Line Coding

What is Line coding?

Why it is required ?
Different forms of representing binary data
Why line Coding
Digital data transmitted through a bandlimited
channel
Dispersion in the channel causes overlap in time
between successive symbols
This form of distortion Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
Adverse affect on the quality of reception
Hence shaping the binary data required
What is Line coding ?
Method of converting binary sequence into digital signal
Selection of line coding technique depends basically
-to maximize the bit rate in a given channel
-to recover synchronous information (bit timings)
from the received signal ( LANs)
-reduced power of transmission
- to reduce dc component
Line Coding Techniques

Unipolar Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)

Polar NRZ
NRZ inverted
Bipolar encoding
Manchester encoding
Differential Manchester encoding
Line Coding
Unipolar
Polar Ex : NRZ, RZ, Manchester, Differential
Manchester
Bipolar

Polar encoding
Two Voltage levels
One +ve voltage
One ve voltage
Average or dc component is reduced
Ex : NRZ, RZ, Manchester, Differential Manchester

RZ Contd
Advantage:most effective encoding
Disadvantage:Requires two signal changes to encode one bit
Hence occupies more bandwidth

Manchester encoding
Instead of high equaling 1 and low equaling 0 a timing interval
is used to measure high or low transition
Uses inversion at the middle of each bit interval
- provides synchronization
- bit representation

Manchester encoding-contd

Achieves same level of synchronization as RZ

Requires only two level of amplitudes
Advantages :Error recovery if part of the signal clipped or
distorted still intelligence is available for timing
recovery
Signal is falling or raising
Differential Manchester
encoding
Similar to Manchester encoding
- each bit period is partitioned into two intervals
-Transitions are functions of previous bit period
- transitions means binary 0
- no transitions means binary 1
Requires two signal changes to represent 0 but only
one to represent 1
A low-to-high transition could be 0 or 1 depending on
the value of previous bit period

Digital Modulations
What is Digital Modulation ?
What is the difference between line coding
& Digital modulations ?
Analog modulation versus Digital
modulation
Different types of digital modulation
schemes

What is digital modulation-contd

Modulation is the process by which some characteristic
of a carrier is varied in accordance with a modulating
wave Basically is a keying operation here

Modulation process involves switching or keying

the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier

in accordance with the in coming data

Digital Data, Analog Signal

Public telephone system

300Hz to 3400Hz
Used in modem (modulator-demodulator)
-device that carries out operation in these frequency
range
Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Frequency shift keying (FSK)
Phase shift keying (PSK)
Goals of Digital modulation
Maximum data rate
Minimum probability of error
Minimum transmitted power
Minimum channel bandwidth
Maximum resistance to interfering signals
Minimum hardware complexity

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Values represented by different amplitudes of
carrier

 presence of a carrier binary 1

absence of carrier is binary 0

Sinusoidal signal is turned ON & OFF according
input data- Modulator
Demodulator only to determine presence or
absence of carrier

ASK-contd
Amplitude is susceptible to sudden changes
Bit rate = baud rate ( bit rate=number of bits/ sec
: Baud rate = number of signal units /sec )
BW= bit rate
Inefficient
Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
Used over optical fiber
Example:
Bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, what are the Baud rate & bit rate?
for ASK Baud rate=bit rate
Bit rate =5000bps
Baud rate = 5000
Binary Frequency
Shift Keying (BFSK or FSK)
Most common form is binary FSK (BFSK)
Two binary values represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
Both amplitude & phase remains constant
cos(2f1 t) refers to binary 1 where f1= fc - a
cos(2f2 t ) refers to binary 0 where f2 = fc+ a

FSK-contd

 BW= bit rate + (f1 - f2 )

Less susceptible to error than ASK
Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
High frequency radio
Even on LANs using co-axial cable
Example:
FSK signal transmitting at 2000bps transmission half duplex ,
carrier separation is 3000Hz Find Minimum BW ?
BW= bit rate + (f1- f2)=2000+3000 = 5000Hz
Multiple FSK
More than two frequencies used
More bandwidth efficient
More prone to error
Each signalling element represents more than
one bit
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent
data
Binary PSK modulates the carrier phase
depending on the information bit

cos(2fc t + b(t) ) b(t) =`

Binary PSK
Two phases represent two binary digits
cos(2fc t) refers to binary 1
cos(2fc t + )=-cos(2fc t) refers to binary 0
PSK - contd
Equivalent to sinusoids by multiplying with +1 for
binary 1
Equivalent to sinusoids by multiplying with -1 for
binary 0
Demodulator to detect the phase with respect
some reference phase

Quadrature PSK
More efficient use by each signal element
representing more than one bit
e.g. shifts of /2 (90o)
Each element represents two bits
Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one
amplitude
9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have
two amplitudes
Offset QPSK (orthogonal QPSK)
Delay in Q stream

