adversarial and
disputants, national legal systems may better protect the produce win - lose outcomes.
rights of less powerful parties because decisions are Provide only limited participation in decision-making for
legally binding. conflict parties.
Decisions are impartial, based on the merits of the case, It may become more difficult to reach impartial decisions
and with all parties having equity before the law. if there is a lack of judicial independence, corruption
among State agents, or an elite group that dominates
legal processes.
Use the highly specialized language of educated elite
groups, favoring business and government disputants
over ordinary people and communities.
Strengths and limitations of alternative conflict resolution methods
Can help overcome obstacles to participatory conflict Often fail to address structural inequalities, and may
management that are inherent in legislative, serve to perpetuate or exacerbate power imbalances.
administrative, judicial and even customary approaches. May encounter difficulties in getting all stakeholders to
Promote conflict management by building on shared the bargaining table.
interests and finding points of agreement. May not be able to overcome power differentials among
Involve processes that resemble those already existing in stakeholders, so vulnerable groups such as the poor,
most local conflict management systems, including women and indigenous people remain marginalized.
flexible, low-cost access. May result in decisions that are not legally binding.
Foster a sense of ownership in implementation of the May lead some practitioners to use methods developed
solution process. in other contexts and cultures without adapting them to
Emphasize capacity building within communities so that local contexts.
local people become more effective facilitators,
communicators, planners and managers of conflict.
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
Table: Basic Causes, Causes that Escalate and Institutional Capacity to handle conflict
BASIC CAUSES OF CONFLICT •Do elites compete over the control of valuable
1. ETHNIC AND RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS natural resources (both renewable and non-renewable), scarce
•Is the relationship between ethnic/religious groups or not?
characterized by dominance, potential dominance, or high levels •Are certain resources (such as land) used as a tool in political
of fragmentation? competition?
•Where do these groups live and in what numbers? Are they 4. DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
concentrated in regional pockets or dispersed? If they are •Do population growth rates differ across distinct, adjacent
concentrated, do they form a majority or a minority in the area? communities?
•What is the history of relations between groups? Is there a •Are there other factors (e.g. economic migration) that are
pattern of systematic discrimination or have relations been tipping the demographic balance toward one group?
relatively peaceful and inclusive? •Is the rural population expanding? If so, is there access to land
•Do other divides, for example political exclusion or economic or are there other safety valves for population pressures (e.g.
inequality, reinforce ethnic divisions? migration to adjacent states/economic opportunity in urban
•Are there elites who face an economic or political incentive to centers)?
mobilize violence along ethnic lines? CONFLICT ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
•Is extremist ethnic or religious rhetoric increasing? Are elites •What are rates of urbanization? Is the urban population
beginning to create or promote ethnic 'myths'? expanding in a period of economic growth or decline?
2. ECONOMIC CAUSES •What is the size of the youth cohort relative to the adult
•Is the economy (of the country/region) growing, stagnant, or population?
declining? By what percent? •Are there particular areas (urban centers, distinct regions)
•Is the country (or region) low income? where the youth cohort is disproportionately large?
•Are there large socio-economic disparities? Do these reinforce •Are young people radicalizing? If so, around what issues? If
other lines of division, such as ethnicity? not, what is keeping this from happening?
•Is the economy heavily dependent on primary commodities? •Are there rapid increases in young, educated professionals who
Are these commodities easily 'lootable'? have no opportunities for political or economic advancement?
•Is economic power tied to political power? 5. INTERACTION EFFECTS
•How pervasive is corruption or patronage? Does it flow along •Are there many incentives for violence (both greed and
ethnic or other lines of division? grievance) or only a few?
•If there is a large informal economy, is it legal or illegal (i.e. •Are they longstanding and chronic or of fairly recent origin?
based on drugs, trafficking in humans)? •Do incentives for violence overlap and reinforce each other or
3. ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES cut across lines of division? For example, does access to
•Are there major resource scarcities? economic opportunity overlap with ethnic difference or cut
•What are the primary causes of scarcity? across ethnic difference?
•Has scarcity led to resource capture? •Is there an alignment between grievance and greed? Are elites
•Has scarcity led to population transfers? with a political or economic incentive to mobilize violence well-
•Do the effects of scarcity (resource capture, population positioned to tap into a strong grievance?
transfers) reinforce other divides (ethnic, religious, economic)
and/or generate competition between groups?
CAUSES THAT ESCALATE CONFLICTS
II. MOBILIZATION: ACCESS TO CONFLICT RESOURCES •Are resources available through government corruption or
1. ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES patronage networks?
•Do organizational structures bridge or reinforce differences in a •Can sufficient resources be gained through smuggling,
society? For example, are civil society groups mono-ethnic or kidnapping, banditry or other activities on the black or gray
multi-ethnic? market?
•Are there well-established ethnic or religious associations that 3. HUMAN RESOURCES
could be used to mobilize violence? • Is there a population of ready recruits (e.g. unemployed
•Have these structures stepped in to provide important services, young men in urban or semi-urban areas) available to actors
such as access to employment or education, in the context of a motivated to engage in violence?
weak state? 4. GENERAL QUESTIONS
•How closely do organizational resources (e.g. ethnic groups or • Do groups with incentives for violence have access to all
patronage networks) align with incentives for violence? conflict resources organizational, financial, and human - or only
•If incentives and organizations are aligned, are these a few?
organizations capable of monitoring group behavior and • What level of resources do groups have and what level do
punishing 'defectors' from group goals? they need to achieve their goals? Is there a match?
