RF E Book

UNDERSTANDING THE RF PATH
POWERED BY
CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

Chapter 1
Introduction: Welcome to RF Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
Chapter 2
Where RF theory meets best practices: Cell Site Development and Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
Chapter 3
Getting the signal across: Base Station Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
Chapter 4
Working within the limits: Co-siting Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
Chapter 5
A new kind of remote control: Remote Radio Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
Chapter 6
Talking and listening at the same time: Transmission and Receiving Isolation Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
Chapter 7
The many ways to connect: RF Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1
Chapter 8
Making every connection count: Passive Intermodulation (PIM) Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1
Chapter 9
The infrastructure behind the connection: Microwave Backhaul. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1
Chapter 10
The energy that connects the world: Powering Wireless Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1
Chapter 11
Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in Wireless Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1
Chapter 12
On calleven off-site: Control and Site Monitoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1
Chapter 13
Covering all the bases: Distributed Antenna Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1
Chapter 14
Going to ground: Lightning Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1
Appendix A Applicable Technologies

Appendix B
Biographies
Appendix C Glossary
CHAPTER 1
Introduction:
Welcome to RF Communications
As a trusted advisor for communications networks around the world, CommScope invests in
people as much as our products and our industry. Our comprehensive training and education
programs, participation in working groups on specs and standards, educational conferences,
and extensive research are long-standing traditions that benefit everyone in our industry.
Thats why were pleased to present this book on the fundamentals of radio frequency (RF)
communications for the wireless industry. We hope this valuable information will help foster a
greater understanding of, and appreciation for, the technology, science and business behind
modern RF communications.
The technologies and theories explored here are technical in nature, so we have made every
effort to make the science of radio systems more accessible for a wider audience whether you
are an engineer or simply someone who works in this industry and wants to learn more about
the basics of how RF communication works, including the issues involved in the planning,
deployment and maintenance of communication networks.
Lets start by taking a look at the storied history behind the technologies that have shaped our
on-the-go, wireless world.
1
1
RF systems, then and now
Doing our part
Wireless communications systems have been in commercial use since the

1940s. Some of the earliest implementations included community repeaters,
paging systems, point-to-point links and specialized mobile radio (trunked)
systems. More recent innovations and uses of the RF spectrum include cellular
radio networks, which originated in the 1980s and now drive the cell phone
and mobile device industry. Even more recent evolutions have given us
familiar names like WiFi and WiMax, which let you connect to a network
anywhere in your house, or virtually anywhere you go.
CommScope goes to great lengths to provide the best possible solution for
every application. For simple or complex RF communications systems, each
part chosen by an engineer must fulfill a specific role, determined by the
expectations and limits placed on the installation itself. This book will explore
several common components and how they interact, including:
The shared link

This storied list of applications is incredibly diverse in purpose and design,
yet every item shares at least one unique characteristic: they all utilize radio
frequencies between 30 MHz and 2.6 GHz to move information between
base locations and remote users.
The chain of components required to make this movement of information
possible is a complex and varied one. As a proud supplier to the worlds
communications networks, CommScope is uniquely able to explore and
explain these components, how they work, and more importantly, how they
work together.
1
2
Antennas
Coaxial cables
Filters
Duplexers and diplexers
Amplifiers
Remote radio heads
Enclosures
Power backups

... and many others
1: Introduction
RF communications: The early years
The business case for technical expertise
While the full story of RF communications is far from complete, the

capabilities of modern RF technologies exceed the wildest dreams of the
fields earliest pioneers. While we are all familiar with and indeed, take for
granted living in a globally connected world, the early systems that laid the
foundation for our networked existence were much less powerful.
Cell providers monitor key performance indicators within their territories to

identify coverage problems and assure customer satisfaction. These indicators
include quality of service (QOS), dropped calls, failed access attempts, and
other criteria. Their engineers are on the front lines of this battle for quality
and constantly optimizing network performance as traffic grows.
There are sophisticated parameters and advanced settings that help
the RF engineer optimize a wireless network. However, successful wireless
network optimization requires a solid foundation of physical components
across the RF path (figure 1.1).
The first RF systems featured a base radio using an omnidirectional antenna

to communicate with one or more mobile users. Then, as now, the effective
coverage radius of that base radio was limited by certain characteristics,
such as RF power, antenna height, and the sensitivity of mobile receivers
that were vulnerable to thermal noise and other interference sources. These
systems were also limited by the fact that certain frequencies could only be
used once in a particular geographical area. Once a mobile user left that
area, no communication was possible.
The engineers of AT&T Bell Laboratories envisioned a future that would
require much higher RF capacities to service thousands or millions of users
at once. To deliver this future, they developed the cellular concept: a
wireless network that uses lower antenna heights and transmission power
levels to create limited-radius coverage areas that used and reused the
same frequencies within its coverage area. Voice and data calls could be
seamlessly handed off to neighboring cells as the user moved from one
coverage area or cell to the next. The close-proximity reuse of radio
channels is the fundamental concept of cellular telephones, and this is how
todays wireless networks carry enormous traffic loads in spite of limited
spectrum. The data riding these RF frequencies could be voice, data, or
a combination of both; by intelligently managing and reusing the limited
available bandwidth, the amount of available service increased by many
orders of magnitude.
Self
Optimizing
Networks
Have a quality experience

while on the network
Advanced
Fine Tuning
Hand Off Parameters
Stay on the network
Access Parameters
Get on the network
Physical Layer RF Path
Coverage Design
1.1
The interconnection of technology, design and optimization
1
3
The tuning and optimization of parameters can never be maximized without a high-performance RF path implemented with top-quality RF components.
Conversely, wireless systems with weak RF paths perform poorly, resulting in expensive problems on both the operational and customer service fronts.
Once a network is active, taking down a part of a cell network for maintenance is a costly and disruptive interruption; and, in most cases,
one that could have been prevented by a better understanding of the sites requirements and the component choices available.
The path begins
Now that we understand the importance of foresight in planning and insight in selection we can begin this brief exploration of the many ways a
modern RF communications network can come together. Thank you for joining CommScope on this journey.
1
4
CHAPTER 2
Where RF theory meets best practices:
Cell Site Development and Construction
Building a new cell site raises some of the same questions as building a new house, such as
deciding what materials to use, who to entrust with the construction, and how to get the best results
for your money.
Of course, these problems are magnified when applied to cell site construction because there are
so many different people, companies, municipalities and regulatory agencies involved. It takes a
lot of experience to plan for every obstacle. Thats why CommScope offers the following proven
recommendations.
These general guidelines are the result of decades of successful, practical field work. While no
guide can cover every aspect of cell site development, well cover the most commonly experienced
technical issues here.
2
1
Service Company
A cell site development
partner responsible for
actual construction on the
site, including antenna
towers, concrete footers and
pads, security fencing, and
equipment shelters.
You will work with several different companies and agencies in the process of developing your new cell site. You must
be able to count on their competence and expertise. For each stage of development, you should become familiar
with the challenges and requirements each partner will face. Knowing these factors will help you judge how well your
partners are doing their work and the impact those factors will have on your network when the project is done.
Step one: Choosing a service company
A service company will help you build the actual structure of your cell site. This includes the tower, shelters, cabinets,
and other physical infrastructure to support the sites operation (figure 2.1). This can involve heavy, demanding
construction work and the precision required by modern cell networks means a lot can go wrong at this stage.
2.1
2
2
A services company building a cell site tower
2: Cell Site Development and Construction
As with building any structure, it pays to research your construction company

in advance. Here are some of the key facts you should learn before selecting
your services company:
How long has the company been in business, and in the wireless field?
This is one of the first questions to ask. Experience matters as much as,
if not more than, expertise.
ow many employees do they have? How many of them work in the
H
field and how many in their home offices? Their staffing levels can
directly affect how they handle your project.
ow financially sound is the company? For legal and logistical reasons,
H
its critical that they dont disappear in the middle of construction.
Plus, they will need to maintain a certain minimum cash flow and credit
to procure materials.
hat are their expected payment terms? Some require payment within
W
30 days. Others may allow as many as 90 days. Make sure their terms
work with your cash flow, too.
What is their recent bond history? For everyones protection, all craftsmen
in the field should be bonded. Looking at their bond history can give you
a good picture of how well they perform.
What kind of insurance do they carry? The company should offer to
share their certificates of insurance. Its also smart to request a report
on their recent claims history.
How does their safety plan hold up? Unfortunately, some companies keep
a generic plan on file simply as a token compliance effort. Speaking with
the companys safety manager will tell you if they really understand the
written plan.
Whats in their OSHA logs? The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) monitors workplace safety; your potential services
company should have a log of recent incidents, claims and actions.
As a minimum, the previous three years should be reviewed for diligence
and completeness.
re their field employees properly certified? All field employees should
A
carry current certifications for first aid, CPR, the OSHA 10-hour training
course, Competent Climber and Tower Rescue operations.
Is their gear properly certified for safety? You should request copies of
current climbing gear inspection certificates.
How is their workplace recordkeeping? To see what you could expect for
your project, ask to see their job site analysis worksheets.
hat kind of vehicles will they be using? If they use vehicles regulated by
W
the Department of Transportation (DOT), request a copy of the DOT Carrier
Safety Measurement System (CSMS) rating. Prior to 2011, this rating was
called SafeStat, and some companies may still refer to it by that name.
In general, finding the answers to these questions is simply a matter of
thorough due diligence. With so many certifications and other qualifications
in play, you can see how important it is to know your services company
partner as well as possible.
2
3
Coaxial Cable
A type of cable featuring an
inner conductive core, an
outer conductive layer, and
a dielectric, or insulating,
space between them. Coaxial
cable connects antennas to
their base stations.
Step two: Choosing coaxial cable and connectors

Efficient cell site operation relies on the precise pairing of components. As we will discuss in detail in Chapter 3,
certain cable types are designed to work with certain antennas. As we will explore in Chapter 7, those cables must
interface with their systems via connectors built for certain frequencies and power levels (figure 2.2).
An out-of-specification component or an improper installation of the correct component can cripple an entire system.
For this reason, its wise to contract with skilled engineers for the installation.
2.2
2
4
Coaxial cable examples; different types are available for different applications
Handling the cable and connectors during these installations is a delicate

business. In general, observing these tips can help assure a trouble-free
installation and dependable, long-term operation:
U
se the right tool for the job. Using the appropriate cable prep tool
usually available from the cables manufacturer is the only way to cut
and prep cable ends for use in connections. Never use a saw; they
leave metal filings behind, which cause poor electrical performance and
problems with passive intermodulation (PIM).
atch those tricky curves. Different cable types have different degrees of
W
allowable bend radii, or flexibility, so you must observe the manufacturers
prescribed bend radius for your particular cable. Bending too tightly can
lead to poor electrical performance and failure in the RF path.
eep your cables consistent. If at all possible, use RF jumper cables from
K
the same manufacturer to make those tight connections. Doing so provides
consistent electrical performance and guarantees PIM performance.
nsure proper cable support. Manufacturers publish specifications
E
describing how to support lengths of cable, both vertically and
horizontally. Your specific guidelines will depend on your cables
construction, size and weight. If possible, use support clamps from
the same manufacturer to avoid damage to the cable and loss of
performance. Using third-party clamps may also invalidate your warranty.
Lift smart. Getting cables up an antenna tower is difficult. Fortunately,

using the correct hoisting grip will let you put that cable where it needs to
be without damaging it. Hoisting grips come in several types and sizes,
so make sure yours matches your cables specifications.
o to ground. Grounding the cable is very important to prevent damage
G
from lightning strikes. Best practices dictate at least three grounding
points: at the top of the tower, at the bottom of the tower and just outside
the entrance to the outbuilding, shelter or cabinet.
Put on the pressure. Air dielectric cables use an air-filled gap to insulate
the inner and outer conductors of a coaxial cable (Chapter 7). This gap
must be pressurized, like a bicycle tire, for the cable to hold its shape and
prevent damage to the conductors inside. When installing air dielectric
cable, it must be pressurized immediately leaving it overnight can lead
to moisture condensation in the cable, which will degrade performance
and is almost impossible to remove once introduced.
F inish with the seal of approval. Connectors are particularly vulnerable
to infiltration by weather and moisture. As soon as the connections are
made, you should weatherproof them. Butyl tape is the preferred method,
but in tight connection spaces, like those atop the antenna tower, you can
opt for heat-shrink tubing applied with a heat gun.
By following these recommendations, you can help ensure that your cell site
will operate at peak efficiency with minimal maintenance.
2
5
Electrical Tilt Antenna