Performance of Digital to Analog

Modulation Schemes
Bandwidth
ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit rate
FSK bandwidth related to data rate for lower frequencies, but to offset of
modulated frequency from carrier at high frequencies
(See Stallings for math)

 In the presence of noise, bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB
superior to ASK and FSK
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some wireless
Combination of ASK and PSK
Logical extension of QPSK
Send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency
Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90
Each carrier is ASK modulated
Two independent signals over same medium
Demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Levels
Two level ASK
Each of two streams in one of two states
Four state system
Essentially QPSK
Four level ASK
Combined stream in one of 16 states
64 and 256 state systems have been
implemented
Improved data rate for given bandwidth
Increased potential error rate

PSK - contd
Equivalent to sinusoids by multiplying with +1 for
binary 1
Equivalent to sinusoids by multiplying with -1 for
binary 0
Demodulator to detect the phase with respect
some reference phase

QPSK (quadrature PSK)

More efficient use by each signal element representing
more than one bit
e.g. shifts of /2 (90o)
Each element represents two bits
--Collect two bits & pick on of four phase values

 Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one

amplitude
9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have
two amplitudes

Note :
Nyquist signaling rate for a LP Channel of Bandwidth W
Hz, the maximum signaling rate is 2W pulse/sec

. For PSK we can transmit only W pulse / Sec over Band pass
channel that has a Band width of W Time /bit is T=1/W
PSK attains half the signaling rate of LP Case QAM is used to recover the factor
2

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)

Combination of ASK and PSK
Maximum Contrast between each signal unit(bit,dibit,tribit and son on) is
achieved
Simultaneous modulation of the amplitude and phase of a carrier signal
Symbols are generated at a rate = W Symbols/Sec
QAM Levels
Two level ASK
Each of two streams in one of two states
Four state system
Essentially QPSK
Four level ASK
Combined stream in one of 16 states
64 and 256 state systems have been
implemented
Improved data rate for given bandwidth

 Increased potential error rate

QAM- contd
Send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90
Each carrier is ASK modulated
Two independent signals over same medium
Demodulate and combine for original binary output

Performance of Digital to Analog

Modulation Schemes
Bandwidth

 ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit

rate
FSK bandwidth related to data rate for lower
frequencies, but to offset of modulated
frequency from carrier at high frequencies
In the presence of noise, bit error rate of
PSK and QPSK are about 3dB superior to
ASK and FSK

Signalling constellations & Telephone Modem

standards
Signal Constellation diagrams used in signaling
standards
used over telephone lines
data communication over telephone channels
BW = 2900 500 = 2400Hz
W = 2400 Hz
Signalling rate 1/T = W = 2400 Pulse/Sec

Trellis coded modulation (TCM)

Modified version of QAM
Incorporates extra bits for for error correction
combine error correction coding with modulation
number of constellation points is 2m+1

 after every T Seconds, it accepts m bits and generates

m+1 bits for constellation points
Example :
Trellis - 32 system:
25 Constellation points of which 16 are valid at any given time
Bit rate = 4 X 2400 = 9600bps
Similarly
Trellis 128 system : bit rate 6 X 2400 = 14,400 bps
TCM Contd
only 2m out of 2m+1 possible constellation points are
valid at a given interval
Redundancy improves robustness of modulation
scheme with respect to error

Modems
Stands for modulator/ demodulators
Modulators Digital signal to analog signal ASK,FSK,PSK ..
Demodulators Analog signal into digital signal
- > Sending End
Modem transforms a computer Signal into analog form
Analog signal carried across a standard telephone line
> Receiving Side
it converts the transmitted analog signal from telephone line to digital form
before passing into computer

Wireless media
For medium with obstruction n>2
Alfa = nlog10 d dB Signal level can be maintained over distance

Twisted Pair
Two wires twisted together ?
Reduces interference
Reduce cross talk
Passes wide range of frequencies
Alfa 1 to 4db/mile at 1 khz
10 to 20 db/mile at 500khz
UTP is used in telephone network
Application
Digital Subscriber loops (DSL)
LAN
Description of twisted pair Cable categories
Category 1 Voice transmission, not suitable for data
transmission
Category 2 Voice & low speed data transmission capacity up to
4 mbps
Category 3 Data & voice transmission rated at1 0 mhz, used in
ethernet , Fast Ethernet , Trunking <16 MBPS

2. Co-axial Cable
A solid center conductor is coaxially located with a cylindrical outer conductor
Two conductors are separated by insulator
Provides better immunity over interference & crosstalk Provides higher
BW(>MHZ) Ex Cable TV System uses a BW of 500 MHZ

