Masaryk University

Faculty of Arts

Department of English
and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Kateina truncov

Religious conflicts in Beowulf and

Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde
Bachelors Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: prof. Mgr. Milada Frankov, CSc., M.A.

2010

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,

using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

..
Authors signature

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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my supervisor prof. Mgr. Milada Frankov, CSc., M.A. for her kindness and
helpful guidance.

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Table of Contents
1 Introduction: The cause of religious conflicts ..................................................................... 2
2 Approaching paganism ........................................................................................................... 6
3 Beowulf ..................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Perception of Anglo-Saxon paganism in Beowulf ...................................................... 12
3.2 Pagan and Christian allusions ...................................................................................... 15
3.3 Burial Rites ...................................................................................................................... 18
3.4 A Christian Wyrd ............................................................................................................ 20
3.5 Warrior ethics and Christian morality.......................................................................... 22
4 Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde ........................................................................................... 26
4.1 Perception of Greek paganism in Troilus .................................................................... 28
4.2 Pagan and Christian allusions ...................................................................................... 30
4.3 Fatalism and predestination ......................................................................................... 33
4.4 Human love versus Gods love ..................................................................................... 38
5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 41
Works Cited ............................................................................................................................... 44
Primary Sources .................................................................................................................... 44
Secondary Sources ............................................................................................................... 44
Czech Resume ........................................................................................................................... 48
English Resume ......................................................................................................................... 49

1 Introduction: The cause of religious conflicts

This thesis analyzes religious conflicts in two poems, Beowulf and
Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde, which are both set in pagan environment, but
written by poets, who were influenced by a Christian society. Although both
written at different times by different authors and taking place in a different
period of time, they have similar background and contain comparable religious
conflicts and narrative patterns.

Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem set in Scandinavia and is one
of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature. It is assigned by some
scholars to the first half of the eighth century (Bloom 1), but the exact century
is unknown and is a matter of speculation. Donaldson says that from historical
circumstances one can assume that the text began before 521 A.D., reached its
present form around 850 A.D., and was recorded in 1010 A.D.
The events described in the poem take place in the late fifth century,
when the Anglo-Saxons and Jutes overran Roman Britain, and before the
beginning of the seventh century. By the end of the seventh century these
Germans, and the Celts they ruled, had mostly been converted to Christianity.
Before this conversion, the Anglo-Saxons, like much of north-western Europe,
were not Christians, but had a polytheistic belief system. The religion of these
tribes was related to the tribal religion of the Goths, and that of the Norse and
collectively we can refer to the religion of these tribes (once in what is now
England) as Anglo-Saxon paganism.

The end of the pagan period came with the rise of Christianity during the
early Middle Ages. The Church had to strengthen the faith and discipline the
morals of the faithful. In Europe, conversion to Christianity did not naturally
happened overnight, but at different times in different parts of Europe
(Dowden 4). The arrival of Christianity influenced whole culture, including
literature as well. The conversion of Anglo-Saxons is associated with St.
Augustine of Canterbury (sent in 596), thanks to separate initiatives on the part
of Gregory I., as chronicled in Bedes Ecclesiastical History of 731. But it was
only near the end of the 8th century that the Saxons reluctantly accepted
Christianity.
The process of conversion was rather peaceful and unforced: According
to Pope Gregorys instructions, the pagan temples of the idols ought not to be
destroyed; only the idols in them should, and the sacrifices that the AngloSaxons were accustomed to make to their gods were to be made instead of
celebration of Christian festivals, so turning an act of demon-worship into an
act of divine celebrationte (Church 165). But among many, the attitudes and
beliefs of previous domestic religion persisted. It is evident, therefore, that
while Anglo-Saxon England in the eighth century was Christian in name,
heathenism had not been wiped out; it had been driven underground. Thus
pagan activities survived in England with great tenacity until long after the time
at which Beowulf is believed to have been written.
Due to this cumbersome conversion paganism did not disappear
completely, but was supressed by Christianity. This syncretism might be one of
the reasons why the poem of Beowulf is imbued with both pagan and Christian

elements. The conflicts between these religions in Beowulf are so obvious that
even nowadays it is still a matter of speculation, whether Beowulf is a Christian
poem with pagan overtones or a pagan poem with a Christian overlay.
Similar issue, although not exactly the same, can be assigned to
Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde. The composition date of Chaucers Troilus, early
in the final quarter of the 14th century, places it firmly in an age of uncertainty.
The ambiguous nature of the poem and the vagueness that one has in
determining what religion the poem praises and what poet actually believes in
reflect this. Chaucer is writing at the time of upheaval and change of ideas
which meant mostly a restless rethinking and discontent about the role and the
authority of the church. This religious revolt against the established church
(heresy) was manifested in the writings of Wycliffe and in the Lollard
movement. And it is against this background that Chaucer has written a poem
that explores the feasibility of mans striking to participate in his own moral
identity, to determine the extent of his potential for moral-self rule
(Cigman 386).

Troilus and Criseyde is a tragic story of lovers Troilus and Criseyde set in
the period of ancient Troy and Trojan War. Chaucer probably intended to
provide the readers with the description of ancient Greek paganism, however,
just like in Beowulf poem, Troilus is imbued with numerous allusions to
Christian elements, probably due to Chaucers endeavour to clarify the pagan
story to a medieval Christian audience.

Thus the aim of this thesis is to prove that in spite of both poets efforts
to depict a story that was supposed to represent pagan society and its customs,
they managed to write a story (although in a pagan setting and with pagan
characters) conveying a Christian message.