An antenna fitted with actuators
that can adjust its tilt relative
to the ground. Changing tilt
affects gain, or performance,
of the antenna within defined
geographical areas.
Step three: Setting and troubleshooting remote

electrical tilt antennas
Of the many ways you can improve performance from
a cell sites antennas, a particularly effective method is
beamtilt. It involves physically tilting the orientation of the
antennas below the horizon, placing its greatest gain
its operational power where its needed most
(Chapter 3).
2.3
Efficiently changing the orientation of an antenna to

realize this benefit is a matter of using electrical tilting
mechanisms, or actuators, which can be operated from
a remote location (figures 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5).
An electrical tilt mechanism, or actuator,

for a cell site antenna
These mechanisms are controlled by an Antenna

Interface Standards Group (AISG) Remote Electrical Tilt
(RET) controller, which connects via AISG cables at the
cell site for adjustment (figure 2.5).
2.4
2.5
2
6
A base station antenna (BSA) with

integrated RET actuators
An example of an AISG RET controller module
As precision equipment, these tilting antennas can be a challenge to install

and adjust properly. Getting the best result is a matter of understanding the
software just as much as the hardware, but there are several ways to avoid
common pitfalls:
Install the software first. Before your crew goes to the cell site, install
the manufacturers software and become familiar with the controllers
operation. This early training will help your team hit the ground running
when they arrive.
Check for program updates. Driver software for your electronic tilt
actuator system is constantly updated to work with an ever-growing
number of different antennas. Make sure your software is current by
checking for updates on the manufacturers Web site.
Understand the naming conventions. To prevent onsite confusion,
use conventions for the configuration of actuators that everyone
will understand.
Test before installing. For new installations, a little upfront effort can
prevent big headaches later. Test the actuators, cables and other
components before installing them on the tower. Its much easier to
address problems when the components, and you, are on the ground.
Match antennas and tilts. Not every antenna has the same tilt range, so
be sure you select the correct one from the database before adjusting it.
Each antennas address is based on its product serial number, so be sure
to keep a written record. You should double-check your tilts through tab
reports generated by the controller.
Keep a spare cable on hand. Bring a spare cable to the site in case you
need to troubleshoot a non-reporting actuator. Its the fastest, surest way to
tell if the problem is a faulty actuator or just a bad cable.
heck before tilting. Before making any new tilt adjustments, pre-scan the
C
other antennas to determine their tilt values.
ouble-check your work. After making the adjustment, you should perform
D
a post-scan to confirm the new settings have been correctly applied.
Dont weatherproof cables and connectors. Using electrical tape wont
keep moisture out in fact, it gives water a place to accumulate in the
connector, where it can cause shorts.
Protect against lightning. Lightning protection units should be installed at
the base of the tower, or just before the cable enters the shelter or cabinet.
Also, as stated above, it should be grounded in at least three locations:
at the top of the tower, at the bottom of the tower, and just before entering
the shelter or cabinet.
Dont splice in a ground lead. Cutting into the jacket to attach a ground
to the thin foil tape inside will cause water migration, damaging the
conductors below the foil.
o right to the source for cable. Its considered good practice to
G
purchase your cable directly from the manufacturer rather than obtaining
it from a third party. Each manufacturers system requires specific electrical
conductors, and using a mismatched cable may lead to actuator failure,
voiding your warranty.
Make the right connections. The home run cables male connector
the end with the pins is the end that connects to the controller.
Also, be careful not to cross-thread actuator cables at the controller
or on the actuator itself. They should be hand-tightened only never
use a wrench.
Cycle the actuators when youre done. After addressing each actuator,
cycle it fully to confirm there are no hidden problems.
Check for cable stress. All cables should be free of stress and secured in
intervals of 18 to 24 inches.
Thorough planning and clear procedures like these will ensure that your cell
site reaches and maintains its maximum potential while also allowing you to
make the proper adjustments as your network evolves.
2
7
Best practices always yield the best results
Chapter 2 summary
Like building a house, there are countless ways for things to go wrong when building a cell site which makes it
all the more important to work with a partner who has the expertise and experience you need to do the job right.
CommScopes long history of expertise can turn your next project into your next success.
Cell site development and

construction:
Research and choose a
reliable services company
Know your cables and connectors
Maximize gain with electrical
tilt antennas
2
8
CHAPTER 3
Getting the signal across:
Base Station Antennas
Today, the quest for a stronger signal strength or for some, any signal strength at all has
become a routine part of our daily lives. Were always searching for a way to get more bars on
our cell phones or faster Wi-Fi connections on our computers. Whether youre at home, at work or
on the go, you need good reception to communicate and good reception depends on antennas.
The antenna is one of the most critical parts of both transmitters and receivers, and often, its often
of the most visible. You can see big antennas mounted on tall towers, and small ones attached
to Wi-Fi adapters or cell phones. Antennas come in all shapes and sizes because each one is
built for a specific purpose. However, all antennas share a common link: they are the key to
how well and how far communications can be shared.
CommScope invests significant research and resources in the development of reliable,
high-performance antennas, technology and innovation to better support evolving networks
around the world.
3
1
Antenna
The portion of an RF system
that radiates radio energy
into space and collects it from
space.
What is an antenna?
At its most basic level, an antenna is the portion of a radio system that can:
1. Take radio energy from a transmission line and radiate it into space in a predictable pattern, and
2. Receive radio energy from open space and feed it back down the transmission line.
Dummy Load
A simulated power load
applied to an electrical system
for testing purposes.
Antennas are surprisingly efficient in this line-to-space and space-to-line energy conversion process. In fact, when
properly configured with the right components, antennas can yield 80 percent efficiency or greater a remarkably
high figure in engineering terms. By way of comparison, consider the common incandescent light bulb, which yields
only 20% efficiency this means that, of the amount of energy put into a bulb as electricity, only 20% of that energy
is put out as light. An important consideration to maintain an antennas extraordinary efficiency lies in the transmission
cable that connects it to the transmitter.
Matching the line
To get maximum efficiency from a radio transmissions power, the antenna and cable must share certain characteristics
to avoid wasted energy. For example, if a radio system uses an industry standard coaxial cable fixed at 50 ohms to
connect the antenna and its transmitter, the antenna itself must rate reasonably close to 50 ohms as well.
Testing this configuration is a simple task. We connect the coaxial cable to the transmitter and place a 50-ohm
dummy load on the other end to simulate an antenna. Using a watt meter will reveal two important factors that
measure the efficiency of the system:
1. The amount of power entering the cable from the transmitter, and
2. The amount of power reaching the dummy load.
The difference between these two measurements represents the power lost in the line itself. The better matched the
cable, the smaller the difference and the more power reaches our simulated antenna.
3
2
3: Base Station Antennas
If we reduce the simulated antennas load from 50 ohms to just 25 ohms, 11 percent of the energy sent through the
coaxial cable would be uselessly returned to the transmitter. That would yield very low efficiency unless we were to
replace the 50-ohm coaxial cable with one rated at near 25 ohms, thereby restoring the balance. However, the 25
ohm cable would move mismatch to the source end where it connects to the transmitter.
Like water pouring through a funnel, the amount of throughput is dictated by the tightest portion of the route. In a radio
system, the excess energy bounces between the transmitter and the antenna, which must reject all power above its
capacity. This endlessly reflected power creates a measurable wave pattern in the cable, an effect called the Voltage
Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR).
Voltage Standing Wave

Ratio (VSWR)
A measurement of the power
reflected between transmitter
and antenna in a transmission
line that connects the two.
This figure yields the systems
transmission efficiency.
VSWR is the measurement of how well-matched a transmission line is to its antenna. Expressed as a ratio, a VSWR of
1.0:1 indicates a perfect match. Likewise, a VSWR of 1.5:1 indicates a 4% power reflection, which is another way
of describing 96% efficiency, where 96% of the power output from the transmitter actually makes it to the antenna
(table 3.1).
Calculating Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

VSWR
Return Loss (dB)
Reflected Power (%) Through Power (%)
1.10
26.5
0.2
99.8
1.25
19.1
1.2
98.8
1.50
14.1
4.0
96.0
1.75
11.6
7.4
92.6
2.00
10.0
11.0
89.0
VSWR = [1 + 10((-Return Loss)/20)]/[1 10 ((-Return Loss)/20)]

3.1
Calculating VSWR, and some sample efficiencies

3
3
Velocity, frequency and wavelength
Antennas are two-way streets
Like all forms of radiation, including visible light, radio waves travel about
186,000 miles, or nearly a billion feet, per second. Like other forms of
radiation, radio waves oscillate, or flip back and forth, between plus and
minus at a predictable rate. Each complete flip is called a cycle, and cycles
are expressed in hertz (figure 3.2). Measuring how many cycles, or hertz, a
signal oscillates per second gives us its frequency literally, how frequently
the signal oscillates in one second.
In theory, antennas transmit and receive in precisely the same way; the
same processes occur both ways only the direction is reversed. In actual
practice, however, a number of complicating factors, particularly on the
receiving end, can impact the efficiency with which the antenna operates.
To demonstrate, it is perhaps easiest to explore the most basic of antennas:
the half-wave dipole.
Knowing a signals speed and its frequency, we can divide the first by the
second to determine its wavelength the distance the signal travels while
completing one full cycle. Wavelengths are usually measured in feet or
inches, and are useful in understanding what it means to be in phase or
out of phase, which well explore later in this chapter.
A cycle completes itself traveling

from plus to minus back to plus.
3.2
3
4
Relationship of time, frequency, and wavelength
The number of cycles in

one second gives the frequency.
The speed divided by the frequency

gives the distance the wave
travels in one cycle.
This is called the wavelength.
Frequency
(MHz)
1/2 Wavelength
(inches)
Frequency
(MHz)
1/2 Wavelength
(inches)
30
196.8
800
7.4
50
118.1
900
6.6
74
79.8
1700
3.5
150
39.4
1900
3.1
Length (in inches) = 492 divided by the desired frequency in MHz
220
26.8
2100
2.8
As a result, dipole antenna length can be highly variable. It could be just

2.4 inches in length for a frequency of 2500 MHz, or 20 feet long for a
frequency of 25 MHz. The table below provides more examples
(table 3.3).
450
13.1
2500
2.4
750
7.9
3500
1.7
Half-wave dipole
The half-wave dipole radiator antenna, often just called a dipole, is the
most basic one used in two-way base station applications. It is essentially
nothing more than a straight conductor made of wire, rod or tubing that
measures exactly half of its assigned frequencys wavelength. A rule of thumb
for determining the correct length is:
Generally, the feeder line is connected at the midpoint, so the antenna

radiates at maximum intensity in the middle of the dipole. (figure 3.4).
3.3
Half wavelengths of two-way frequencies
Dipole
antenna
1/4 Wavelength
Antenna
Fader
Cable
1/2 Wavelength
1/4 Wavelength
Dipole antenna radiation pattern

Strongest at center (near feeder)
3.4
Dipole antenna construction and radiation pattern

3
5
Vertical and horizontal antenna radiation patterns

All antennas, regardless of polarization, have three-dimensional radiation
patterns. If the pattern is extended in all directions equally, the resulting
shape would be a sphere, with the antenna at its center. The polarization of
the antenna determines which portion of that sphere represents an antennas
actual pattern. Slicing the sphere vertically yields a vertical circle while a
horizontal slice would reveal a horizontal circle.
These theoretical descriptions of the two polarization patterns appear to be
omnidirectional within their planes, but thats not quite the case. In practice,
there are no truly omnidirectional antennas. Our example half-wave dipole
antenna, for instance, reveals the truth (figure 3.5). The pattern appears
circular, like a doughnut, on a horizontal plane, but forms a figure-8 in the
vertical plane.
As we will see later in this section, most real-world antennas consist of
a vertical array of radiating elements and elevation pattern shaping has
become quite important for interference minimization (figure 3.18).
3
6
Dipole in center of
doughnut-shaped pattern
a) 3-dimensional view
looks like a fat doughnut
3.5
b) Horizontal pattern
looks like a circle with
the dipole at the center
Radiation patterns for a dipole antenna
c) Vertical pattern looks

like a fat figure-eight
lying on its side.
Antenna gain
Boosting gain
Using our half-wave dipole as our reference, we measure gain in decibels

(dB). Decibels are used to compare one quantity of power to another. So,
taking our dipole as our starting point, we say it has a gain of one, or that
it has a value of 0 dB, as it has zero difference from itself. If we have
an antenna with double the power of our reference dipole, we find that its
power ratio of 2.00 yields 3 dB in gain (table 3.6).
Theoretically, there are two ways to increase antenna gain.
Power Ratio
dB
Power Ratio
dB
0.10
10
1.00
0.13
1.26
0.16
1.58
0.20
2.00
0.25
2.50
0.32
3.16
0.40
4.00
0.50
5.00
0.63
6.30
0.79
8.00
1.00
10.00
10
3.6
1. We can increase the power or current density in the antenna so it

will radiate its pattern with greater intensity. But as we discovered
earlier, we cannot raise the power without fundamentally altering
the mechanics of the antenna, cable and transmitter.
2. Alternately, we can change the radiation pattern, tightening its
focus, so more of the existing power is directed where it will be
used. This can be done without changing out hardware.
Consider again the circular, doughnut-shape pattern of our dipole antenna
(figure 3.7). By squashing the doughnut vertically, we produce a denser,
flatter, rounder pattern. As a consequence, the circle also grows larger as
vertical space is traded for horizontal space. Since verticality is rarely of
importance, this is a very profitable exchange.
Aperture of Dipoles
Vertical Pattern
Horizontal Pattern
Single dipole
Four dipoles vertically stacked
Deriving gain in dB from power ratios
3.7
This figure illustrates how stacking four dipoles vertically in line changes the
pattern shape (squashes the doughnut and increases the gain over a single
dipole. The area of the horizontal pattern measures the gain. The small
lobes in the lower center section are secondary minor lobes.
3
7
In Phase
Multiple antennas radiating
together at precisely the same
time and rate.
Omnidirectional pattern gain antennas

To achieve greater gain in this circular (or omnidirectional) pattern, we can stack multiple vertical dipole antennas
above each other, as shown in figure 3.7. This increases the vertical size of the antenna. Then, we feed power to the
dipoles in such a way that they add together at a distant point again, with transmission lines matching their radiation
power limits for greatest efficiency. By feeding equal amounts of power that arrive at each dipole at the same instant,
the dipoles radiate in phase, or in synchronicity, for improved gain by virtue of its pattern.
This type of antenna is called a vertical collinear phased array, and it is the most commonly used type of base
station antenna.
Aperture
Aperture, or beam width, determines the gain of an antenna. Like an adjustable nozzle on a garden hose, aperture
describes the degree to which the signal is focused: the tighter the focus, the greater the gain within that area of focus.
Spacing of dipole elements
In a vertical collinear array, each dipole or sub-array of dipoles is connected in parallel to the common feed point
by a separate transmission line. This means its possible to locate the dipoles so that their vertical separation tightens
overall aperture to boost gain. This separation is usually something less than a single wavelength of the assigned
frequency being transmitted. Anything less tends to reduce the improvements in gain.
3
8
Feeding the array
Dipole and reflector
In a vertical collinear array of two or more dipoles, the most common means
of feeding power via the coaxial transmission lines are:
As weve shown, a vertical dipole antenna has a circular horizontal pattern.