Applications
1) Cable TV Distribution
54 - 500 MHZ
Analog TV signal occupies 6 MHZ band
50 to 70 Channels
Unidirectional
2) Ethernet LAN
10 Base 5 - > 10 Mbps Maximum lengths of 500 meters

10 Base 2 - > Thin Co-axial Cable ( 5mm)

10 mbps, maximum length 200 meters
3. Optical Fiber
Greater advantages over copper based digital transmission system
Greater reduction in cost
Reduces space requirement
High transmission rate
Structure
Very fine cylinder of glass ( core)
Surounded by a concentric layer of glass

Information in the form of beam of light travels through the core

Refractive index of core is higher than Cladding
Refractive index of core/refractive index of cladding=> critical angle
Qc
Attenuation is 0.2db/km
Wave length 850nm,1300nm,1550nm
Bit rate gigabits/Sec

Trellis Coded Modulation (TCM)

Modified version of QAM
Incorporates extra bits for error correction
combine error correction coding with modulation

 number of constellation points is 2m+1

after every T Seconds, it accepts m bits and generates
m+1 bits for constellation points
Example :
Trellis - 32 system:
25 Constellation points of which 16 are valid at any given time
Bit rate = 4 X 2400 = 9600bps
Similarly
Trellis 128 system : bit rate 6 X 2400 = 14,400 bps
TCM Contd
only 2m out of 2m+1 possible constellation points are
valid at a given interval
Redundancy improves robustness of modulation
scheme with respect to error
MODEMS (Modulator-Demodulator)
Stands for modulator/ demodulators
Modulators Digital signal to analog signal
ASK,FSK,PSK ..
Demodulators Analog signal into digital signal
Sending End
Modem transforms a computer Signal into analog form
Analog signal carried across a standard telephone line

Communication system

 Transmits information by modulating a

sinusoidal signal of frequency fo
Signal propagates in a guided medium or free
space
Sinusoidal variation of modulated signal
propagates in a medium

Description of twisted pair Cable categories

Category 1 Voice transmission, not suitable for data

transmission
Category 2 Voice & low speed data transmission capacity
up to 4 Mbps
Category 3 Data & voice transmission, rated at 10 MHz,
uses-ethernet , Fast Ethernet , Token ring
<16Mbps
Category 5 100 Mbps
Application:
Digital Subscriber loops (DSL)
LAN

Ethernet LAN Standard wires

10 Base T 10 Mbps operated using base band
transmission over twisted pair, Max length 100m
100 Base T 100 Mbps using Twisted pair wire
Base band network transmits digital signals directly
without modulation
-Capable of transmitting only a single stream of data
-Use entire bandwidth to carry a single signal

Co-axial Cable-contd
Applications
1) Cable TV Distribution
54 - 500 MHz
Analog TV signal occupies 6 MHz band
50 to 70 Channels
Unidirectional
2) Ethernet LAN
10 Base 5 - > 10 Mbps Maximum lengths of 500 meters
10 Base 2 - > Thin Co-axial Cable ( 5mm),10 Mbps, maximum
length 200 meters
3. Optical Fiber
Greater advantages over copper based digital
transmission system
Greater reduction in cost (usage of repeater is reduced)
Reduces space requirement
High transmission rate-single optical fiber carry higher rate
than copper system
Do not radiate significant energy, interference from
external sources, crosstalk

Error Correcting Codes

Parity check bit Scheme
Forward Error Correcting Codes
Block codes
Convolutional codes
Detail study of Block codes
Error Detection & correction
Data corruption due to noise in the channel
For reliable transmission error to be detected and
corrected
Uses encoding & Decoding
Tolerable BER 10-6 for copper wire line
10-9 for optical fiber system
10-3 for wireless system

Digital Transmission Fundamentals

Contents
Digital representation of information
Properties of Media
Need for digital communication
Characterization of communication
channels
Line coding
Digital Transmission Fundamentals
Contents contd
Modems and digital modulation
Error Detection & Correction

Digital Representation of Information

Transport of Information over Network
Types of Information-text
-speech
-audio
-data
-images,
-video
Basic Terminology
Signal-Analog signal-continuous in
time & Value
e.g. audio (human speech)
or video.
-Digital Signal-discrete in
time & value

Analog versus Digital

In digital communication, it is often possible to reconstruct
the original signal even after it has been effected by noise

Analog transmission
analog waveform transmission
Time & amplitude to be exactly
reproduced
Cost of transmission line is
high as distance increases
-eg-pair of copper wire
Attenuation/distortion is more
Requires repearters
Digital transmission
Symbols are transmitted
Receiver to find symbols with
probability
Cost of transmission line is
less-eg pair of copper wires
Attenuation/distortion tolerable
Requires digital repeaters