2 Approaching paganism

In order to properly understand and identify the religious conflicts within

these two poems, it is necessary to describe the background of paganism in the
periods of time which are portrayed in the poems, and to specify pagan
religious beliefs and practices.
Paganism refers to the pre-Christian religious practices of Europe. In
comparison with Christianity, it was not considered a religion in the real sense
of the word. Paganism did not promote faith as it is understood in
Christianity; surely ancient pagans believed in certain things without
satisfactory evidence, but whether they believed in them is another question.
Therefore paganism is rather a matter of observing systems of rituals than
proper creed (Dowden 2).
Generally the word refered to the polytheisms of the Greco-Roman world,
as well as certain practices condemned in the Bible (Palmer 403). There is not
beginning of paganism. Unlike Christianity, it has no founder, no holy book that
defined it. Before Christianity by definiton all societies were pagan, since the
only alternative would have been a lack of religion.
Pagan can be defined as one of a nation or community which does not
worship the true God or a person of heathenish character or habits. It
defines superstition as the unreasoning awe or fear of something unknown,
mysterious or imaginary, especially in connection with religion (Filotas 12). In
short it can be said that pagan and superstitious are any beliefs or practices
condemned to pastoral literature which entailed a reliance on powers not
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coming from God and not mediated by the Church. Although paganism has no
content itself, and does not describe a coherent set of beliefs and practices,
similar elements can be attributed to both Greek and Anglo-Saxon paganism.
Let us begin with medieval descriptions of who and what the pagans
were, and how their gods originated. Isidore of Seville had claimed that pagans
were so named from the country regions (pagi) around Athens, in which places
the gentiles set up lights and idols. The gentiles are those who are without the
law (i.e. the law of Christ), because they did not yet believe (Minnis 32). They
are called gentiles because they are just as they were generated or born
(geniti), that is, just as they descended into the flesh in sin, namely serving
idols and not yet regenerated in Christ. The term of pagan also describes all
those who do not dwell in the city of god, that is, the Chuch.
They worshipped their gods in nature, paid cult to trees, placed sacrificial
offerings and had a cult of the dead. The principal pagan deities whose cult
survived into the Christian Era were Thor and Woden, roughly identified with
Jupiter and Mercury. Numerous other beings (giants, dwarves) also figure in
myth and folkore. The pagan gods, unlike Christian God, were not supreme
like men, they were subjects to Fate (wyrd) (Filotas 37).
This has been elaborated on an important concept, which appears in
both poems - the concept of (pagan) fatalism and (Christian) predestination.
Fatalism is in general the view which holds that all events in the history of the
world, and, in particular, the actions and incidents which make up the story of
each individual life, are determined by fate. The ancient classical fatalism

depicts man as a helpless creature borne along by destiny - future life of

each individual is so rigorously predetermined in all its details that his own
volitions or desires have no power to alter the course of events. With
the rise of Christianity the question of fatalism necessarily adopted a new form.
The pagan view of an external, inevitable force coercing and controlling
all action, whether human or divine, found itself in conflict with the conception
of a free, personal, infinite God (Maher). Consequently several of the early
Christian writers were concerned to oppose and refute the theory of fate.
As mentioned before, paganism was applied not only to the Germanic
tribes between the fifth and eighth century, but also to the polytheism of
classical Greek and Roman religion.What was characteristic for paganism in
general was idolatry, the worship of more or less clearly conceptualised
divinities, sacrifices to them and rituals in their honour. The principal
components of this religious practice therefore were sacrifice, feasting and
divination (Filotas 37), which are depicted in both poems.

3 Beowulf

The heroes of the Old English epics were vigorous young men who
performed glorious deeds for the sake of their valor; any reward was
unimportant for their motivation. The most famous Old English epic is Beowulf,
a text dated to sometime around the eight or ninth century. Beowulf seems to
have been composed principally in West Saxon.

Beowulf is a blend of Christian and pagan ideas and feelings. Due to the
unknown exact date of its composition one can argue, whether the poem is
originally pagan but altered to a Christian form, or whether it is originally
Christian, depicting ancient pagan life as historical fiction.
In general, there are three perceptions of how and when Beowulf was
written: According to Lambdin, Beowulf was probably composed to be chanted
or sung. As an oral work, it was probably written as a pagan poem and evolved
over a long period of time with many additions and deletions based upon
audience, purpose, and artistic merit. This freedom allowed the scops to add
totally new episodes or expand or contact old ones as interested a particular
group. The examination of the text then exposes that somewhere late in its
construction the poem became Christianized: elements of Christianity were
layered over an originally pagan text. Lambdin says that this was fairly typical
because the clerics who transcribed these originally pagan poems worked for
the church and would naturally encourage didatic messages where possible.
(Lambdin 3).
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Secondly, a question may be raised whether the poets heart was in all
that he was writing, or whether the Church approved of what he was writing,
suggesting that the author of Beowulf was a poet coming from a Christian
society but whose heart was in the pagan tales and traditions that had been
celebrated for generations among his people by singers like himself (Stanley
48). In the changed conditions of his time he had to suppress all reference to
the old gods and make over his pagans into good Christians or else show the
hollowness of their heathen faith.
Finally, Beowulf was perceived as a poem that was written by a Christian
poet in a Christian era who intended to portray the pagan past with the
Christian understanding of the narrator and his audience (Major 6).
During the nineteenth century, scholars viewed Beowulf as a relic of the
lost pagan days. Apparent clash between Christian and pagan elements was
assigned to the fact that materials in Beowulf were drawn from tales composed
before the conversion of Anglo-Saxons and any references to a Christian God
were considered to be later insertions by monks who recopied the manuscript
and touched it up to make it more acceptable (Staver 157). With the more
recent acceptance of later dates of composition, the poems original Christian
composition is more often accepted. It is probably a product of the Anglo-Saxon
Christian values and reflects the inconsistencies and blends of the culture that
originated during the conversion from paganism to Christianity, not the changes
made by a monk.

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The story of Beowulf is well known. The huge mead hall Heorot, built by
Hrothgar, the king of the Scyldings, is constantly being attacked by the huge
monster Grendel. Depicted as a descendant of Cain, Grendel despises the noise
produced at the hall and decides to try to put an end to it. He enters the hall
and takes thirty men. This continues until the Scyldings fear entering the hall.
For the following twelve years Grendel keeps the hall quiet. Words of this
comes to the Geats, so Beowulf, their hero, sets out to help Hrothgar. On their
arrival, the Geats feast with the Scyldings. They enjoy a wonderful evening
filled with revelry and boasting about their great deeds. Beowulf and his men
then retire to Heorot and wait for the monster to appear. Their wait is short, as
Grendel enters and kills one of Beowulfs men. Beowulf, who has been sleeping
in another house, follows the monster into a deep bog, where an epic battle
occurs. Beowulf slays the monster with the sword of a giant, cuts off his head
and takes the prize with him back to Heorot. After a while, Grendels mother
then comes to take the head back. After another great battle, Beowulf slays the
mother and displays Grendels head in Heorot. He then returns with great honor
to his homeland and to the court of Hygelac. When the king and his sons are
killed in a battle, Beowulf is made king instead of him. He rules in peace for fifty
years until a flagon is stolen and guarded by dragon. Accompanied by his friend
Wiglaf, Beowulf kills the monster but in the process is mortally wounded himself.
After his death he is sent to eternity in a large funeral pyre, leaving the land
alone in a time when war with Franks and Swedes is looming ahead.