However, if we position it in front of a metal screen or wire mesh, we see
that radiation going to the rear will be blocked (figure 3.8). If this blocked
radiation is reflected off this screen, the horizontal pattern will no longer be
circular, but directional.
Parallel (shunt) feed. Power is fed along individual lines to each each
dipole or sub-array of dipoles.. Using matching transformers and
junctions, the cables connect to the line running down the tower.
This allows the array to be fed from the center, equalizing the
effectiveness of each array element and preventing the beam tilt
that affects series-fed installations.
In either application, the physical length of the aperture directly determines
the amount of gain.
Directional gain antennas
While omnidirectional gain antennas like the vertical collinear array achieve
greater gain by compressing its vertical pattern into a flatter circular shape,
there are other types of antenna that modify their horizontal patterns to
accomplish the same gain improvements.
If a dipole is positioned exactly one-quarter wavelength from this reflection

screen, the radiation that would ordinarily go to the rear is redirected to the
front to form what is called a directional lobe. Its the same effect as that
of the reflective mirror behind a flashlights light bulb, which redirects the
circular light pattern into a single direction. The larger the screen, the greater
the reflection and the narrower the directional lobe becomes and just as
the omnidirectional antenna increases gain by compressing vertically, this
directional antenna increases gain by compressing horizontally and directing
all its power in a single direction.
X
R1
3.8
The omnidirectional pattern of a dipole can be made directional

3
9
Corner reflector and parabolic reflector

Corner reflectors are right-angled V shapes, with
their vertices spaced a certain distance from the
dipole (figure 3.9). The resulting reduced beam
width and the corresponding increased gain
is determined by the size, shape and distance of
the screen from the dipole.
Modifying this corner reflector into a rounded
bowl shape creates a parabolic reflector,
with the dipole placed at its focal point. In
either application, the reflector may be built
of closely spaced rods instead of wire mesh,
increasing the strength and reducing the wind
drag of the reflector.
1/4 Wavelength
Corner screen
The screen behind the dipole cuts off radiation to the
back and reflects it forward to form a beam
Parabolic screen
Corner reflector
The parabolic screen focuses on the beam
Vertical rods replace the scree of the corner screen to

make a reflector of stronger mechanical design
3.9
10
Flat screen
Radiation to the rear is blocked
Dipole antenna reflector shapes
The Yagi antenna
Reflector
Radiator
Perhaps the most commonly used directional antenna is

the Yagi antenna. The Yagi offers many variations and
forms, but it generally consists of three elements (figure
3.10):
Direction of beam
Yagi Antenna
Also known as an Yagi-Uda
antenna, this is a common
type of directional antenna,
first created in Japan in
1926 by Hidetsugu Yagi and
Shintaro Uda.
1. Radiator
2. Reflector
3. Director
These components are arranged such that the director
is in the front, the radiator behind that, and the reflector
behind both. Generally, the director is the shortest
component, and the reflector the longest. The spatial
relationships between the three elements determine the
power that goes into the Yagis directional lobe, and
therefore also determine the Yagis gain. It is an efficient
and flexible design, offering high gain, low weight,
minimal wind drag and modest cost, resulting in its
popularity for two-way radio communications.
Reflector
Radiator
Director
Direction of beam
3.10
Two-element and three-element Yagi

directional antenna
The bandwidth factor

Another consideration in antenna construction is that of bandwidth. As we discussed in our description of the dipole,
antennas must be built to lengths that are determined by their operating frequency wavelengths. As you may recall,
the dipole antenna must be half the length of its assigned wavelength. However, it is possible to build an antenna that
covers a range of frequency bands or bandwidth centered around a particular frequency.
Indeed, nearly every antenna in use today affords a fairly wide percentage of bandwidth. In fact, certain antenna
designs in the1900 MHz frequency range can offer over 45% bandwidth (1710-2690 MHz). These are known as
ultra-wideband antennas.
3
11
The bottom line of antenna design

Weve just covered the basics of antenna design, but its important to keep in
mind that there are no magic formulas or one ideal antenna configuration.
Improving one aspect of operation always comes at the expense of
another aspect. The best design is always one that is driven by the specific
operational objectives of the antenna.
Figure 3.11 shows older legacy sites using vertically polarized antennas.
Rural sites typically used 90 horizontal beamwidth models, suburban sites
used 65 models and urban sites used models ranging from 33 to 65.
In these cases, two Rx antennas were required per sector to support Rx
diversity. For modern sites, a single Dual-pol (45 polarization) model with
the appropriate horizontal beamwidth supports Rx diversity.
Cellular antenna concepts

Now that you have a basic working knowledge of antennas and how
specific configurations can help them perform even better that is, by
improving gain lets look at a much more specialized and sophisticated
category: the cellular antenna.
Tx
Cellular antennas are a familiar feature in nearly every corner of the world.
In many cases, these are cellular networks that bring new connectivity where
it had never before been possible and these connections depend on
cellular base station antennas.
Tx
Tx
Rx
In cellular base stations, there are two basic antenna types currently in use
(figure 3.11):

Rx
Tx
Tx
Rx
1. Omnidirectional antennas, which we defined previously as antennas

that exhibit a circular radiation pattern and operate in virtually all
directions, and
Rx
Rx
Tx Rx
Rx
Rx
2. Directional (or sector) antennas, which operate in a specific

direction, most commonly covering an arc of 120 degrees or less,
depending on capacity requirements.
Omnidirectional antennas
3.11
3
12
Directional antennas
The two types of commonly-used cellular base station antennas
Cell reuse
Antenna characteristics
What makes cellular networks different from other types of communications

is the principle of cell reuse. Cell reuse is a way of increasing network
capacity by reusing, or reassigning, individual frequencies on the fly within
a particular cell.
A cellular base stations antenna is the most critical consideration in an

efficient cellular network, and it all depends on choosing the antenna with
exactly the right physical characteristics for a specific application. These
characteristics relate to radiation pattern, antenna gain, front-to-back ratio
and a number of other critical factors.
To see this process in action, consider the shape of cells and how they fit
together. Typically, cells are represented as interlocking hexagons, as seen
below (figure 3.12). Depending on the density of the area served, these
hexagons can be miles across or cover just a few hundred feet.
As a result of this incredible flexibility, channel sensitivity is limited by
external interference rather than noise issues, as older radio communications
have traditionally been. The specialized pattern shaping available with
directional antennas, both in azimuth (horizontal direction) and elevation
(vertical space), allows incredibly precise coverage that doesnt interfere with
neighboring cells.
3.12
In the real world, defining, choosing and testing these characteristics

requires a great deal of technical expertise and mathematical skill, so for
the purposes of this discussion, we will cover the basics with a far more
generalized approach than an engineer would use in an actual evaluation.
Cell reuse in a sample map. The entire map can be covered with just 7 unique cells and still provide adequate channel isolation between cells.
3
13
Radiation Pattern
The three-dimensional shape of
an antennas strongest signal
transmission.
Spherical Coordinate System

A geometric polar coordinate
system used to mathematically
map the radiation pattern of
antennas.
Azimuth Coordinate System

The polar coordinate system
used in the field by RF
engineers and surveyors
to map the radiation pattern
of antennas.
Radiation pattern
Perhaps the most obvious and important characteristic
to understand is an antennas radiation pattern. If a
particular application calls for coverage in all directions,
you would choose an antenna with a circular or
omnidirectional radiation pattern. If your installation
requires a more focused signal, a directional antennas
radiation pattern would satisfy your needs.
z
Antenna Under Test
0
r
Mapping an antennas radiation pattern is a fairly

simple task. Connecting a probe antenna to a receiver
and moving it around your tested antenna at a fixed
distance allows you see the variations in signal strength.
Mapping these readings with polar coordinates yields a
three-dimensional map showing in which directions the
antenna transmits most strongly (figure 3.13).
O
|
3.13
3
14
Probe Antenna
Moving a probe antenna around the tested antenna

at a fixed distance yields a three-dimensional map
of its radiation pattern
At the same time, a pattern can also be expressed as a conventional rectangular plot with angular position on the
X-axis and signal strength on the Y-axis. Examples of both are shown below. Depending on the design of the antenna,
the radiation pattern can display any number of shapes. The isotropic dBi reference is a theoretical point source and
thus generates a pattern covering all directions of a sphere. As seen previously, the wave dipole dBd reference
pattern has nulls above and below the dipole and thus from a conservation of energy standpoint must have more gain
on the horizon than the dBi reference. The absolute difference of these two standards is 2.14 dB and today most
manufacturers rate their products in both dBi and dBd. Since an antennas gain is determined by comparing it to one
of these standards, the dBi rating will always be 2.14 dB greater than the dBd rating.
Elevation absolute voltage level

1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
Absolute voltage level
1.1
Isotropic radiator
1
0.9
0.8
Half-wave dipole
0.7
0.5
0.6
Polar plot center = 0

0.2 units/radial division
15/angular division
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30
30
60 90 120 150 180
Elevation angle ()
3.14
A system controller interface displaying voltage, amperage and alerts
3
15
Antenna gain
As discussed earlier, an antennas radiation pattern is directly connected to its
gain, or performance power. While we cannot improve gain by increasing
transmitter power without rebuilding the system entirely, we can use radiation
patterns to achieve the same objective.
Gain is measured in decibels (dB) and rises as a function of increasing
aperture size, which in most cases means increasing the physical size of the
antenna. As a general rule, a doubling of aperture results in a doubling of
gain though, as a practical matter, larger antennas introduce efficiencyreducing power losses that can diminish these improvements.
Front-to-back ratio
Half power
beamwidth
Front-to-back ratio
The ratio of a directional antennas maximum directivity to front (where
its main lobe appears) to its back where its reflector is located is called,
appropriately, the antennas front-to-back ratio (figure 3.17).
Horizontal pattern
3dB level
3.17
3
16
Polar plot center = 40dB

5 dB/radial division
10/angular division
A polar representation of a directional antennas front-to-back ratio
Side lobes and nulls
Polarization
Apart from a radiation patterns main lobe, there can also exist side lobes
and nulls. Side lobes are extraneous areas of strong signal, and nulls are the
low-energy spaces between them (figure 3.18). Nulls may exhibit 30 dB or
more of attenuation, meaning signals found there can be as weak as one
one-thousandth of the power of the main lobe.
Polarization is a property of the wave produced by an antenna that

describes the way that wave varies in space over time. In simpler terms, it
describes the orientation of that wave, such as vertical or horizontal or slant
45 degrees (Dual-pol).
There are ways of redirecting side lobe power back into the main lobe.
This process, called null fill, can result in the widening of the main lobe and
reduce gain accordingly.
This characteristic measures the performance of a dual-polarized array

in distinguishing between orthogonal waves (two signals broadcast
perpendicular to one another, such as horizontally and vertically). This figure
is calculated as the ratio of co-polarization to cross-polarization occurring in
the antennas main lobe (figure 3.19).
Side lobes
Cross-polarization ratio
Nulls
Main lobe
Back lobe
Main lobe
maximum
120
120
Null fill
Polar plot center = 40dB

5 dB/radial division
10/angular division
3.18
A polar representation of a vertical pattern including side lobes and nulls
3.19
Typical and directed dipole cross-polarization ratios

3
17
Sector power ratio
Cellular antennas on a practical level
Basically, sector power ratio is a comparison of signal power registered

outside and inside a desired receiving area as a consequence of an
antennas radiation pattern (figure 3.20). The higher the ratio, the better the
antennas interference performance.
When we move beyond the drawing board of theoretical antenna

design to the real world, we soon discover that the laws of physics are
not the only limiting factors affecting an actual installation. These issues
include everything from tower weight and wind limits to local zoning
board approvals for antenna size, shape, height and appearance.
In most installations, compromises are necessary to satisfy all the
competing interests.
As a practical matter, particularly in cellular network applications, lower

sector power ratios indicate a higher amount of interference between
antennas in adjacent coverage areas. When competing signals overlap,
interference can increase and reduce performance such as dropping a cell
phone call while moving from one cell to another. Cellular networks require
precise sectorized planning to prevent this kind of problem.
120
Beamtilt
As capacity requirements increase, one solution is to split the hexagons
shown in figure 3.12 allowing the addition of more sites and reducing the
coverage radius of the original site. To accomplish this, elevation beam
downtilt is commonly used to reduce the gain on the horizon (and thus the
coverage radius) as shown in figure 3.21. Mechanical downtilt results
in undesirable pattern distortion on the horizon while electrical downtilt
maintains the desired pattern shape.
Early antennas incorporated fixed electrical downtilt, but this required multiple
different models. State-of-the-art antennas today have adjustable electrical
downtilt which can be adjusted remotely using the AISG Standards noted in
Chapter 12.
3.20
3
18
Graphic and mathematical representations of an antennas

sector power ratio
Most cellular antennas are produced in a variety of physical sizes to offer the best
performance while conforming to other requirements. Chances are that youve
seen cellular antennas mounted in a number of ways, featuring diverse sizes and
designs, such as the commonly used lengths of 4, 6 and 8 feet.
Mechanical tilt
Electrical tilt
Materials and environment