2. FINANCIAL RESOURCES This section is intended to help the conflict assessment team
•Are groups with an incentive to mobilize violence affiliated with diagnose the conflict 'problem' in particular country context.
foreign support groups (e.g. diaspora, foreign governments, • Where do these resources come from (e.g. natural resources,
transnational religious or ethnic groups) that could provide corruption/patron-age networks, diasporas, foreign recruits,
funding? local/international sources) and what does this imply about ease
•Can those motivated to engage in violence obtain control of of access and sustainability?
"lootable" primary commodities?
S.Rengasamy-Conflict Resolution in Community Settings (Part II)
III. INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY AND RESPONSE •Do government institutions/civil society groups effectively
1. REGIME TYPE AND LEGITIMACY monitor and enforce financial transparency and accountability?
•Is the regime democratic, authoritarian, or mixed? •Is the government able to exert economic control over the
•How long has it existed in its current form? territory of the state or are there large pockets of autonomous
•Is it in a period of transition or erosion? economic activity?
•Are there generally accepted rules for political competition? •Does government policy encourage a good match between
•What is the overall level of respect for national authorities? available skills and the demands of the market?
2. INCLUSION/EXCLUSION •Do state economic policies favor one group at the expense of
•Do government policies favor one group over another? For another?
example, are government services provided equally across •Are local governments able to encourage local economic
different ethnic or religious groups, are exclusive language growth and investment and respond to local economic
policies in place? problems?
•Has the collapse or erosion of state institutions led groups to •Do grassroots and/or national institutions constructively
turn to more immediate forms of identity for survival? engage underrepresented and marginalized groups in economic
•Do civil society groups reinforce or bridge lines of division? development activities?
•How robust are multi-ethnic or multi-religious organizations? • Do government programs constructively engage potential
Do they have a mass base (e.g. trade unions, business recruits, such as unemployed youth?
associations) or are they limited to a narrow elite layer? 5. NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
•How are issues of ethnicity/religion taught in schools? •Does government policy seek to improve the sustainable
•Does the press promote ethnic or religious intolerance? management of natural resources?
3. RULE OF LAW/PROVISION OF SECURITY •Are there institutions in place that effectively mediate
•How strong is the judicial system? competing claims to natural resources such as land or water?
•Are civil and political freedoms respected? •Do local/national elites earn significant off-budget income from
•Are other basic human rights respected? the exploitation of natural resources?
•Does unlawful state violence exist? •Do government institutions effectively regulate trade in
•Does civilian power control the security sector? "lootable" commodities?
•Is the government able to exercise effective control over its •Are natural resources viewed by state elites as a useful tool or
territory prize in a larger political competition?
•Does the security sector (police/ justice sector) effectively and •Are state institutions able to respond to environmental shocks
impartially settle disputes between groups or is there a or natural disasters?
perception of bias? 6. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
•To what extent is the security sector involved in 'shadow' •Are government policies causing demographic shifts, for
economic activity? example through govern-ment-sponsored transmigration or
•Do government institutions effectively regulate legal arms trade agricultural programs?
and prevent illegal arms trades or do they participate in it? •Are government institutions able to respond to new demands
4. ECONOMIC GOVERNANCE created by demographic change? For example, are voting rights
•Does economic policy encourage economic growth or impose tied to place of residence or birth (meaning will uprooted
obstacles? populations be able to voice demands through political
•Is policy conducive to macro-economic stability? channels)?
•How pervasive is corruption in state institutions?
Negotiation
In trying to solve certain problems, Community Organizations often find it necessary to negotiate
with other parties. “Negotiation is an attempt to hold discussion with
those who evidence varying degrees of resistance, in the hope of
ultimately arriving at an agreement. This is the essence (i.e.
arriving at an agreement through discussion) and the end point of
the negotiating process. In this context a negotiant is anyone whom the
community organization is trying to influence. A negotiant can be
undecided, neutral or hostile.
E.g. Strike by the govt. staff. Activism against lock up deaths.
Negotiation is the process of searching for an agreement that satisfies various parties. An
agreement may be reached either through barter or through real negotiation. A barter allows only
one party - the party in a position of power - to "win"; the other party is forced to accept
something of lesser value. A real negotiation implies a "win-win" situation, in which all parties
are satisfied.
The common element in all these examples is that the
community organization attempts to hold discussions with
those who evidence varying degrees of resistance in the hope
of ultimately arriving at an agreement. Thus negotiation
implies a conflict and the promotion of a cause or certain
interests.
Problems in Negotiation:
Many community organizations do not always heave within
their capacity the power to gain success to decision- makers.
Unlike in industrial negotiation, community groups lacking
power frequently find themselves prevented from the
negotiation process. So community organizations have to
develop their position and power that allows them to sit at the
negotiating table
To gain access to negotiations and enhance their bargaining
positions, community organizations use a variety of tactics.
6. Threatening:
Negotiation often involves a degree of threat.
The fact that rewards can be with held or
punishment inflicted constitutes a threat.
E.g. – Threat of a Lawsuit.
Threats to withdraw support or boycott.