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3.1 Perception of Anglo-Saxon paganism in Beowulf

Anglo-Saxon paganism originated from wider Germanic paganism. What
exactly Anglo-Saxon paganism was like is unknown. Reliability of the sources
for Germanic religion can be considered questionable, since the texts about it
were written respectively by Christian authors and clerics, and Germans
themselves left no written account of their own to clarify their beliefs. Only a
few general remarks about sacred trees and springs, amulets, charms and love
magic were often thought to be sufficient to describe what was a long, difficult
and not always successful process (Filotas 3). Therefore modern knowledge of
Anglo-Saxon paganism from non-archaelogical sources is scanty, for Christians
had virtually no reason to record memories and survivals of pagan beliefs and
customs. The Christian writers of documents recorded further memories of
paganism in the form of place names alluding to Germanic gods or to pagan
shrines and sanctuaries, but it is not easy to say how and when the places were
associated with the gods, nor when the pagan shrines stopped to be used.
Cremation, on the other hand, was probably always non-Christian (SimsWilliams 55).
The writings of this period were gradually Christianized for many reasons.
Foremost is the fact that Christianity had become the most popular religion in
Britain at this time. Secondly, since the monasteries were the centers of culture,
it is only natural that literature that was Christian in tone grew and developed.
One school of Christian influence came from the Augustinian influence from

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Rome; the second came from Ireland and includes authors like Bede, Cynewulf
and Caedmon (Lambdin 12).
Bede (673?-735), also known as the Venerable Bede, is regarded as the
first English professional scholar. He spent his entire life preparing for work in
the monastery. Perhaps his most significant work is the Ecclesiastical History of

the English People, completed in 731. This work is still considered to be a major
source for English history from 597 to 713. Bede gathered his findings from all
the written works he could find, from oral traditions, from visitors, and from
eyewitnesses and it covers the time from the Roman Caesars invasion to 731.
Because the texts dealing with Germanic and Anglo-Saxon paganism
were written mainly by Christians, in order to understand paganism properly it
is neccesary to understand how to grasp the texts which wrote about it. What
Bede had when writing Ecclesiastical History was a model of paganism,
inherited from Gregory the Great, the writings of other Fathers of the Church,
the Bible, and even the works of pagan authors of the past, according to which
paganism was characterized by the worship of idols that were housed in
temples presided over by high priests who had responsibility for leading the folk
in the worship of their deities (Church 170).
But the result of his work is biased, since when he writes about
paganism it is quite apparent that he favours Christianity and portrays it in a far
better light. He says that pagan gods do not answer the prayers of their
worshippers and that whosoever offers sacrifice to idols is doomed to the pains
of hell (Bede 45). Another important characteristic within Bedes portrayal of
Britain prior to the arrival od St. Augustine in 597 is the way disaster is used to

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suggest that a nation without faith is bound to suffer great hardship. According
to Bede, when the Angles invaded Britain in 449, they destroyed buildings,
murdered bishops and priests and generally created an atmosphere of misery
(Bede 57). Eventually Bede concludes with a conviction of pagan Britain as
being uncivillised without any spiritual attributes.
It is therefore understandable that Bede, as a confirmed beliver in
Christianity, portrays paganism in a bad light. His strong commitment meant
that he accepted beliefs of the 7th century without question and avoided
everything that could damage Christian creed (Southgate). Thus Bedes
presentation of paganism might be the reason why are pagan Danes in Beowulf
depicted as conceited and greedy pagans that are not entitled to enjoy
Christian salvation.

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3.2 Pagan and Christian allusions

Although Beowulf deals with ancient Germanic story and heroes dating
back to a time before the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity,
throughout the entire work the narrator and characters use phrases that
comply with Christian religion. The poem mentions God and the concept of
faith , there are references to devils and hell, and also many biblical references,
including the Last Judgment, Gods creation of the universe, the Flood, and the
story of Cain, which is linked to Grendels family line. Therefore it is not
suprising that it is generally believed that the poet of the text was a Christian
composing for a Christian audience.
Christian references are more numerous in the first half of the poem.
The poem is full of casual references to God, and it uses many phrases to name
God. He is the Almighty (Beowulf, 93), the Heavenly Shepherd (929), Holy
God (1553) or the Creator (106).
Throughout the whole poem there are clear references to the biblical
tales, for example of Cain and Abel (lines 107-10 and 1261-65) and the story of
the Flood (1260-1, 1688-93). The way in which the poet alludes to biblical
traditions without apparently having recourse to quotation from the biblical text
itself is of some interest when one consideres the ways in which other Old
Testament tales appear to have echoes in the poem (Orchard 142). There are,
for example, a significant number of interesting parallels which seem to connect
the story of Beowulf and Grendel with the biblical narrative of David and Goliath.
For example, King Hrothgars suffering the depredations of the giant Grendel
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(115-93) can be assimilated to King Saul suffering the depredations of the giant
Goliath. Early in his career, Beowulf, just like David, had seemed of little worth
(2183-88). And another parallel can be found when Beowulf defeats Grendel:
he returns with the sword and the head of Grendel (1612-17) like David returns
with the sword and the head of Goliath.
The Danes are described singing a song of Biblical Creation in their new
hall (90-98) and since Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, is portrayed at various
points as one who knows God and gives thanks to Him (1397-8, 1778-9), one
assumes that the people of Heorot are Christian. However, at Hrothgars court
prior to Beowulfs arrival, the Danes are practising idolatry because of their fear
of the monster Grendel:

Sometimes at pagan shrines they vowed

Offerings to idols, swore oaths
That the killer of souls might come to their aid
And save the people. That was their way (Beowulf, 175-8)

From this point of view the problems arising from the blend of Christian and
pagan elements in a poem is obvious; to the reader who lacks the proper
background of authors religious beliefs and background of the poem itself must
the treatment of pagan matters appear indeed peculiar and confusing.
Another pagan value that did not fit into the Christian scheme was
revenge. The kins duty to vengeance was contrary to Jesus teaching to love an
enemy and forgive a sin. Overall in the second half, the essential paganism of
the poem is more evident than in the first. As the tragedy of Beowulf

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approaches, the Christian poet finds little to say concerning the heros
Christianity and the story becomes rather gloomy.
As Moorman says, the whole of Beowulf, despite its Christian elements,
is strongly and most un-Christianly pessimistic in its view of life and history. The
narrative framework of the poem demonstrates that although even the most
heroic of men may for a time overcome the powers of darkness, he in time will
be defeated by them. The background of Scandinavian history before which the
action of Beowulf takes place and to which the poet constantly alludes makes
precisely the same point of the fates of nations: societies rise only to perish
(Moorman 5). Beowulf is eventually portrayed as seeking wordly fame rather
than eternal salvation and though permitted by Fate to win his last battle, in the
end he dies knowing that he has accomplished nothing of permanent value. He
has never been entitled to salvation: when he dies, it is the Fate taking its final
twist. The people who were safe and secure when Beowulf was alive will find
themselves in danger after his death. Their fate, like before, is unknown and a
sense of doom and misfortune consumes the end of the poem.