Cellular base station antennas are only as reliable as the materials that go into
their construction, and the construction of their arrays. When it comes to working
with the physical limitations of an antennas location, matching the right materials
to the environment is a critical consideration. Here are just a few examples.
In the antenna array itself:
A
luminum alloys offer lightweight strength, but can be vulnerable to the
elements
P ressure cast aluminum is well suited to bases, sockets, mounts and clamps,
where its hardness and resistance to corrosion are critical
In circumstances where weight is not a serious factor, copper and brass are
used for their easy plating and conductivity properties
Antenna radomes:
H
igh-strength, low-RF loss materials such as fiberglass offer protection from the
elements
M
aterials must offer UV protection to prevent deterioration due to sunlight
exposure
10
8
6
4
0
3.21
Tilting the antenna changes the shape of the lobe at ground level,
reducing gain
Tower appearance:
F or purposes of appearance and zone compliance, non-metallic paint can be
applied to the entire structure
For better wear, smooth surfaces should be roughed prior to painting
These are just a few of the more obvious physical considerations. Other matters
in cable selection, connector choice and termination options demand close
attention as well.
3
19
More capacity with fewer antennas
TwinBeam
As mentioned earlier, cellular antennas are directional, often covering 120

degrees, or one-third of a complete circle. Mounted together on a triangular
tower, three sets of these antennas can cover all directions. But in densely
urban areas that require more capacity, narrower focus-antennas (called
a six-sector scheme) can handle additional traffic along with the cost of
adding more antennas. Having so many antennas in a single location makes
it more likely to run afoul of local zoning codes.
One recent solution to this problem involves the TwinBeam antenna from
CommScope, which produces two separate 35-degree beams with
centers separated by 60 degrees. As the illustration below shows, this
dual-lobe approach provides excellent coverage and, unlike the six-sector
solution, only requires three antennas instead of six (figure 3.22).
Six-Sector Sites
65 Antenna vs. Twin Beam Antenna

0
Wider coverage
-5
Traditional 65 pattern
-10
-15
-20
-30
-35
-40
Better roll-off
Twin beam advantages

Back-to-back broadcast channel (BCCH) re-use capability
Enhanced RF footprint (higher gain)
Better interference containment (better roll-off)
Easier zoning and faster site deployment
3.22
3
20
Same number of antennas, double the coverage a six-sector pattern compared to TwinBeam installation
Twin beam pattern
SmartBeam
Another type of antenna addresses growing capacity needs by intelligently steering themselves for
maximum efficiency.
The CommScope solution is called SmartBeam. In addition to electronic downtilt, these multipledegree-of-freedom antennas incorporate azimuth beam steering plus or minus 30 degrees and azimuth
beam adjustment from 35 to 105 degrees (figure 3.23).
SmartBeam Technology Video
1-Way SmartBeam (1D)

Remote electrical tilt (e.g. 010)

Remote AZ steering (+ / 30)

Remote AZ steering (+ / 30)
Remote AZ beamwidth (35 to 105)
3.23
3
21
Shannons Law
Created by Claude Shannon
and Ralph Hartley, this law
establishes a theoretical limit to
how much data can be reliably
pushed through a given
amount of bandwidth.
Adaptive array
A third capacity-boosting option incorporates several
vertical elements that steer a beam toward each user on
a tightly managed time-division basis. In this application,
each user owns a particular time slot to move his or
her traffic. Of course, managing this system for a large
number of users requires powerful and sophisticated
digital processing, but it also holds the potential to
effectively null out nearby interference for better highspeed throughput (figure 3.24).
R/B [bits/s/Hz]
16
8
4
3
22
2
1
M-4
M-2
R <C
Practical region
M-4
1/2
limited
Bandwidh
M-16
M-8
M-2
M-8
M-16
Shannon
limit 1/4
1/8
Power limited
0
The next evolution
What makes this development so exciting is that MIMO

offers a way around a classic limiting factor of RF
communications known as Shannons Law, which
dictates how much throughput can be delivered down a
given amount of bandwidth. As figure 3.24 shows you
can only expect to get to within 3 dB of a bandwidths
theoretical maximum in a practical application.
M-256
M-64
1/16
10
20
30
E0 / N0 [dB]
MIMO 2x3 with CB
40
MPSK
MQAM P8 = 10-5
MFSK
MIMO 2x3 without CB
250
200
Phyrate [Mbps]
New technologies are being developed and deployed

at a dizzying rate. The current field of cutting-edge
networks is collectively known as long-term evolution
networks (LTE). LTE has the potential to completely
reshape how networks can perform, because it
incorporates a concept called multiple input, multiple
output (MIMO), which splits data transmission into
multiple streams and sends them at the same time on the
same frequency using multiple de-correlated RF ports.
The expression 2x4 MIMO means that there are 2 decorrelated paths in the downlink and 4 de-correlated
paths in the uplink.
R=C
R>C
Unattainable region
150
100
50
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Reach [m]
3.24
A traditional plot of Shannons limiting law
45
50
MIMO circumvents this limit through digital signal processing (DSP), which can distinguish between the two split signal
paths and reassemble them into the original data on the receiving end. This workaround literally doubles the theoretical
limits defined by Shannons Law when applied in a 2x2 MIMO configuration with two transmit and two receive antennas
(figure 3.25). It is quadrupled in a 4x4 MIMO configuration with 4 transmit and 4 receive antennas. Actual throughput
improvements do not quite achieve this degree of volume, but that differential is to be expected in any practical
application of theoretical performance.
MIMO Systems
2 x 2 SU-MIMO: Spatial Multiplexing
Same time and frequency resource

Multiple input multiple output
Capacity gains due to multiple antennas at both ends
of the link
Multipath provides additional channel using DSP
LTE supports 1x2, 2x2, 4x2, 4x4
Spatial multiplexing requires a multi-path environment
3.25
Different data streams

Space Time Block Coding is a transmit diversity mode
used S/N cannot support Spatial multiplexing
Decorrelation between antennas and propagation paths
required for Spatial multiplexing
A dual polarized BSZ for 2x2 MIMO; two separated
for 4x2 or 4x4 MIMO
Alternatively vertically polarized antennas can be used
with spatial separation
This 2x2 MIMO system uses digital signal processing to circumvent theoretical throughput limits
3
23
The basics of base station antennas
Chapter 3 summary
Incredibly diverse and remarkably efficient, antennas are the most critical link in any communications network.
Radiating radio energy into space and collecting it from space, they can connect a single network backbone or
thousands of individual users.
Antennas:
By virtue of their design, antennas can cover virtually any desired area of any shape. But it takes a lot of insight,
knowledge and planning to get the most out of every watt. It all comes down to understanding your applications
needs and its limitations.
With your new understanding of how antennas work, and how their performance is measured and compared, you
may think twice the next time you are searching for more bars on your cell phone or a faster Wi-Fi connection for
your computer. Then look up at the next TV aerial or cell phone tower you see and remember the complexity of the
invisible processes that make modern communications possible at home, at work and on the go around the world
everyday.
Structures that radiate and

receive radio energy
Can achieve 80% efficiency or
greater
Directional (sectorized) or
omnidirectional
Performance characteristics:
Radiation pattern
Polarization
Gain
Aperture
Enhancements through design:
Vertical stacking
Element spacing
Horizontal pattern shaping
Downtilt
Cellular base station antennas:
Sectorized, grouped antennas
commonly covering 120 degrees
or less
MIMO and LTE technology
represent next step in speed
and reliability
3
24
CHAPTER 4
Working within the limits:
Co-siting Solutions
If youve ever tried to get more use out of the space in your home
by combining a home office with a guest bedroom, you may not
have been entirely satisfied with the results. Sure, youve saved
space by making one room do the job of two, but you probably
found that it cant do either job quite as well as a dedicated space
would have allowed.
This tradeoff of space for utility is also the guiding principle behind
co-siting a cellular installation. With space at a premium, there are
real incentives to reducing your equipment footprint but every
square foot saved places new constraints on the way that base
station operates. Since every site has unique limitations, it can be
a challenge to identify and implement the best co-siting solutions.
Whatever the specifics of a given cellular installation may be,
CommScope offers a wide range of solutions that meet virtually
Co-siting Solutions
The technology and
techniques that allow
cellular base stations and air
interfaces to share architecture
and operate within limiting
factors of their locations.
any installation requirement. It takes a combination of technology

and insight to make the best of every situation.
4
1
Dealing with the realities

Just as it would be ideal to have an unlimited
number of rooms in your home for every possible
purpose, it would be ideal for cellular base
stations to be equipped with their own
dedicated antennas and feeders at every
cell site (figure 4.1).
If such an arrangement were possible in every

installation, the benefits could include:
Individually optimized antenna pattern, azimuth
direction and downtilt angle
Minimal RF path loss and signal mismatch
R educed interference and intermodulation
between systems
T he ability to perform maintenance on one
system without impacting the others
Sadly, this arrangement isnt a practical option for
most real-world designs. When a cellular base
station makes the move from the drawing board to
the tower installation, its design becomes subject
to an incredible number of variables and limiting
factors. Some of the more common limits are:
Local zoning ordinances that restrict quantity,
size and location of antennas
T he towers structural weight limits and wind
load restrictions
B
udget constraints that limit both the initial and
ongoing costs
S
cheduling demands that require accelerated
service rollouts
4.1
4
2
Multiband sector with separate feeders
Making the most of every watt

To address these limits and wring greater
performance from every watt of power, cositing solutions can help different technologies
operate on a single architecture. Even networks
operated by competing companies can realize
mutual benefits by sharing site equipment, much
as competing airlines will honor each others
tickets in the event of flight cancellations. In fact,
such sharing agreements are now the norm with
consumers benefiting from the providers reduced
operational costs in the form of better transmission
speeds and reduced cell phone and data bills.
Co-siting solutions are usually based on specific
equipment and configurations designed to
improve performance within a defined set of
circumstances under a defined set of limitations.
4: Co-siting Solutions
Multi-Band Combining
One frequently used technique is called multi-band combining, a method of frequency multiplexing. It takes advantage of
the fact that feeder cables are naturally well suited to being shared by multiple frequency bands. In other words, multiple
base station services can be funneled into a single feeder cable that runs up the tower to the antennas. Those services
can then be split away from that one cable directly beneath the antennas.
Multi-Band Combining
A configuration that connects
multiple base station services
that operate in separate
bands to multiple antennas
via a single feeder cable and
its associated couplers.
To visualize this concept, think of how you bundle your home or office computers wires into a single plastic cable wrap;
at one end, the cables separate into various ports on the back of your computer. On the other end, the cables separate
into your keyboard, mouse, network and printer connections.
To achieve the benefits of frequency multiplexing, the feeder cable must be equipped with the correct combining devices.
Two or more frequency bands can be combined using multi-band combiners. Multi-band combiners are often added to a
system as separate components, but they can also be built directly into other components such as antennas.
Widely known as crossband couplers, these combiners may be referred to as diplexers (two frequencies), triplexers (three
frequencies), and so forth according to the number of frequency paths involved (figures 4.2 and 4.3).
4.2
Shared feeders using diplex crossband couplers
4.3
Shared feeders using triplex crossband couplers, with

broadband antennas using diplex crossband couplers
4
3
The kind of crossband couplers required in a

particular application is largely determined
by the frequencies the system uses, and, more
specifically, how far apart from each other those
frequencies are. In systems with wide frequency
separation such as 700-1000 MHz, 17002200 MHz and 2400-2700 MHz the needed
crossband couplers are likely to be low-cost,
compact devices that introduce virtually no loss
or mismatch.
COM
COM
On the antenna side of the connection, additional

efficiencies can be gained among broadband
antennas that can accept more than one
frequency through a single port. This allows it to
operate over a range of bands through one feeder
cable, as shown in figure 4.3.
Like the other circumstances involved in planning
an efficient and compliant base station site,
antenna selection and the base stations assigned
frequencies can play a large part in how a
particular co-siting solution comes together.
698-787
MHz
4.4
4
4
1.7-2.2
GHz
698-960
MHz
However, when dealing with frequencies that

are relatively close to one another such as
700 MHz and 850 MHz the appropriate
crossband coupler grows more complex, bulky
and expensive (figure 4.4).
824-894
MHz
1.7-2.2
GHz
Compact diplex and triplex crossband couplers, with example frequency differentiation
Same-Band Combining (SBC)

A base station configuration
that allows multiple services to
share the same bands.
Same-band combining
In some instances, multiple services require the use of the same
frequency band. When this happens, regular crossband couplers
which are designed to suit specific frequency separation dont
provide the solution we need. Instead, we can use a variety of
same-band combining (SBC) options, which can allow different
services to share the same space on the electromagnetic spectrum.
In some applications, same-band combining is even used for
single-service systems not to allow other services, but to increase
the channels available to the one operating service. In all cases,
the idea is to combine transmit signals (TX) and divide receive
signals (RX). The best way to achieve this depends on the specifics
of the application.
Now lets look at some of the more commonly used techniques.
Hybrid combining
Hybrid combiners offer a low-cost means of combining TX signals
and dividing RX signals (figure 4.5), but this advantage comes at
the cost of other operational restrictions inherent in its design.
The main disadvantage of this technique is the high rate of loss
experienced in both directions. This loss increases with the number
of ports involved, so hybrid combiners are generally used only in
two-port applications.
4.5
A hybrid combiner, using cable load

to lower passive intermodulation
Another consideration is the significant heat it generates, which

must be dissipated adding costs and creating even more
design limitations. These drawbacks limit the practicality of hybrid
combining to in-building coverage and similar uses. It is rarely used
in cellular sites.
4
5
Low loss combiner-multiplexer