Digital Representation of Information contd

Digital transmission
system
Physical layer
_Lowest Layer of OSI Model
_Physical Layer on the Local Node
Process Raw Data Stream
_Translate Frames received from Data
Link Layer into Electrical, Optical or EM
Waves representing 0 or 1
_Local Physical Layer Transmits Bits
sequence through network medium
_provides pipes to carry information flow
across network

Terminologies
Serial Transmission
Parallel transmission
Simplex modes of transmission
Duplex modes of operations
Half duplex modes of operations
Terminology contd
Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission
Spectrum of signal
Serial Transmission

Data Transmission Method

Bit Representing a Character of Data Transmitted in sequence
One Bit at a time over a single communication channel
Speed is limited to speed of the line
One channel transmits one bit at a time
Its simple
Difficult to identify beginning and end of character
Examples
Terminal to System communication
Phone line to data transfer
High speed fiber optic lines
Parallel transmission

Simultaneous Transmission
Each bit on separate channel
All the bit representing a character
Transmits group of bits at one time
No. of bits varies from device to device
Transmission is quick
Requires complex communication link (Multi wire copper cable)
Longer Cable more degradation
Limited in length (few meters)
Examples

Connecting peripheral devices

Simplex modes of transmission

Simple method of communication

Data flows in only one direction
One device is sender and other receiver
Roles may be reversed
Example
TV Transmission (Broadcast)

Full duplex modes of transmission

Desirable in practice
Requires each side to have their own transmitter and Receiver
Transmitter on side is connected to receiver on other
Separate wires needed to carry current in each direction
Common ground wire
Link allows simultaneous sending and receiving data on both direction
DB-9,DB-15 or DB-25 connector

Half duplex modes of transmission

Half duplex modes of transmission

Data may flow either direction

But only one device can send at any time
Example
Walkie Talkie
Information categories
Block Information-data files-pictures
containing text, numerals, graphics
Stream Information-voice-music-videosteady
information stream produced
Information categories
Block Information data files-pictures containing text,
numerals, graphics
Stream Information voice-music-video-steady information
stream produced

Basic Transmission System

Certain Definitions
Baud rate
Bit rate
Bandwidth
Delay
jitter

Baud Rate
Baud is a unit of signaling speed or transmission
speed
It is a number discrete changes in a single period of
a signal
Example:
Communication channel transmitted at 300 Baud
-Means signaling rate of the channel is changing 300

times per second

Thus not correspond to number of bits transmitted
per second
Baud rate is different from data rate no confusion !

Bit Rate
Bit Interval-Time required to send one single bit
Bit rate is the number of bit intervals / second
It is number of bits sent in one second (bps)
Example 1: Bit rate 2000bps
Duration of each bit = 1/bit rate= 1/2000= 500s
Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of signal
units per second. Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
Bit rate = 1/10ms=0.1 kbps

Bit rate and Baud Rate Calculations

An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If
1000 signal units are sent per second, find the baud
rate and the bit rate
Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second
(baud/s)
Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps

Bandwidth
In Analog Communication
Total capacity of communication Channel
Range frequencies medium pass without loosing
one half of the power contained in signal
Difference between highest and lowest
frequencies that medium can satisfactorily pass
Greater bandwidth most signal can carried over
given frequency range
Example:
Voice grate lines frequencies 300 Hz to 3300 Hz
BW = 3300-300=3000 Hz
But ITU regulation voice bandwidth 4kHz
Bandwidth- conts
In Digital Communication
Bandwidth refers to data rate
Amount of data that can be transferred over communication
media in a given period
Measures in bps
Example:
LAN <100 Mbps
Dialup communication Model 300bps to 33.6Kbps or 56Kbps
WAN 1.5 Mbps to 45 Mbps
Music signals vary rapidly
Audio Compact Disk (CD) system BW 22 KHz

Delay
Delay = tprop + L/R
tprop= d/c
d=distance c=velocity of light
Time to translate a file can be reduced by inreasing
transmission bit rate
Delay and bit rate trade off
Example :

Communication between peoples maximum delay

250msec

Why Digital Communication ?

What is Transmission system?
What is Transmission ?
Transmission media
- Copper wire pairs
- Coaxial cable
- Optical fibers
- Infrared
- radio

Why Digital ?
Ease with which digital signals are
generated compared to analog.
Digital signals are subject to less distortion
and interference than are analog signals.
Easier to detect and correct errors in digital
data
Digital circuits are :
more reliable
more flexible
cheaper
Digital Transmission Objective
To transmit a given symbol selected from
a finite set of possibilites
- Eg., Binary digital Tx- 0 & 1 transmission

Communication transmission system

Basic Properties of Digital Systems

How binary information transmitted
Factors affecting transmission
Maximum rate of transmission
Signal-to-Noise Ration (SNR)
Characterization of Communication Channels
Frequency Domain characterization
Time Domain characterization
Limitation of Digital transmission