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3.3 Burial Rites

As mentioned before, poem is interspersed with both Christian and
pagan elements, showing the religious transition that occurred in England
during the period of its transmission. One of the principal pagan elements in the

Beowulf poem is his funeral. The tomb burial of Beowulfs ashes with the
treasure hoard is a pagan ritual following upon the pagan rite of cremation,
which was frequently condemned by Christian authorities.
In the traditional Christian belief, what happens to the body after death
is a matter of science ashes to ashes, dust to dust. God created man from dirt
and so the body will return to the earth as the Bible states. What is important is
what happens to the soul after death and not the fate of the body. Unlike the
Christian people, people in pagan society, at the time of death took measures
to assure that both the body and the spirit were dealt with. One of the most
common steps used to assure the spirits safe passage to the after world is
cremation. In the Anglo-Saxon period, almost all burials involved some form of
cremation, whenever it was a feasible option (McLucas). Christian burial
procedures would ordinarily reflect Christian concern for an intact physical body,
based on belief in the future resurrection of that body (Hodges). Beowulf,
however, begins and ends with burials that reflect nothing Christian, but rather
pagan customs of cremation and inhumation with grave goods are described.
In the traditional Christian belief, it is understood that earthly treasures
serve no purpose in the afterlife. However, Beowulfs dying instructions are
that he be buried with the treasure to the ground. If Beowulf possessed
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Christian ideals, he would not find it necessary to be cremated, nor have his
tomb adorned with riches. Eventually, he is burned to the bones along with
helmets, heavy war-shields and shining armour (Beowulf, 3139-40).
Another evidence for the pagan necessity of cremation can be found in
lines 1114-1117, where Hnaef and his nephews, who died in the fight were
cremated:

Then Hildeburth ordered her own

Sons body be burnt with Hnaefs,
The flesh on his bones to sputter and blaze
Beside his uncles. (Beowulf, 1114-1117)
This clearly shows that they obviously did not want to entrust the spirit of the
deceased to God for safe passage into the afterlife, but rather relied on the
flames to ensure that the spirit does not hang around afterward.

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3.4 A Christian Wyrd

Perhaps the greatest conflict between the Christian and the pagan
elements in the poem is the role of wyrd (or fate). The protagonists and
supporting characters display undying faith in wyrd, which is simultaneously
integrated with the Christian belief that man should have faith only in God and
his grace. Unlike fate or forture from the Christian point of view, wyrd lies not
under the control of God, who is ultimately carrying out his divine plan in way
that human intelect is merely incapable of perceiving, but rises above all deities
(Lambdin 29).
The pagan word wyrd and Gods decree seem to be used in Beowulf
interchangeably. When Hrothgar and Beowulf make speeches about his plans
and prospects, the outcome of the flight with Grendel is said to be either in the
hands of the Lord, or wyrd . Beowulf uses both words in one speech:

Whichever one death fells

must deem it a just judgement by God.
If Grendel wins, it will be a gruesome day;
he will glut himself on the Geats in the war-hall,
swoop without fear on that flower of manhood
as on others before. Then my face won't be there
to be covered in death: he will carry me away
as he goes to ground, gorged and bloodied;
he will run gloating with my raw corpse
and feed on it alone, in a cruel frenzy,
fouling his moor-nest. No need then
to lament for long or lay out my body:
if the battle takes me, send back
this breast-webbing that Weland fashioned
and Hrethel gave me, to Lord Hygelac.
Fate goes ever as fate must. (Beowulf, 440-455)

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The characters that are depicted as pagan in the poem seem to invoke
the Christian God: Like a man outlawed for wickedness, he must await the
mighty judgment of God in majesty (Beowulf, 977-79). And conversely, the
Christian poet appears to invoke the pagan wyrd: That final day was the first
time, when Beowulf fought and fate denied him glory in the battle (2573-75).
According to Staver, perhaps the word wyrd had come to mean a sense
of inevitability, but the decree of God put a face on it. While the pagan warriors
had known that wyrd was either for or against them, the Christian warrior could
comfort himself that a personal God looked down on him and controlled wyrd
itself (Staver 159). Hamilton also tries to reconcile these two different concepts,
saying that the Beowulf poet may have regarded fate as subordinate to the
Divine will, which would explain the poets frequent reference to Gods
protecting care of the Geats and Danes and his control of their fortunes
(Hamilton 326), as it is described when God grants Beowulf the victory over
Grendels mother: Holy God decided the victory (Beowulf, 1553-4) or when
God in special concern for the safety of the Danes provides them with Beowulf
to guard their hall against the giant:

The King of Glory

(as people learned) had posted a lookout
who was a match for Grendel, a guard against monsters,
special protection to the Danish prince. (Beowulf, 665-669)

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3.5 Warrior ethics and Christian morality

Another pagan elements that are striking in the poem lie also in the
realm of ethics and morality. The fundamental ethical code of the poem is
pagan: it is the warrior code of the aristocracy, celebrating loyalty, bravery and
great deeds managed in this world (Irving 124) and other pagan warrior values
such as taste for boasting, pride in loyalty, and a desire for fame. To a pagan
Germanic society of this era, boasting was not merely considered an important
part of one's character, but it validated one's character and abilities. To a
Christian, it would have been deemed as prideful but more importantly, sinful.
From this point of view, Beowulf is depicted as pagan: he takes pride for
his actions or uses boasting in order to secure his reputation. At the feast,
when a Dane named Unferth claims that Beowulf once lost a swimming match
against Breca and that he will sure meet with defeat for a second time as well
when he faces Grendel, Beowulf defends himself and makes excuses, saying
what the reason for his loss was:

Time and again, foul things attacked me,

lurking and stalking, but I lashed out,
gave as good as I got with my sword.
My flesh was not for feasting on. (Beowulf 559-62)
In addition to pride, the narrator stresses out Beowulfs obsession with
treasure and providing treasure to his people and condemns the Geats inability
to understand the transitory nature of worldly possessions and status (Moura).
According to Geat culture, the kings sole purpose was to shower [the people]

22

with gifts and armor (Beowulf, 2866). This system of a king offering tribute to
his people would, by Christian standards, be an absorption with transient
earthly possessions.
While Beowulf may well be brave and gentle king, who dies for his
people, he is, nevertheless, of all men the most eager for praise and keenest to
win fame (Beowulf, 3182), and his actions in the poem are always those of the
pagan Germanic chieftain rather than of the Christian Saviour (Moorman 6).
This is proved by his final wish is to see the treasure hoard he has won:

Go now quickly,
Dearest Wiglaf, under the grey stone
Where the dragon is laid out, lost to his treasure;
Hurry to feast your eyes on the hoard.
Away you go: I want to examine
That ancient gold, gaze my fill
On those garnered jewels; my going will be easier
For having seen the treasure (Beowulf, 2743-51)
One of the poems most important passages is the so-called sermon of
Hrothgar, in which Hrothgar, king of the Danes, responds to Beowulfs
announcement that he has managed to get rid the world of two monsters,
Grendel and Grendels mother, thus doing Gods work with Gods aid. Hrothgar
in his speech defines the characteristics of the ideal warrior-king in Anglo-Saxon
society and warns Beowulf against the transience of fame and life.
At this point in the poem, Beowulf returns to the hall of Hrothgar to
declare his deeds and to present to Hrothgar the hilt of a sword which he used
to kill Grendels mother. Upon this hilt is engraved a scene from the Hebrew
Bible showing Gods destruction of the race of giants :

23

Hrothgar spoke; he examined the hilt,

that relic of old times. It was engraved all over
and showed how war first came into the world
and the flood destroyed the tribe of giants.
They suffered a terrible severance from the Lord. (Beowulf 1687-91)
Beowulf proudly declares that his victory would have been impossible,
save for the grace of God. But as Bodek points out, it is important to remember
that Beowulf has only expressed pride in the deed arose from doing Gods work,
with Gods aid. His act of violence was meant to rid the world of Gods enemies
(Bodek 130). Yet Hrothgar, rather than praising the deity or thanking Beowulf,
decides to warn him about the dangers of power:

Heremod was different,

the way he behaved to Ecgwala's sons.
His rise in the world brought little joy
to the Danish people, only death and destruction.
He vented his rage on men he caroused with,
killed his own comrades, a pariah king
who cut himself off from his own kind,
even though Almighty God had made him
eminent and powerful and marked him from the start
for a happy life. But a change happened,
he grew bloodthirsty, gave no more rings
to honour the Danes. He suffered in the end
for having plagued his people for so long:
his life lost happiness. (Beowulf 1709-22)
Hrothgars response praises traditional Christian values in contrast with
Beowulfs pagan pride. These include the strongly held belief that ring-giving
and companionship without violence make for a happy life (Bodek 131).
Hrothgar specifically warns Beowulf not to give way to pride, and also
emphasizes to Beowulf that life is fleeting and that he should orient himself
24

toward eternal rewardsa supremely Christian idearather than worldly

success. Beowulf is asked to be careful about the fragility of life. We should all
remember that we are vulnerable to fate and death or we will suffer dire
consequences:

O flower of warriors, beware of that trap.

Choose, dear Beowulf, the better part,
eternal rewards. Do not give way to pride.
For a brief while your strength is in bloom
but it fades quickly; and soon there will follow
illness or the sword to lay you low,
or a sudden fire or surge of water
or jabbing blade or javelin from the air
or repellent age. Your piercing eye
will dim and darken; and death will arrive,
dear warrior, to sweep you away. (Beowulf 17581768)
Hrothgar also warns of placing importance on tribute as well while
describing a king whose possessions seem paltry to him now. / He covets and
resents (lines 1749-1750).
Finally, Hrothgar's sermon is important to the structure of the poem as a
whole, because it sets the standards by which the audience will further judge
an older and more mature Beowulf (Bramante).

25

4 Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde

Troilus and Criseyde is a poem by Geoffrey Chaucer set inside Troy

during the Trojan War. Chaucer took the story over from Boccaccio's Il

Filostrato, making some changes to characters, lengthening the story, and

vastly improving it.
It begins with the news that the prophet Calkas (Criseyde's father),
foreseeing the end of Troy, has left the city to join the Greek camp. Hector
reassures Criseyde that she will be respected, despite her father's act. In April
the people of Troy celebrate the Palladium festival and go to the temples. In a
temple, Criseyde catches the eye of Troilus, a man who had been previously
shown mocking love, and Troilus soon falls in love. With the help of Criseydes
uncle Pandarus he wins her love but soon they are parted, when Calkas,
Criseyde's father , persuades the Greeks to exchange their prisoner for Criseyde
and thus saves her from Troy.
Although Criseyde promises Troilus that shell return to him, on the tenth
day after leaving Troy she meets Diomede, accepts him as her lover and
decides to stay. While Troilus and Pandarus still wait for Criseyde's return,
Troilus slowly realizes that she will not come back. Finally, when he finds on the
captured coat of Diomede his own brooch that he had given her, he gets angry
for he knows she is no longer to be trusted, yet he is disappointed at the same
time, because he is still in love with her.

26

Heartbroken, he tries to find Diomedes and take his revenge during

battle but he is killed by Achilles. As his spirit goes to heaven he condems the
pagan rites and prays that to be worthy of Christ's mercy.