Guard Bands
Narrow gaps inserted into
the bandwidths managed
by the LLC to distinguish
different signals riding on
the same bands.
The low loss combiner (LLC) offers a different way to combine base station transmitters. Commonly employed for
combining TX signals, integrating a duplexer allows for distribution of RX signals as well (figure 4.6).
Like crossband couplers discussed earlier, the LLC is a filter multiplexer. However, unlike a crossband coupler that
requires spaces between bands youll recall that the bigger the spaces, the better the coupler operates the LLC
handles frequencies inside the same bandwidth.
This is possible due to the addition of guard bands, which act as very small gaps within the band. They create
boundary spaces between the frequencies, allowing them to be distinguished from one another.
Including these tiny guard bands often requires those narrow frequencies to be left unused, which adds up to slight
bandwidth loss. In LLC design, smaller guard bands incur greater cost, size and complexity, so an economical
alternative is to re-use the lost guard band space with a second feeder and antenna.
LLC design significantly reduces insertion loss over that of a hybrid combiner, but its reliance on filter multiplexing
places significant restrictions on its scalability. As technology develops, networks require constant upgrading, adjusting
and scaling which often means the adjustment or replacement of the LLC component. Recent developments in
remotely tuned LLC hardware have helped reduce this limitation, but it remains a significant drawback for many
applications.
Several examples of LLC realizations are shown in figures 4.7 and 4.8.
4
6
4.6
An LLC with integrated duplexer;

RX distribution from GSM BTS
4.7
An LLC combines a narrow portion of TX band

into broadband path; includes duplexer for RX
re-injection
4.8
Filter multiplexer for downlink and uplink

a quadruplexer
4
7
Amplification
Another technology that makes co-siting possible is amplification. There
are several ways amplification can be used in support of the devices listed
above, expanding their utility, power and range.
Single carrier power amplifier. You will recall that one of the hybrid
combiners drawbacks was its high rate of insertion loss for both TX and RX
signals. One way to compensate for this is to add a single carrier power
amplifier (SCPA) (figure 4.9).
The SCPA is highly efficient in regard to power consumption, but is
only suited to certain engineering standards, such as the Global System
for Mobile Communications (GSM) established by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Still, in those applications
where the SCPA is appropriate, the SCPA offers a low-cost means of
improving hybrid combiner performance (figure 4.10).
4.9
An SCPA module amplifies and combines two transmitters into one path
Multi-carrier power amplifier. Like the SCPA, the multi-carrier power amplifier
(MCPA) is a high-power amplifier for carrier signals. Unlike the SCPA,
however, the MCPA can also combine multiple RF signals into a single
output. Its input circuits can be expanded to accommodate from two to eight
ports, and sometimes even more (figure 4.11).
4.10
4
8
An SCPA installed between

radios and BTS duplexer
4.11
An MCPA with integrated

RX distribution
The MCPAs strong suit is boosting transmit power to increase the coverage
or capacity of a particular base station. It also offers complete frequency
agility, allowing free use of all frequencies within a license band. This makes
it a very easy system to interface to other technologies. Its design generally
incorporates one or more amplifier bricks working in parallel to provide the
necessary power (figures 4.12 and 4.13).
An MCPAs demanding power consumption is its most notable drawback,
which leads to elevated implementation and operational costs.
Receiver multicoupler. As its name implies, the receiver multicoupler
(RXMC) distributes RX signals from shared antennas to multiple receivers.
By splitting the signal this way, a natural side effect is some loss of power.
To compensate, the RX input first crosses a low-noise amplifier (LNA) which
preserves signal strength, preceded by a preselector filter. Inclusion of an
LNA is recommended for most applications with more than two receivers.
4.12
As a rule, the RXMC distributes the full RX frequency band to all outputs with
the same degree of gain across the board. To individualize distributions, the
RXMC may allocate specific signal strength to each receiver by unequally
dividing the gain. This is a useful option when dealing with different
locations, or with a receiver that will further divide its signal to other receivers
down the line.
4.13
An MCPA for one sector with two duplexed inputs and two simplex inputs;
three amplifier bricks are working in parallel
An MCPA for three sectors, two duplexed inputs and six simplex inputs per
sector, one amplifier brick per sector, plus one hot standby brick
4
9
Other integrated configurations. The following

figures illustrate other same-band combining
technologies (figures 4.14 through 4.18).
4.14
4
10
Antenna sharing accomplished

with a TX/RX quadruplexer
4.15
RX distribution to simplex BTS using

duplexers and RXMC
4.16
Antenna sharing accomplished with

integrated Duplex/RX SBC
Tower-mounted amplifiers. Working with these other co-siting solutions,

a tower-mounted amplifier (TMA) improves the base stations sensitivity
the same way a hearing aid can improve diminished hearing. It works to
offset the losses experienced by RX signals as they travel to the receiver.
This improvement in signal clarity is seen in the carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N),
measured in decibels (dB). Adding a TMA to the RX circuit on a cellular base
station can yield a typical improvement of 5-6 dB.
TMAs are a key part of RF path technology. Properly implemented and
configured, they improve:
Coverage. They boost the effective service radius of a cell base station
while improving signals in weak spots, such as indoors.
Accessibility. They significantly reduce failed access attempts.
4.17
Dual RXMC with eight outputs per channel
Retainability. They improve a sites retainability, or its ability to maintain

connections within and across cells for fewer dropped calls.
Co-channel interference. They improve call capacity in spread spectrum
systems.
Data throughput. They enable higher order modulations for increased
traffic capacity.
Handset battery life. Because less power is required from the cell
phones transmitter, TMAs prevent unnecessary battery drain.
With the right adjustments, TMAs offer all these advantages that help
operators enhance their network capacity and coverage.
4.18
Integrated SBC
4
11
TMA benefits
10.00
To gain the maximum advantage, it is important to boost the RX signal level

before it becomes degraded by feeder loss between the tower and the base
station receiver. This is the reason the TMA should be mounted at the tower
top, as close to the RX antenna as possible.
9.00
8.00
7.00
An LNA may also be installed at the ground level and is then called a
ground-mounted amplifier (GMA). When it reaches the GMA, the RX
signal will already be weaker and noisier than it originally was at the
antenna. Therefore, the sensitivity improvement a GMA can provide is
limited its improving an already weakened signal. On the other hand,
its main advantage is that it is easier to install than a TMA, and does not
occupy precious tower space. Because it doesnt introduce the size and
weight concerns of a tower-mounted TMA, the GMA design can focus
on performance. Superconductors and cryogenic cooling can be used to
maximize performance and partially offset the disadvantage of its groundlevel location.
Many factors contribute to feeder loss. Smaller cable diameter, longer
feeder runs, and higher operating frequency all influence performance,
and the TMA offers a single method of offsetting all these factors with one
remedial measure. You can see how TMA and GMA implementations affect
the noise levels in a system in figure 4.19.
4
12
NF (dB)
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
Feeder Length (ft)

No LNA
4.19
GMA
TMA
Noise figure in a system with no LNA, with a GMA and with a TMA; the
superior performance of the TMA is evident in its lowest noise figure
200
TMA configurations
As explained in our earlier look at the receiver multicoupler (RXMC), a tower-mounted amplifier employs an LNA
(with a preselector filter) to boost signal strength to compensate for division loss. Since modern TMAs often employ a
dual duplex configuration which allows the use of duplexed feeders two additional filters are needed to pass the
signals between the BTS and antenna.
Bypass or Pass-Through
Configuration
A single-band tower-mounted
antenna with an integrated
diplexer that adds a
secondary, non-amplified RF
path to the system.
Dual-band TMAs are essentially a pair of single-band TMAs integrated into one device. Some types feature separate
RF paths for each band, while others diplex the bands into a single path at the BTS port or at the ANT port.
Interestingly, diplexers can also be integrated into single-band TMAs to offer an additional, non-amplified path.
These devices are called bypass or pass-through configurations.
As a result of growing demand for reliable cellular network service coupled with frequent restrictions on the amount
of equipment permitted on a particular cell site dual-band TMAs are becoming more and more popular as a co-siting
solution. You can see examples of some different TMA architectures in figures 4.20 through 4.26 beginning on this
page and continuing on page 14.
4.20
Single-band TMA
4.21
Twin single-band TMA

with AISG support
4.22
TMA with integrated

diplexer, bypass path
4
13
4.23
4.25
4
14
Dual-band TMA with AISG support
Dual diplexed dual-band TMA with AISG
4.24
4.26
Diplexed dual-band TMA with AISG support
Diplexed dual-band TMA with

pass-through and AISG
Enhanced features: AISG

The Antenna Interface Standards Group (AISG) is comprised of representatives from the worlds leading wireless
equipment manufacturers and service providers, including CommScope. AISGs standards have led to improvements
in remote control and monitoring of antenna downtilt, TMA alarms, and other important advances. Adoption of these
protocols has advanced performance and assured interoperability between various systems a major boon for
co-siting solutions like the ones discussed above.
Contemporary co-siting components must accommodate AISG communication, whether they process the signals
or simply pass them along to other devices. The AISG protocol currently includes procedures for monitoring and
controlling TMAs, such as setting gain and reporting alarms. Additional procedures may be defined in the future to
support a wider range of smart co-siting devices that will help optimize performance, enable remote supervision of
the RF path, and reduce cost of ownership.
Antenna Interface Standards

Group (AISG)
Founded in 2001, the AISG
represents more than 40 top
manufacturers and service
providers from all over the
world. AISG publishes
universally accepted industry
protocols for communications
between base stations and
tower-based equipment, such
as antennas and TMAs.
4
15
Making the most of available space and power
Chapter 4 summary
The design of a cellular communications system reflects many choices and compromises. The result is that no two
are exactly alike. Certain preferred characteristics come at the expense of other characteristics; those choices are
always made with an eye toward conserving space, reducing costs and operating within constraints.
Co-siting solutions:
By employing the kind of innovative solutions discussed in this chapter, wireless operators are able to improve
service and reduce costs by working together to share infrastructure wherever possible. We see the benefits in the
form of lower cell phone bills, clearer and more reliable calls, and faster data downloads and Web surfing on our
mobile devices.
Driven by limits on amount,

weight and cost of base and
antenna-mounted equipment
The technology and techniques

that allow more performance in
less space
Multi-band combining:
Leverages feeder cables
capacity for multiple frequencies
Requires frequencies in separated
bands
Uses crossband couplers in
diplex, triplex or more complex
configurations
Same-band combining:
Hybrid combining: inexpensive
but lossy
Low loss combiner: efficient
but constrained frequency
applicability
Amplification:
Single carrier power amplifier:
low cost, high efficiency, limited
applications
Multi-carrier power amplifier:
scalable, flexible but expensive to
install and operate
Tower-mounted amplifiers:
broad-based receiver
performance boost
4
16
CHAPTER 5
A new kind of remote control:
Remote Radio Heads
In the innovation game, improvements often come in small steps.
But, every now and then, a quantum leap takes place, changing
our ideas of whats possible. In the case of cellular base station
technology, an innovative and increasingly popular approach to
Remote Radio Head (RRH)

A new design in base station
architecture that separates
a cell site base stations RF
and baseband functions for
improved efficiency.
its basic architecture means more performance for fewer watts.

This innovation is the remote radio head, or RRH.
5
1
Traditional design of cellular installations antenna towers and their adjacent base stations places the transmitting and receiving
components in climate-controlled cabinets or shelters, connected to the antenna arrays via coaxial cable (figures 5.1 and 5.2).
2 radomes per sector
1900 / 2500
Antenna
jumper cables
for 4 branches
Cable mounting brackets
4 coaxial
cables
shown for
alpha sector
Base Station
Baseband Unit + RF
Base Station
Baseband Unit +
Transmit and Receive
RF Transmit and
Receive Functions
5.1
5
2
Typical cell site architecture, no RRH
5.2
Typical cell site application, no RRH
Power
and
Battery
Backup
5: Remote Radio Heads
In these configurations, equipment for multiple sectors of antenna coverage

share space in the site equipment racks, performing all the functions required
to operate a multiple-service, multi-sector cell site, such as:
Line interfacing
Backhaul connectivity
Baseband signal processing
Power amplification
Frequency filtering
As cellular technology has grown more sophisticated in the ways voice
and data are managed across the network, the overall power requirements
for base stations have inched steadily downward. At the same time,
advancements in amplifier technology have moved power efficiency for
these stations upward, resulting in fewer power stages required in a given
base station. And, of course, network providers and service operators have
always sought less expensive ways to deliver quality connectivity to their
customers.
The new thinking in base station design, embodied in the remote radio
head, reflects the emerging realities that drive all of these trends, improving
efficiency and reducing operational costs. The difference is in the distributed
base station concept, which separates the baseband signal processing unit,
or BBU, from the RF front-end equipment, collectively called the remote radio
head (figure 5.3).
5.3
The RRH is compact and rugged for versatile placement
5
3
The RRH contains all RF functionality, such as the transmit and receive functions, filtering, and amplification in a single weatherized outdoor module
(figures 5.4 and 5.5).
2 radomes per sector
1900 / 2500
jumper cables
for 4 branches
COM
DIPLEXER
1900
T/R1
T/R2
DIPLEXER
DIPLEXER
2500 1900
T/R3
COM
COM
COM
2500
1900
T/R4
T/R1
RRH-1900 CDMA/LTE
DIPLEXER
2500 1900
T/R2
T/R3
2500
4 branch
RRH per
sector
T/R4
RRH-WiMAX/LTE
SPM
AC power
from utility
Hybrid
fiber/
power
cable
eNodeB
Battery
and AD/DC
BBU
Wired backhaul
5.4
5
4
Typical RRH cell site architecture
5.5
Typical RRH cell site application
5: Remote Radio Heads
As a bonus, an RRH system can also provide advanced monitoring and

control features that allow operators to optimize performance from a
remote, centralized location. It allows the operator to monitor and control
the remote electrical tilt (RET) of antennas and other functions outlined by
the Antenna Interface Standards Group (AISG). An RRH can also remove the
need for tower-mounted amplifiers (TMAs) if it is installed at the top of
an antenna tower.
Because they are passively cooled, RRHs dont require fans and blowers that
can fail over time. And since they are connected to their corresponding
BBUs via fiber-optic interfaces, distance between the two units is not a
practical concern. This flexibility means the RRH solution offers several
mounting alternatives, including:
In order to promote standardization and interoperability, major RRH

manufacturers have jointly created a common protocol for communication
between the BBU and RRH. This protocol is known as the Common Public
Radio Interface, or CPRI. This standard governs the BBU-to-RRH optical
interface in RRH applications.
Further standardization is achieved through the Open Base Station
Architecture Initiative, or OBSAI. The OBSAI was originated in 2002 by
Hyundai, Nokia, Samsung, and ZTE with the objective of creating an open
market for standardized base station functional blocks. The standard defines
four primary base station functions and designates them as Reference Points
RP1, RP2, RP3, and RP4 as follows:
RP1: Communication and control
Top of the antenna tower
RP2: Transport to baseband interface
Bottom of the antenna tower
RP3: Baseband to RF interface (baseband to RRH for RRH applications)
Rooftop mounting
RP4: Power interfaces
Wall and post mounting