27

4.1 Perception of Greek paganism in Troilus

Just like Beowulf poet, who was probably a Christian, Chaucer was a
poet whose mind and attitudes were shaped by Christian culture and learning
as well. His poems generally display fourteenth-century attitudes, prejudices
and ideals. This fact has an influence on the poems structure and its ending. In
the comments of narrator of Troilus we can find Christian allusions and
phraseology, but the setting and the characters are pagan. Chaucer was aware
of the essential differences between the pagan past and the Christian present,
and to some extent he tried to avoid imposing modern criteria and
classifications on ancient experience, striving to present it with historical
plausibility. According to Minnis, in keeping with the standard contrast between
the pagan world under natural law and the Christian world under grace, he
writes with a large measure of consistency (Minnis 21).
Paganism as it is depicted in Troilus was similar to Anglo-Saxon
paganism. Pagan refers in the same way to heathen conceptions of the gods, a
type of knowledge vastly inferior to Christian theology which had as its subject
the one true God. The pagan Greeks cherished life and believed in living it to
the fullest degree, since death was an inevitable fact (Weigel 41). Idolatry and
polytheism were supposed to have been propagated by the forces of evil and
therefore it was a major target for medieval attacks on false notion of deity.
In Troilus and Criseyde Chaucer created his historical setting and
characterized his pagans with the latest information available to him in the most
infuential encyclopedias, history books, mythographies and theological treatises
28

of the day. When no information was available, he improvised by converting

Christian beliefs and modern mores into their pagan equivalents (Minnis 21).
Therefore it can be said that Troilus and Criseyde present a
comprehensive and consistent picture of the heathen past which matches the
notions about pagans current in fourteenth-century England, rather than an
accurate description of Greek paganism. This fourteenth-century picture of a
heathen past is in Troilus represented by pagan philosophies concerning with
fate, fortune, predestination and the freedom of the will.

29

4.2 Pagan and Christian allusions

At first sight it may seem that Troilus is simply about the pagans in a
pagan world, planet-determined destiny and an afterlife among pagan
planetary-deities spheres. The characters are pre-Christian pagans, living in a
historical Trojan world which worshipped the classical pantheon and were
subject only to natural law, not the Christian law.
There are many pagan references present including the gods, myths,
and legends of Greco-Roman pagan lore. When predicting fall of Troy, Calkas is
portrayed as a pagan astrologer and fatalist. When Troilus first sees Criseyde, it
is in a pagan temple of Pallas Athena during the service of an idol. Furthermore,
the pagans are depicted observing the rites of their heathen religion:

The men of Troy gave up no ancient rite

Due to their gods; they were indeed devout,
And their most sacred relic, beyond doubt,
Highest in honour, was named, as I recall,
Palladion, which they trusted above all. (Troilus, I, 150-4)
The poem is also imbued with astrological material, which was
associated with pagan gods. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter/Jove and Saturn
were classical deities appearing in Troilus and are involved in specifically
astrological passages :

And if it chanced the hour of my birth

Was governed by unfavourable stars,
If thou wert quenched, O Venus full of mirth,
By Saturn, or obstructed by fell Mars,
O pray thy Father to avert such jars
And give me joy, by him that in the grove,
Boar-slain Adonis, tasted of thy love. (Troilus, III, 915-21)
30

It is important to remember that Chaucer wrote his texts to be oriented

on a medieval audience, therefore the story of ancient Trojans must be seen in
a medieval light. This is also the reason why Christian and pagan elements are
blended; Christian allusions and colloquial language was supposed to close the
distance between the audience and the historic content of the poem.
Thus in spite of the historical, ancient and pagan setting of Troilus and

Criseyde, the poem has enormous amounts of Christian allusion and material as
well. This can be divided into 3 categories.
One Christian manifestation in the poem is its colloquial language,
religious phraseology, references to Christian practice and beliefs. These
includes hundreds of colloquial religious exclamations: in phrases such as
Criseydes Lord, how you stare! Answer me, yes or no! (Troilus, II, 276),
Pandaruss By God, Ill tell you this, for what its worth / Thered be no prouder
woman on the earth (II, 137-8). O mercy God is another expression used by
protagonists in the poem, for example Troiluss Merciful God! O where he said,
confounded, / Have you been hiding, lovely to my eyes? when he first sees
Criseyde (I, 276).
The second category of Christian allusions suggests such concepts as
Gods love, grace, bliss, creatorship. These colloquial uses of God involve
expressions that imply at the Christian Gods attributes and suggest Gods
power and authority, such as Troiluss oath to Pandarus Nevertheless I swear,
and by that Lord / Who as He pleases governs all whatever (III, 372-3).
These expressions not only name God (Lord), but also ascribe power to Him,
refering to His might and ability, and thus suggesting a real and powerful Deity

31

to some greater extent than the expressions of the first category. Gods
creatorship is also mentioned when Troilus swears his fidelity to Criseyde with
As God, from whom no secret can be hidden, / May give me joy, since first you
caught my eye (IV, 1653-4) or when Pandarus swears For, by the Lord that
made the east and west (II, 1053) in hopes to bring Troilus an answer to his
letter from Criseyde.
Last kind of expression that allude to God are expressions that actually
invoke Him. These can be found when Troilus says If there is no love, O God!
What am I feeling? (I, 400).

32

4.3 Fatalism and predestination

The poem concerns with such theological issues as free will versus
fatalism or changeability. Furthermore, the possibility of resisting temptation,
which is related to the idea of Troilus and Criseyde being tempted to love
each other, involves another concern of Christian readings of free will. Despite
poems many fatalistic elements, its characters are carefully depicted making
choices. This is compared with an important pagan practice of making
predictions, in particular predictions concerning the destinies of individuals from
the configuration of the stars at their births (Minnis 46). These predictions have
considerable bearing of fatalistic philosophy in Troilus and Criseyde.
According to the doctrine of Predestination, the freedom and
responsibility of man are fully preserved (Alone). Christians share the conviction
that there is no such thing as mere chance, that fortune in the sense of an
arbitrary force simply does not exist. However, this is put in contrast right at
the beginning of the fourth book in a proem on Fortune, addressed to Mars and
the three Furies:

How short a time, lament it as we may,

Such joy continues under Fortunes rule,
She that seems truest when about to slay,
And tunes her song, beguiling to a fool,
To bind and bind and make of him her tool,
The common traitress! From her wheel she throws
Him down, and laughs at him with mops and mows. (Troilus, IV, 1-7)

33

Chaucers characters clearly believe that their fate is determined by the

stars or predictions and that they cannot decide anything themselves. When
Pandarus persuades Troilus to reveal what lady he loves and offers him his
help in book I, Troilus replies that he cannot be helped because he believes
fortune is his foe:

For-well I know it Fortune is my foe;

Not one of all the men that come and go
On earth can set at naught her cruel wheel;
She plays with us and there is no appeal (Troilus, I, 837-840)
When Criseyde has been forced to leave Troy, Troilus starts believing
that his death has been revealed to him by dreams and augury of birds. He
becomes convinced of the inevitability of his death, not only because of the
lovesickness caused by the absence of Criseyde, but mainly on account of these
dreams of death:
I know it from my malady, and by
My present dreams and some from long ago,
That I am certainly about to die.
Besides, the own they call Escaphilo
These two nights past has shrieked for me, and so
I pray for Mercury, if he please, to fetch
This soul of mine and guide a sorrowful wretch! (Troilus, V, 316-27)
Later, he dreams of Criseyde kissing a boar:
And then, one evening, he lay down to sleep;
It happened so that in his sleep he thought
He had gone out into the woods to weep
For her and for the grief that she had brought,
And up and down the forest as he sought
His way, he came upon a tusky boar
Asleep upon the sunny forest floor.
And close behind it, with her arms enfolding,
And ever kissing it, he saw Criseyde. (Troilus, V, 1233-1241)
34

Cassandra, his sister, interprets the dream of the boar correctly, saying in
context of the old tales concerning fortune that his passion for Criseyde will
result in a destruction of Troy (Troilus, V, 1506-10). Troilus accepts the idea of
fatalism that is embedded in the pagan society: if he is slow to act, this is
because he cannot believe in the effectiveness of human action. At first, he is
enraged by his sisters prophecy and does not believe her; eventually he
becomes convinced that his hope is lost and Criseyde can no longer be trusted.
At this point it is necessary to say that in time when Chaucer wrote

Troilus, fatalism was in a society understood in a negative way, since the

doctrine of it was anathema to Christian theologues because it excluded the
possibility of free will and, to some extent, moral accountability. As Cook says,
the conviction that things happen at random and that there is not necessarily
any reward for good or punishment for bad behaviour is a doctrine that
stresses a terrifying lack of control over the forces that shape ones fates.
Equally disturbing is the prospect of living at the mercy of the classical gods, for
these pagan deities are profoundly fickle (Cook 35). This is probably why
Chaucer decided to adapt fatalism to more Christian point of view.
The notion of fate can be accepted by a Christian if it is reduced to the
decrees of the one true God. Whereas Chaucers pagans believe they are fated,
he himself believes in their free will. As Shanley claims, the story does not
depend on destined events alone, nor is the final unhappiness of either owing
only to fate (Shanley 275). The pagans regard their supposed destinies as
necessary facts; the Christians regard them as conditional facts. By being so
utterly convinced that their actions are fated, the pagans determine their
35

actions themselves (Minnis 71). This is more obvious in Criseydes free decision
to love Troilus. After she watches his return from battle, we are told that:

And also blissful Venus, Well arrayed,

Sat in her seventh house in heaven, and so
Was well disposed, with other stars in aid,
To cure the foolish Troilus of his woe;
And, to tell truth, she was not wholly foe
To Troilus in his naivity,
But somewhat favoured him, the luckier he. (Troilus, II, 680-6)
The pagans in Troilus may believe that they are determined by the stars,
but the narrator clearly believes that men can freely accept or reject astral
influences and temptations. This can be also seen in the moment when Troilus
won the love of Criseyde:

Her love, I do not say she suddenly

Gave it to him; but she began to incline
To like him first, and I have told you why.
His manhood and the thought that he would pine
On her account invited love to mine
Within her; but long service and devotion
Got him her love; it was no sudden motion. (Troilus, II, 673-9)
Here it is obvious that Criseyde took her time with falling in life with Troilus and
used her free-will; the stars nor any prediction did not force her to do anything.
Although it is not expressed explicitly, Chaucer managed to portray his
characters as free to choose what they wish, and as they choose they
determine their lot. When Criseyde is untrue to Troilus, although sorrowful, she
acts deliberately as well.

36

In the parallel to Beowulf, where the pagan wyrd was regarded as

subordinate to the Gods free will, the same thing is emphasized in Troilus. The
fortune and the stars are mere secondary causes subject to the controlling first
cause, God:

O heavenly influences in the sky!

Truth is you are our hersmen and our grooms,
And we your cattle, though we question why,
And think your reasoning has gone awry;
So with Criseyde, I mean: against her will,
The gods had their own purpose to fulfill. (Troilus, III, 618-23)

37

4.4 Human love versus Gods love

The most serious narratorial statement occurs towards the end of Book
V: Thus goes the world; God shield us from mischance, / And all that mean
true dealing, God advance! (Troilus, V, 1434-5), and Such is the world for
those who can behold / The way it goes; theres little of hearts rest; / God
grant we learn to take it for the best. (V, 1748-50), which both lead to
epilogue.
The ending of Troilus raises the question, whether the poems loyalties
lie finally with the earthly pagan life to which the most of the poem is dedicated,
or with the Christian values represented in the closing stanzas. Until the last
moments of the poem, Troilus represents a story about natural human love of
romance and earthly pleasures and this human love affair is praised throughout
the whole poem; the allusions to God have almost no significance. However, in
the end the affair fails. All joy has eventually failed, only heartbreak is left, and
nothing further can be done to remedy the situation. And finally, in the last
moments this human love is placed in context of a higher love, the love of God.
It is already obvious in a book IV that Troilus slowly becomes aware of
the fact of predestination:
Since all that comes, comes by necessity,
Thus to be lost is but my destiny. (Troilus, IV, 958)
According to Bloomfield, this indication that Troilus believes in predestination
represents a stage in Troilus approach to Chaucer (Bloomfield 25) and and it is
at this point when the distance between the narrator and Troilus starts to
disappear.
38

At the end of Book V Chaucer identifies himself completely with Troilus

expressing explicitly his Christian beliefs. After Troilus death, when Troilus
approaches the stars, looks back on the earth and laughs, his tragedy becomes
comedy. In this tale, tragedy is human and comedy is divine: whereas the
earthly pagan perspective is fixed upon the linear vicissitudes of fortune, the
divine perspective can comprehend in a single view both the present state and
the final outcome (Martin 176).
The epilog hence endorses Christianity over human love, contrasting the
enduring love of Christ with the fickle passion of the pagan Criseyde and
continues with praising God:

And give your love to Him who, for pure love,

Upon a cross first died that He might pay
Our debt, and rose, and sits in Heaven above;
He will be false to no one that will lay
His heart wholly on Him, I dare say.
Since He is best to love, and the most meek,
What need is there a feigning love to seek? (Troilus, V, 1842-8)
The narrator of the Troilus in fact concludes his tale by even condemning
paganism:

Behold these old accused pagan rites!