With the option of locating the RRH near the antenna, transmission line losses
can be reduced. Plus, this degree of mounting flexibility makes it easier to
implement, and offers more ways to remain compliant with local zoning
ordinances major advantages for this kind of deployment or upgrade.
The reference point RP3 governs RRH interfaces and serves to promote open
standards and competition in the RRH market.
5
5
Putting the power where its needed
Chapter 5 summary
In our competitive cellular marketplace, every dollar and every watt count. And, as always, necessity has proven
to be the mother of invention or at least innovation. The remote radio head architecture represents a new way
of thinking about how power is used at thousands of cell sites across the world. Its an exciting step forward for
CommScope and everyone who takes a deep interest in making the networks of today and tomorrow work
even better.
Remote radio heads (RRHs):

A new way of configuring a cell
sites base station equipment
Driven by efficient new antenna
and amplification advances
RRH advantages:
No active cooling required
Lower overall transmission
power loss
Nearly invisible form factor
Replacing coaxial cable with RRH
means less weight on the tower
5
6
CHAPTER 6
Talking and listening at the same time:
Transmission and Receiving Isolation Systems
Right now, millions of people around the world are downloading music, surfing the web,
texting, talking and listening on their mobile devices. Its probably safe to say that they are
not thinking about the science or technology that enables every download, text or conversation.
Mobile devices are simply a way of life.
Here at CommScope, were continually fascinated by the technical innovation and principles
behind wireless communication. Take transmission and receiving isolation systems, for example.
Unlike conventional landline phones, cell phones are actually radio receivers and transmitters,
so maintaining simultaneous two-way communication talking and listening during a call
is more complex than it appears.
6
1
Duplex Communications
A transmitter and receiver that
work at the same time on the
same RF device.
Isolation
The amount of separation
achieved between the
transmitter and receiver in a
duplex communication system.
In general, more isolation
translates to less interference
and clearer communications.
An RF communications system that employs this simultaneous, two-way flow of voice, data or other information is
called a duplex system. Duplex communications systems combine multiple transmit and receive channels on a shared
antenna, with information flowing both ways at the same time.
Imagine the simultaneous flow of traffic on a busy two-way street. You immediately see the importance of keeping
the two different directions of traffic separated. Just as vehicles on a busy, two-way street require clear lane markings
to avoid collisions with oncoming vehicles, duplex RF channels also must be isolated from each other to avoid
interference.
In RF terms, isolation is measured as the loss between two channel ports, either transmitter-to-transmitter or transmitter-toreceiver ports. The higher the loss, or isolation, between the two ports, the cleaner the signal.
To illustrate this concept, think about making a cell phone call from your car. This simplest of duplex systems one
transmitter and receiver pair communicating with another transmitter and receiver pair requires that both the phone
and receiving station be able to receive and transmit at the same time, allowing a normal telephone conversation to
take place (figure 6.1).
Hz
8M
15
30
es
Mil
Rx
Tx
6.1
6
2
Duplex operation between two pairs of transmitters and receivers
Telephone
Line
6: Transmission and Receiving Isolation Systems
To allow this communication to flow on a single antenna, a duplexer must be used with adequate isolation measures
(figure 6.2). Measured in dB, isolation is a critical consideration in the design of any duplex system. Without proper
isolation, a transmitter will adversely affect the performance of its associated receiver, even though they may operate
on different frequencies.
Tx
Rx
6.2
Duplexer
A device situated between
a duplexed antenna and its
associated transmitter and
receiver. A duplexers function
is to provide isolation between
the signals.
Duplexer
Tx
Rx
Two solutions: Use two antennas, or a single antenna with a duplexer
The specifications covering a particular receiver, for instance, may indicate that any RF signal outside the receivers
passband (which can be as narrow as 15 kHz) will be attenuated, or weakened, by as much as 100 dB. That
means that the transmissions power will be reduced to 1/10,000,000,000th of its original strength, making the
communication unintelligible and useless in most cases.
You might think that such a selective receiver would prevent interference from a transmitter operating on a frequency far
outside the receivers passband. After all, if the interfering signal is 5 MHz away, how could it create complications
when just being 5 kHz off the mark reduces the transmitters signal to virtually nothing? The answer lies in the
characteristics of modern receivers, and the way they can step high-frequency signals downward to achieve such
precise frequency selectivity.
6
3
Receiver Desensitization
Interference caused by
unwanted frequencies entering
a receivers upper-stage
passbands. These errant
signals create electrical
variances that impede the
receivers operation.
The first challenge: Receiver desensitization

Receiver desensitization is an inherent side effect of modern receiver design, which receives relatively high-frequency
signals (often between 700 MHz and 3500 MHz). These signals pass through frequency-lowering stages in the
receivers, which allow the receivers to feature such narrow, selective passbands (figure 6.3). Once the signal has
been lowered enough, only a small band remains and the circuitry can reject other bands within a margin measured
in dB. A receivers specification sheet will include this measurement of overall selectivity.
Desired Signal
6.3
Front-End
Selectivity
In a receiver, high-frequency signals are reduced in stages
The vulnerability is not at the end of this reducing process, but at its beginning. Remember that the initial signal was of
higher frequency, and only after multiple stages of reduction was it lowered to the point where the receiver could use it.
The receivers earlier, broader stages cannot completely reject errant signals, even those several MHz away from the
receivers operating frequency.
6
4
For optimum performance, critical voltage and current levels exist at certain points throughout the front-end stages of
a receiver. If these levels change significantly, the performance of the receiver suffers. This happens when a nearby
transmitters off-frequency signal enters the front-end stage.
Such signals can be several MHz away from a receiving frequency, and radiate from sources several thousand feet
away, and still cause significant interference (figure 6.4).
Desired Signal
6.4
Front-End
Selectivity
Unwanted frequencies (shown here as reflected arrows) can alter critical receiver voltage and current levels
6
5
Transmitter Noise
Interference experienced
by a receiver as a result of
transmission power leaking
into other nearby frequencies.
The second challenge: Transmitter noise

Transmitter noise is interference caused by carrier signals just outside of a transmitters assigned frequency. In an ideal
world, a transmitter would channel 100% of its signal power into the narrow band of frequencies assigned to its
transmission channel. In the real world, however, this level of precision is simply not possible, and the result is called
transmitter broadband noise radiation, or more commonly, transmitter noise. While the vast majority of transmission
power remains within the assigned channel, there remains a small fraction that leaks into channels above and below
the intended carrier frequency.
Modern transmitters are equipped with filter circuits that eliminate a large portion of these errant signals, but even with
these measures in place, enough transmitter noise escapes to degrade the performance of a receiver. As the chart
below illustrates, this interference effect is most pronounced at frequencies closest to the transmitters carrier frequency
(figure 6.5), but can also impact receivers operating several MHz away.
dB Down
Tx Carrier
Tx Noise
-2
6.5
Transmitter interference is most pronounced near the assigned frequency

(shown here as Tx frequency, located at zero on horizontal axis)
+2 +4 +6 +8
Freq. in MHz
Tx Freq.
Rx Freq.
We hear transmitter noise in a receiver as on-channel noise interference. Because it falls within the receivers
operating frequency, it competes with the desired signal and cannot be filtered out.
To illustrate this kind of interference, imagine having a conversation with someone in a crowded room. If everyone else is
talking, youll notice how hard it is to understand the other person, even if the overall noise level in the room is relatively
low. Thats because other voices like unwanted transmitter noise are similar to the voice youre trying to hear.
6
6
This is a key distinction between transmitter noise and receiver desensitization, which youll recall comes from signals
far from the operating frequency of the receiver. Consider again the illustration of having a conversation. Receiver
desensitization is more like loud, disruptive sounds coming from a construction site next door. The interference is not
similar to the voice youre trying to hear, but it still distracts you from the other persons voice.
The answer, as you may have guessed, is proper isolation.

Earlier in this chapter, we explored how a duplex RF system required
isolation between transmitter and receiver using the example of a call on
a mobile device. But when applying that theory to practical application,
adding isolation to the system requires some planning and a bit of math.
Remember that we have not one but two sources of interference to overcome
receiver desensitization and transmitter noise and each requires its own
solution.
Determining the amount of required isolation is a matter of examining

both sources of interference and identifying the optimal isolation level.
As shown below (figure 6.6), we see the effect of frequency on
both interfering influences, receiver desensitization (dotted line) and
transmitter noise (solid line).
It boils down to two simple questions:
While these are simple questions, each one has many more questions built
into it, such as, but not limited to:
How close together are the transmitter and receiver frequencies?
What frequency band are we using?
What is the transmitters power output?
Rx Desensitization
Tx Noise
1. How much isolation is required to prevent receiver desensitization from

the transmitters carrier, and;
2. How much isolation is required to reduce transmitter noise to a lower,
even negligible level?
Isolation required - dB
In duplex RF systems, transmitting and receiving frequencies are close to

each other. In addition, the antennas will also be physically close, or even
share a single antenna. Now that we understand the source and nature of
the two interfering elements receiver desensitization and transmitter noise
how can we overcome these interfering influences and assure reliable
operation of our paired transmitters and receivers?
While each application will have very different answers for these and
other considerations, you can usually find the answers in the equipment
manufacturers data. For the purposes of this discussion, well focus
instead on the broader use of isolation in duplex systems.
MAXIMUM
How isolation helps duplex communications overcome both challenges
Frequency separation in MHz

6.6
The effect of frequency separation on receiver desensitization

and transmitter noise
In short, the closer the frequencies are to one another, the greater the need
for isolation. For instance, the chart shows that reducing the frequency
separation from 5 MHz to 1 MHz requires double the isolation to assure
that the receiver will not be sensitized and that transmitter noise will be
reduced to negligible levels.
W
hat are the unique product specifications for the particular transmitter
and receiver were using?
6
7
Horizontal Separation
The practice of placing a
transmitters antenna a certain
distance from the same
devices receiving antenna
to achieve the necessary
isolation.
Achieving sufficient isolation

Once we have determined the requisite amount of isolation by answering our specification questions and applying
what we learned from figure 6.6, we can implement the correct degree of isolation by one of two methods:
1. Use two antennas, physically separated by a given distance, or;
2. Use the appropriate duplexer with a single-antenna system.
Lets examine the first option of two physically separated antennas. Within this option, there are two ways of achieving
the desired result: horizontal and vertical separation.
Method 1: Two antennas horizontal separation
If youve ever driven cross-country with the car radio on and heard a favorite song fade to static in mid-chorus, youve
experienced an effect called propagation loss. Propagation loss describes the way an RF signal loses intensity and
weakens (or attenuates) as it travels across distance. This effect means that placing the two antennas apart creating
horizontal separation yields a certain amount of isolation, simply by virtue of signal attenuation in the space between
them (figure 6.7).
With enough distance, we can achieve virtually perfect isolation and total protection from both receiver desensitization
and transmitter noise. However, even the most isolated RF system is vulnerable to interference from outside sources
located nearby.
Horizontal Spacing, Inches

6.7
6
8
Horizontal antenna spacing and isolation
Method 1 alternative: Two antennas vertical separation

Alternately, one may achieve the same isolating effect by separating the transmitter and receiver vertically, a practice
called vertical separation. In real-world applications, this option is more convenient and efficient as it allows both
transmitter and receiver to be mounted on a single tower, one above the other, separated by the requisite distance to
achieve sufficient isolation.
Vertical Separation
The practice of placing a
transmitter and receiver in
separate locations on a single
antenna, allowing the height
difference to achieve the
necessary isolation.
A secondary benefit of vertical separation is that this arrangement takes advantage of what is known as the
cone of silence that exists between vertically stacked antennas (figures 6.8A and 6.8B).
The cone of silence is a dead zone (technically known as a null or lack of gain) that extends above and below
communications antennas, allowing each to operate in the others shadow, so to speak.
Centerline
Cone of Silence
for antennas
mounted vertically
above one another
800 MHz
Cell Antenna
Vertical Spacing, Inches
1900 MHz
PCS Antenna
6.8A
Vertical antenna separation and isolation
6.8B
The cone of silence isolates antennas

directly above and below each other
6
9
It should also be noted, however, that the effects of

horizontal and vertical separation are not directly
additive in other words, using both methods on the
same system will not yield the full, combined isolation of
each. Antenna manufacturers can supply specific figures
on what you can expect from combining methods in any
particular application.
-20.0
Broad Azimuth Beamwidth,

Low Gain Isolation Test
800 Mhz (2 x FV90-09-00DA2)
-30.0
Isolation, dB
Comparing the characteristics of each quickly reveals the

superiority of vertical separation in practical applications
(figure 6.8C).
-40.0
-50.0
-60.0
-70.0
-80.0
-90.0
12
18
24
Separation Distance, Inches
30
-20.0
Broad Azimuth Beamwidth,