Behold how much their gords are worth to you!
Behold these wretched worldly appetites! (Troilus, V, 1849-51)
This connection between pagan rites and earthly appetites expresses the longstanding medieval belief about pagans and their interest in worldly pleasures.
Chaucer therefore manages to describe a generally critical view of classical

39

antiquity that was common in the fourteenth century. As Cook adds, he

apparently feels it important to warn readers of the anti-Christian values that
taint the old pagan stories. This judgement implies that in Troilus, Chaucers
lovers should serve as an object lesson for what happens to those who choose
to indulge in, rather than eschew, both the pleasures of the flesh and the
pleasures of the traffic with certain pagan attitudes and ideas (Cook 26).
Chaucers blending of Christian and human love depicts that human
passion is irreconcilable with love of God and the epilog finally ends with a
prayer to the Trinity:

Thou One and Two and Three and Never-ending,

That reignest ever in Three and Two and One,
Incomprehensible, all-comprehending,
From visible foes, and the invisible one,
Defend us all! And Jesu, Marys Son,
Make us in mercy worthy to be thine,
For love of her, mother and maid benign!
Amen. (Troilus, V, 1863-1869)

40

5 Conclusion

Although both of these poems were created at different times, by

different authors and in terms of storyline have nothing in common, a
comparison can be made. In each of them, the writer has used an outworn
legend for a topical purpose.
Furthermore, they both manifest character development of main
protagonists. In Beowulf this fact in particular is visible in maturing of main
character, Beowulf, who was at the beginning in a swimming contest with Breca
depicted as a prideful and boastful young man, to his death as a wise old king.
We are informed that he had been even despised as a coward and a weakling:
He had been poorly regarded
for a long time, was taken by the Geats
for less than he was worth: and their lord too
had never much esteemed him in the mead-hall.
They firmly believed that he lacked force,
that the prince was a weakling; but presently
every affront to his deserving was reversed. (Beowulf, 2183-89)
But as a mature man (and as a result of Hrothgars speech) things have altered
for him. We learn that he had heeded Hrothgars warning and has managed to
rule with wisdom, generosity, and justice.
Before his religious transformation, Troilus is cynical and indifferent to
love, despising and disrespecting the Christian ideals. But after Criseyde betrays
him, he goes through intense sufferings: throwing himself into the fight, he is
killed by Achilles. During his lifetime, there was nothing that would change him,
41

but after his death, he condemds sinful life that he has led before and turns to
God. When he is in the eight sphere he laughs out loud, by contrast with those
who are mourning him below (Manzalaoui 149). Christ is contrasted in fairly
explicit terms to wordly objects of love such as Criseyde. With that Chaucer
seems to be saying that one will find that the only person worthy of such love is
God:

And give your love to Him who, for pure love,

Upon a cross first died that He might pay
Our debt, and rose, and sits in Heaven above;
He will be false to no one that will lay
His heart wholly on Him, I dare to say.
Since He is best to love, and the most meek,
What need is there a feigning love to seek? (Troilus, V, 1842-8)
Both poems are influenced by poets attitude to religion. In Beowulf it is
obvious that the poet was familiar with Christianity and possibly was a cleric.
Due to the fact that at that time Christianity seized control over the society and
condemned paganism at the same time, it is just possible that he simply
intended to create for his audience a picture of life as he imagined it to have
been in pre-Christian times and convey a Christian message at the same time.
Centuries later, in a retelling of the story of Troilus and Criseyde, Chaucer
introduced pagan gods and rites but made almost no effort to depict the
behaviour of his two protagonists othen than as members of a society of that
time recognizable as medieval. As Wentersdorf explains, it would therefore be
safer to proceed on the assumption that the Beowulf poet, writing in or close to
the eighth century, approached his task similarly and developed his version of
the ancient Germanic legends in the social idiom of his own day, creating an
42

atmosphere and a way of life that would have been familiar to his audience
(Wentersdorf 91).
Finally, a very similar narrative method is used in both poems . In Troilus
the reader, lacking the proper background, is not certain about the essence of
the poem until he reaches the epilogue, which with the praise of God clarifies
how to make sense of everything that has been said in the poem before. And in
the same way (like the epilogue in Troilus) functions Hrothgars sermon in

Beowulf not only to emphasize Christian values in the middle of the pagan
poem, but also to assure us that Beowulf is fabulous tale belonging to a world
past and gone and to keep reality in focus with legendary events of the story
(Goldsmith 81). The only difference between these two is that sermon in

Beowulf is not placed at the end of the work.

Although the poems do not depict a real pagan society or true pagan
characters, it does not mean that they are uninformative or valueless. They
both perfectly depict the atmosphere and conceptions of a medieval society and
last but not least they are both exquisite literary works.

43

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Czech Resume
Tato prce analyzuje nboensk konflikty v bsnch Beowulf a Troilus a

Kriseida od Geoffreyho Chaucera. Ob tyto bsn se odehrvaj v pohanskm

prosted, ale byly napsny autory, kte pochzeli nebo byli siln ovlivnni
kesanskou spolenost. Pestoe nemaj spolenho autora a odehrvaj se
v rozdlnch asovch obdobch, maj obdobn pozad vzniku a obsahuj
podobn nboensk konflikty.

Beowulf je hrdinsk epos, kter vznikl kolem 8. stolet, kdy spolenost

pestoupila z pohanstv na kesanskou vru, a proto v nm meme nalzt
prvky obou tchto nboenstv.
Chaucerova bse Troilus a Kriseida byla napsna na konci 14. stolet a
popisuje milostn pbh dvou lid v obdob Trjsk vlky. I pes pohansk
pbh v antickm prosted se Chaucerovi podailo vytvoit spe vyprvn
s kesanskm podtextem, ne znzornn tehdej opravdov pohansk
spolenosti.

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English Resume
This thesis analyzes religious conflicts in two poems, Beowulf and
Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde, which are both set in pagan environment, but
written by poets, who were influenced by a Christian society. Although both
composed at different time by different authors and taking place in a different
period of time, they have similar background and contain comparable religious
conflicts and narrative patterns.

Beowulf was written sometime in the 8th century, which was the time
when the society was in the process of conversion from paganism to
Christianity. Therefore, the story contains elements of both of these religions,
and these elements also affect setting of the story and its characters.
Chaucers Troilus and Criseyde, written early in the final quarter of the
14th century, depicts a tragic story of lovers Troilus and Criseyde set in the
period of ancient Troy and Trojan War. In spite of the ancient setting and
pagan characters, Chaucer ended up writing a story that had a Christian
overtone, rather than depicting a real image of pagan society of that time.

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