High Gain Isolation Test
800 Mhz (2 x FV105-12-00DA2)
-25.0
-30.0
Vertical Spacing 10 deg d/t
-35.0
Isolation, dB
Vertical Spacing 0 deg d/t
36
-40.0
-45.0
-50.0
-55.0
-60.0
Horizontal Spacing 0 deg d/t
-65.0
6.8C
Graphs at right describing attenuation (in dB)

against separation (in feet) for both horizontally
and vertically separated antenna pairs
-70.0
12
18
24
30
-20.0
Narrow Azimuth Beamwidth,

Low Gain Isolation Test
800 Mhz (2 x FV65-11-00DA2)
-25.0
-30.0
Isolation, dB
36
-35.0
-40.0
-45.0
-50.0
-55.0
-60.0
-65.0
6
10
12
18
24
30
36
Method 2: One antenna with a duplexer
1900
X
X
X
X
The other method of achieving the required isolation between transmitter

and receiver is the use of a duplexer in a single-antenna system. A duplexer
replaces one of the two antennas and two lengths of coaxial cable by
allowing both transmitter and receiver to operate at the same time, on the
same antenna (figure 6.9).
X
X
X
X
Antenna
Coaxial Cable carrying

combined AE and FG signals
ANT
ANT
LLCD
The cost benefits from this option can be significant, as a duplexer cuts the
needed infrastructure in half. But the cost benefits are secondary to the other
advantages, including:
AE
ANT
LLCD
FG
AE
ANT
LLCD
FG
AE
LLCD
FG
AE
FG
Duplexer
(4 Places)
AE Block signal
Isolation. A duplexer reliably isolates transmitter and receiver, regardless

of external circumstances or terrain.
T/R1
T/R2
T/R3
T/R4
T/R1
RRH-1900AE BLOCK
Antenna pattern. Without a duplexer, two separated antennas are

required. Whether arranged in a horizontally or vertically separated
configuration, they cannot occupy the same space. This separation means
that the coverage area of either the transmitter or receiver may be larger
or smaller than the other, a variable that a duplexer eliminates.
T/R2
T/R3
T/R4

FG Block signal
RRH-1900AE BLOCK
SPM
T ower space. Leasing tower space is expensive and space on the tower
is at a premium. By building or leasing only one tower instead of two,
operators can realize lower total cost of ownership.
These are all good reasons to opt for a single antenna with a duplexer,
but, as with every advantage in engineering, there are drawbacks as well.
Well explore these considerations a bit further on, but, for now, lets examine
how a duplexer actually works and how to choose the right one for a
particular application.
BBU
6.9
A typical cell site duplexer configuration
6
11
Considerations in choosing a duplexer
Losses through the duplexer
There are two distinct families of duplexers used in two-way RF

communications: the bandpass duplexer and the band-reject duplexer.
To choose the right option, its important to consider the requirements
of the system and what the correct duplexer must do. For the best results,
a duplexer must:
As a matter of course, the signal strength of both the transmitter and the
receiver are reduced slightly in the process of passing through the duplexer.
These losses are called insertion loss: transmitter to antenna and insertion
loss: receiver to antenna. Like losses caused by other forms of attenuation,
these duplexer losses are measured in dB and tend to increase as frequency
separation between transmitter and receiver decreases (figure 6.10).
1. Be designed to operate in the systems frequency band

2. Be able to handle the transmitters power output
Insertion Loss:
Transmitter to Antenna
3. Operate at or below the systems frequency separation

4. Create minimal power loss to transmit and receive signals
Insertion
Loss
5. Provide at least a minimum level of transmitter noise rejection
Reduced Power
(Watts)
6. Deliver sufficient isolation to prevent receiver desensitization
0.5 dB
11%
These last two factors relate specifically to isolation and prevention of

interference. In both cases, protection must meet a minimum threshold,
but there is no hard upper limit, and no harm in exceeding specified
isolation levels.
1.0 dB
20%
2.0 dB
37%
Insertion Loss:
Receiver to Antenna
Insertion
Loss
6.10
6
12
Reduced Strength
(Microvolts)
0.5 dB
5%
1.0 dB
11%
2.0 dB
20%
Equivalent signal power loss at discrete duplexer insertion loss levels
The bandpass cavity

The distinguishing feature of the bandpass duplexers design is the bandpass cavity. The bandpass cavity works
as a filter of RF frequencies, allowing a narrow band of desired frequencies to reach the receiver and attenuating
frequencies outside this band. Energy is fed into the cavity by means of a coupling loop. This energizes the resonant
circuit formed by the inner and outer conductors. A second loop couples energy from the resonant circuit to the output
(figure 6.11). The loops determine the selectivity of the bandpass cavity.
YIG Sphere
Coupling Loops
RF In
YIG Coupling
RF Out
6.11
Bandpass Cavity
A frequency filter that limits the
channels that pass through the
filter to a select set of frequencies.
Other frequencies are prevented
from passing. Most devices have
multi-stage bandpass cavities that
filter out different frequencies at
each stage.
Resonant Frequency
The natural tendency of a system
to oscillate with larger amplitude
at particular frequencies. At these
frequencies, even small periodic
driving forces can produce large
amplitude oscillations.
The operation of a coupling loop
Power Level
Power Level
The narrow band of desired frequencies that pass through the cavity experience only slight loss and are all within a
few thousand cycles of the cavitys resonant frequency. The effect of multiple frequencies, transmitted at equal power,
on a bandpass cavity is illustrated below (figure 6.12).
Frequency
6.12
Frequency
Attenuation of undesired frequencies passing through a bandpass duplexer

6
13
In cases where a single bandpass cavity cannot provide enough rejection to

undesired frequencies, the addition of more cavities in sequence can further
refine selectivity. While this results in additional insertion loss, selectivity can
be increased substantially.
AMPL (dBr) vs. FREQ (Hz)
0.0
-1.5
-3.0
-4.5
-6.0
-7.5
bandwidth
amplitude
The selectivity of a bandpass cavity is usually illustrated in a frequency

response curve. This curve describes the degree of attenuation provided
by the cavity at discrete frequencies above and below the cavitys resonant
frequency. The curve also shows the insertion loss to the desired signal at the
cavitys resonant frequency (figure 6.13).
center frequency
-9.0
-10.5
-12.0
6.13
6
14
f1
f0
f2
The effect of bandpass filter on multiple frequencies
The bandpass duplexer
The transmitters output signal is filtered through the

transmitter bandpass cavities of the duplexer on its way
to the antenna, with the desired frequencies experiencing
very little loss. At the same time, undesired frequencies
are attenuated significantly, reducing the transmitter noise
that could otherwise interfere with the signal.
As an added bonus, this reduced transmitter noise not
only improves the signal to our own receivers, but those
operating on different frequencies as well by limiting
errant frequencies, we reduce the likelihood of receiver
desensitization for other users on entirely different
channels.
Gain = Vout
Vin
c
Pass Band
Stop Band
0dB
-3dB
Stop Band
3dB (45)
Frequency Response
Bandpass Duplexer
A duplexer that uses multiple
bandpass cavities to separate
transmitter and receiver signals,
allowing for simultaneous twoway communications.
Slope =
-20dB/Decade
Bandwidth
Output
It is the combination of two or more of these bandpass

cavities interconnected in a duplex configuration that
makes a bandpass duplexer work. One or more of the
cavities are placed in the transmitter part of the duplexer,
tuned to allow only the narrow band of transmitting
frequencies to pass freely. Similarly, those cavities in the
receiving part of the duplexer are tuned to the narrow
band of receiving frequencies (figure 6.14).
Slope =
-20dB/Decade
-dB
center
Frequency (Hz)
(Logarithmic Scale)
Phase
+90
Phase
Shift
-90
6.14
Frequency
The effect of bandpass filter on multiple frequencies
Similarly, the bandpass cavities on the receiver part of the duplexer (again, usually two or more cavities in a duplex
configuration) are resonant to receive only assigned frequencies. As with the transmitters bandpass cavities, there is
a modest loss of power in the process of receiving, but unwanted frequencies are attenuated to negligible levels.
The net effect is that off-frequency signals are virtually invisible to the receiver, protecting it from desensitization
not only from its own corresponding transmitter, but from others operating on completely different frequencies.
6
15
Isolating the best solution
Chapter 6 summary
Modern two-way communications networks must contend with the interfering effects of both receiver desensitization
and transmitter noise. While a two-antenna solution is one way to address these factors, most practical applications
must contend with space, cost and antenna availability limits. In most cases, a bandpass duplexer provides the
requisite isolation between transmitter and receiver, even when operating on the same antenna.
Duplex RF communications:
With the isolating properties afforded by a bandpass duplexer, both transmitter and receiver can operate efficiently
while reducing transmitter noise and receiver desensitization. The result is a compact, efficient and reliable
communications network that easily accommodates two-way communication of voice and data.
Behind every simple call or text on millions of mobile devices at any given moment is a world of complex science and
technology at work and now you have a better understanding of the important role that transmission and receiving
isolation systems play in RF communications.
Allow simultaneous two-way
signal traffic
Inherently vulnerable to
interference and require

isolation to work efficiently
Sources of interference:
Receiver desensitization
Transmitter noise
Isolation:
Techniques that prevent both
kinds of interference
Measured in dB; the higher
the dB loss, or attenuation,

the clearer the signal
Antenna solutions:
Polarization separation
Horizontal separation
Vertical separation
Addition of duplexer
Duplexer choices:
Bandpass duplexer
Band-reject duplexer
6
16
CHAPTER 7
The many ways to connect:
RF Transmission Lines
Look around your home and office and youll see wires, cords and cables everywhere.
In your office, network cables connect your computer to the outside world. In your living room,
coaxial cables bring in premium programming and high-definition video cables feed it to your
flat-screen TV. In any room of the house, you may have a reliable land-line telephone that can
reach out to virtually any person on the planet, all through a slender phone line of twisted copper.
Indoors and out, these connections manage the flow of information that drives our daily lives.
CommScope is dedicated to the continuous improvement of cable technologies that have an
impact on every life, every day.
Different cables are made for an amazing variety of uses, but they all have one thing in common:
they transmit power and patterns from a transmitting source to a receiving destination.
In RF applications, these cables are the hard links that connect antennas to base stations.
They are collectively known as transmission lines.
7
1
Transmission Line
In RF applications, the physical
medium that conducts RF
power from one point to
another, usually between a
base station and an antenna.
Long ago, transmission lines were primarily used for the movement of electrical energy. Multi-conductor transmission
lines could efficiently connect a power source, like a generator or battery, to a device that would consume that
energy. This kind of configuration is common even today. You create a small-scale version of it every time you use an
extension cord to connect an outlet to an appliance.
As telephone technology emerged, the limitations of this technique soon became apparent. When passing multiple
circuits along a single transmission line, the signals proved highly vulnerable to external interference. To address
this problem, Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a new type of cable in the 1930s. It was a shielded cable
consisting of an inner wire surrounded by non-conductive material called a dielectric. This nonconductive material
was then surrounded by an outer, sleeve-shaped conductor, and the whole assembly was finally encased in an
insulating cover. If this design sounds familiar, its because youve seen it before. This was the first coaxial cable,
essentially the same design used today for data transmission (figure 7.1).
Outer conductor
Nonconductive
dielectric layer
Inner
conductor
Outer insulating jacket
7.1
7
2
The basic construction of a coaxial cable
7: RF Transmission Lines
In RF applications, coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequencies that only penetrate the outer layer
of a solid conductor, a transfer known as the skin effect. The benefit of this arrangement is that it allows the outer
surface of the outer conductor to be grounded.
Signals pass along a coaxial cable by riding the outer surface of the interior conductor and the inner surface of
the outer conductor with a nonconductive dielectric layer between them. As a result, the only escape points for the
energy carried on the line are at either end exactly where theyre needed for clear transmission.
Coaxial Cable
A transmission line built to
prevent interference while
carrying multiple signals.
It consists of an inner core
conductor and an outer sleeve
conductor, separated by a
nonconductive dielectric layer.
Coaxial Cable Types

Modern coaxial cables used in RF transmission can be grouped into three main categories: solid dielectric, air
dielectric and foam dielectric. The construction of each category makes each of them suited to particular uses.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Flexible
High signal loss
Easy to install
Prone to deterioration
Inexpensive
RF signal leakage
through outer conductor
No pressurization required
Low signal loss
High initial costs
High power and

frequency capacity
Pressurization logistics
Vulnerability to moisture
Long operational life

Reduced power loss
No pressurization required
Moderately priced
Long operational life
Enhanced crush resistance
Slightly more loss

than air dielectric
More expensive than
solid dielectric
Solid dielectric cables employ a flexible inner conductor

(stranded or woven, as opposed to a solid wire), covered by
solid extruded polyethylene insulation. The outer conductor is
braided, and multiple layers can be stacked with shielding foil
between them. The outer insulation is a polyethylene jacket.
Air dielectric cables are similar to the solid variety except that
they employ open space as the inner nonconductive layer. This
cavity is supported with small insulating spacers that maintain
the open channel and are pressurized to keep out moisture.
Foam dielectric cables employ a solid, as opposed to
stranded, copper wire core. The outer conductor is generally
smooth aluminum, corrugated aluminum or corrugated copper.
The inner nonconductive layer is made of polymer foam, which
combines several key advantages from both solid and air
dielectric cable varieties. Its power loss and cost characteristics
lay between the two other options, but foam also offers
practical advantages that make it the preferred choice in many
modern two-way RF applications.
7
3
The mechanical elements of coaxial cable

Several material choices are available for both the conductive and
nonconductive elements of coaxial cable. The specific needs of a particular
use determine which combination is most efficient and affordable. Below,
you can see two examples of the many varieties available (figure 7.2). Note
how they feature different conductive components, but both have the same
solid dielectric insulator and outer jacket.
Signal energy is carried along the inner and outer conductor. You will notice
that, in both cases, the surface area of the outer conductor is much greater
than that of the inner conductor. Therefore, the conductive properties of the
inner conductor must be as efficient as possible. Thats why highly conductive
copper is almost universally preferred.
7.2
7
4
Corrugated copper (left) and smooth-wall aluminum (right) coaxial cables
Braided copper is the most commonly used outer conductor on solid

dielectric cables. Copper is again chosen for its exceptional conductivity,
and it is used in a braided form to improve its flexibility. Solid copper or
aluminum material, either corrugated or smooth-walled, is most often used
for foam or air dielectric cables. The choice between aluminum and copper
often comes down to cost while aluminum is less expensive than copper, it
also has lower conductivity.
In RF transmission lines, the preferred dielectric material is polyethylene due
to its low loss characteristics and long life span. This material can be used
in either solid or foam dielectric constructions, or as the spacers in an air
dielectric design. For high-power applications, Teflon is substituted for
its high melting temperature due to the higher operational temperatures.
Teflon is more expensive, so there are various other materials with costs and
temperature resistances between those of polyethylene and Teflon.
HELIAX 3.0 is the single-source solution with hybrid fiber and

coaxial options that deliver better performance for any network.
Electrical properties of coaxial cable

Signal loss, or attenuation, is a significant consideration in the design of a cable. The loss occurs in three ways:
1. Conductor loss is direct function of the conductive properties of the cables materials.
2. RF leakage is a measure of the effectiveness of a cables shielding.
3. Insulation loss is a fixed degree of attenuation inherent in the material of the cables dielectric layer.
Attenuation is measured in decibels; in the specific case of transmission lines, attenuation is expressed in either
decibels per 100 feet of cable length or decibels per 100 meters of cable length.
Attenuation
Measured in decibels (dB),
this is the loss of power
experienced by an RF signal
as it moves from one point
to another. Transmission line
attenuation is expressed in
either decibels per 100 feet
(dB/100 feet) of cable length,
or decibels per 100 meters
(dB/100m) of cable length.
How well these losses are managed depends on such factors as the size and length of the cable, the conductivity of
the materials used in the cable, the frequencies traveling along the cable and the effectiveness of its shielding. There
are general physical rules governing how these factors impact attenuation, such as:
Cable size. As a rule, a cables conductor loss will decrease as its size increases. This is due to a larger cables
broader cross-section and its corresponding increase in conductive area.
Cable design. Solid outer conductors allow less RF leakage than braided ones, though at the expense of
flexibility.
ielectric material choice. By choosing any particular dielectric material, you can anticipate a predictable level
D
of insulation loss. As explained earlier, air dielectric offers the lowest insulation loss, while solid dielectric comes
with the highest loss.
Assigned frequency. All three types of attenuation directly increase as a function of the frequency of the cables
signal. The higher the frequency and the shorter the wavelength, the greater the loss in any given cable.
This complex balancing act of performance, ease-of-handling and cost means no single transmission line design is
ideal for all, or even most, circumstances. Each design is an exercise in compromise between these factors.
7
5
Ohm
The unit of electrical resistance.
In terms of RF transmission
lines, ohms refer to the
inherent, or characteristic,
loss over a length of cable.
Characteristic impedance
Characteristic impedance, commonly called cable impedance, is a measurement of the electrical resistance of an RF
transmission line as measured in ohms. The figure is derived by a complex formula involving the ratio between the
cables two conductors. As a general rule the industry standard impedance for RF cable is usually 50 ohms (though
some applications require 75 ohms).
This expected degree of impedance can be affected by imperfections or damage in the cable itself. A deep dent in
the outer wall of a coaxial cable can cause its impedance to vary from its standard level. This disruption is called a
discontinuity, or a change in the distance between the inner and outer conductors, as you might see from a squashed
cable. The signal refelects within the cable, creating the same loss of performance as a mismatch between cable and
antenna (chapter 3).
This is one reason that a cables flexibility and crush resistance are such crucial factors damage during installation is
a frequent source of discontinuity and can be expensive and time-consuming to remedy.
Velocity of propagation
Simply stated, the velocity of propagation within a coaxial cable is the speed at which a signal can travel along
that cable. Velocity is governed by the amount and type of dielectric used, and is expressed as a percentage of
the speed of light. It can range from 67 percent for solid dielectric cables up to 92 percent for air dielectric cables.
However, since the speed of light is more than 670 million miles per hour, velocity is rarely a concern in itself, though
there are exceptions. For example, velocity becomes significant in cases where phasing is required (chapter 3).
7
6
Power handling capability
RF leakage
The amount of power that a particular transmission line can handle is

dictated by two measurements of temperature: the ambient temperature
(the temperature of the air surrounding the cable) and the temperature of
the cable itself under ordinary operation.
As its name suggests, RF leakage is a function of the physical ways an RF

signal can leak out of a transmission line. In the case of a cable with a
braided outer conductor, there are countless tiny openings in the cable.
As with a leaky garden hose, the more power or pressure you apply,
the more significantly those leaks affect performance.
As weve seen, power loss is inherent in any cable design, and is dependent
upon the kind of dielectric used in the line. This lost RF power translates
to heat, so the greater the attenuation within a cable, the more heat it will
generate from that lost energy. Likewise, the greater the frequency passing
along any given cable, the more heat it will generate as a function of loss.
Heat resistance is a critical factor in cable design. For instance, foam
dielectrics begin to soften near 180 degrees Fahrenheit, so an engineer
choosing the right transmission line will need to be certain that the combined
internal and ambient temperatures wont exceed 180 degrees. If the cable
exceeds its limit, the softened dielectric will allow the inner conductor to shift,
creating a discontinuity. If it should contact the outer conductor, the result
would be a shorted cable. To help engineers make the right choice and
prevent such failures, cable manufacturers like CommScope rate each type
of cable for certain power levels at certain ambient temperatures.
In addition to attenuation, RF leakage causes another challenge when

several high-power braided coaxial cables are arrayed in close proximity
to one another. The leakage can cause interference between the cables at
their endpoints, such as when they connect to antennas,
multi-couplers, duplexers and so forth (chapter 8). Faulty connections can
make this problem worse.
As with power handling, RF leakage is included in a cables specifications
to help engineers choose the best option for any particular configuration,
especially in circumstances where many cables terminate close together.
7
7
Environmental Factors
The climate and setting of a
cable installation dictates what
kind of cable should be used.
Considerations include:
Sunlight UV exposure
Humidity and moisture
Temperature extremes
Cable life expectancy

The expected useful life span of a coaxial transmission line depends largely upon environmental factors. Since
engineers have little control over these factors, they must compensate by choosing the right design with the right
materials to assure the longest possible life span.
The composition of the cables outer jacket is one of the more obvious considerations. Most flexible and semi-flexible
coaxial line jackets use polyethylene, polypropylene, or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). All three options are vulnerable to
long-term sun exposure, so manufacturers incorporate carbon black into the resin to improve the jackets resistance to
aging under ultraviolet light, which can extend their operational lives up to 20 years of service. This improvement is
why so much coaxial cable you see in household use is black.
Moisture and humidity are important factors as well. While water can infiltrate through tiny nicks, cuts or age cracks
in the cable, the single most common form of moisture infiltration is through improperly sealed connectors on the ends
of the cable. Even humid air present inside the connector can condense as temperatures fall, resulting in liquid water
that wicks deeper into the cable along the outer conductors braid. This can potentially corrupt the entire cable and
short the inner and outer conductors, particularly in the connectors themselves. The result is increased signal reflections
within the cable and degraded passive modulation performance.
7
8
Connectors
As the number of modern RF applications has grown, the technology used to
connect a cable to its terminus has evolved. The simple designs created in the
1940s for military uses have diversified and improved into a variety of types such
as these (figures 7.3 through 7.8).
UHF connectors are the oldest and most popular type still in use for two-way
communications. They are rugged, reliable and easy to install, which is why they
are the preferred choice for applications with frequencies up to 300 MHz.
BNC connectors are small, quick-disconnect versions with a bayonet-style locking
coupling. These are often used on narrow cables connecting equipment.
7.3
DIN coax connector
7.4
BNC coax connector
TNC connectors are similar to BNC connectors, but include threaded connections
that keep them secure in environments where vibration is a concern.
Type-N connectors are an industry favorite for RF communications with frequencies
above 300 MHz, where UHF connectors are not suitable. Type-N connectors may
be rated to perform at 10 GHz or even higher.
EIA flanges are used primarily on pressurized air dielectric cables operating above
450 MHz. These connectors offer the standard 50 ohms of impedance and
typically offer higher voltage characteristics than Type-N connectors.
DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normenausschuss) connectors are available in several
sizes and have come to dominate the RF communication industry as a whole.
They have a larger cross-section than Type-N connectors, and better withstand the
rigors of field installation.
7.5
TNC coax connector
7.6
Type N connector
For exceptionally congested installations with multiple service carriers operating

in the 700, 800, 900 and 1900 MHz bands, silver-plated Type-N or DIN
connectors are required.
7.7
EIA flange coax connector
7.8
UHF coax connector

7
9
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

(VSWR)
A key measurement of cable
performance and signal
quality. It quantifies the amount
of signal reflected backward
along a cable to its source.
Theoretically, perfect operation
yields a VSWR value of 1.0,
or unity, meaning zero
reflections.
Installation step 1: Cable choice
Installation step 2: Field testing
As discussed above, choosing an appropriate cable

depends on knowing:
Once you have selected and installed the cable that

best performs to your applications priorities, the process
of fine-tuning that performance can begin. There are three
tests you would likely perform: inner and outer conductor
continuity, shorts between conductors, and a voltage
standing wave ratio (VSWR) test.
Which frequencies it will carry

How much loss is tolerable
Where it will be installed
What kind of budget limits exist
In most cases, there will be more than one acceptable
cable solution for any one of these four criteria, but
the key is to get the greatest possible benefit against
all four. For instance, if we look at cost as the primary
driver, we see that smaller-diameter cables cost less to
purchase and install, but will need more upkeep and
eventual replacement. We may also consider a less
expensive option with a higher rate of loss, intending
to compensate for that loss through greater RF power
generation on one end of the cable or increased
antenna gain on the other.
7
10
The first two tests are simple and direct measurements

of impedance in the cable, performed with an ohmmeter.
Any physical disruption of the cables integrity would be
revealed in a non-standard level of impedance, and
you could begin inspecting the cable for the source of
the problem.
The third option, the VSWR test, is an indirect but
ultimately more revealing measurement of overall line
performance. Basically, the VSWR test measures the
amount of signal reflection taking place within the cable.
Measuring both forward and reflected power with a
wattmeter, you can compare the values against the cable
manufacturers conversion chart for that particular type of
cable. If everything is functioning correctly, the observed
amount of reflected energy should fall within expected
limits. Poorly made connections or connections with
mismatched impedance will quickly become obvious. This
process is explained in more detail early in chapter three.
Installation step 3: Troubleshooting

Reduced RF communication
performance can be rooted in any
number of problems, occurring
in any component in the system.
When the antenna and transmitter
have been ruled out as potential
trouble spots, its time to examine the
transmission lines because a lot of
things can go wrong with cables.
Here are just a few things that can
cause system performance to drop
suddenly:
eather. A good place to start is to
W
visit the site itself and speak to those
familiar with recent weather trends.
A bad storm, lightning, hail or high
winds can damage cables and
loosen connectors.
L ocal phenomena. In addition to
weather, other local events can
impact performance. Explosions
from nearby mining operations,
small earthquakes, even a stray
bullet from a hunters gun have been
identified as culprits.
Water infiltration. As discussed

earlier, water is perhaps a
cables greatest enemy. Checking
connectors for signs of moisture,
double-checking their seals, and
examining the cable itself for any
new damage will help confirm or
rule out water as a cause.
In any event, once the damage
has been identified, that section of
cable cannot be taped or otherwise
repaired. It must be replaced.
Long-term system performance
degradation can be just as serious,
and is often caused by cable aging.
While metal-sheath cables are
almost impervious to aging when
properly installed, inferior cables
can age and crack with extended
exposure to the suns UV rays and
extreme temperatures.
Localizing the problem
If your VSWR measurements reveal
a high level of reflection say, 20
percent above the level indicated by
the manufacturers table then, most
likely, your cable is experiencing
an open, a short or a partial short
somewhere along its length or in a
connector. To confirm this, you could
perform the following tests:
1. Open the top of the cable and

type of connector for signs of
short the inner and outer conductors
moisture. For best results, check
(the cable ground should be
connectors during cool weather
removed for this). Measure
or at night, where any trapped
impedance between the conductors
vapor will have condensed into
with an ohmmeter. An intact cable
more visible droplets.
will show low impedance between
4. Practice good preventative
the two, while high impedance
maintenance. Proper installations
will reveal damage to the outer
reduce the need for ongoing
conductor. This kind of damage
maintenance, but vigilance is
is hard to locate. If economically
always to your benefit. Any
feasible, replacement may be the
time an installation is realigned
best option.
or painted, its smart to inspect
2. Remove the short between the
the cables and connectors.
conductors and test impedance
Identifying small problems before
again. In this instance, an intact
they become big problems
cable will show high impedance,
can save a great deal of time
while low impedance may indicate
and money and minimize lost
damage to the inner conductor that
performance.
creates a short somewhere within
In summary, a solid understanding
the cable. The damage required to
of the construction of cables
cause this kind of fault often leaves
helps you understand their best
more obvious traces on the outer
applications, where they may be
jacket and is easier to identify.
vulnerable, and where to look when
3. Examine the connectors themselves. a fault is suspected.
Type-N connectors are particularly
vulnerable to misalignment and pin
breakage, which can result in a
short. Also, as the primary source
for any potential water infiltration,
its a good idea to examine any
7
11
Transmission lines connect the world
Chapter 7 summary
While so much of modern RF communication is comprised of radio energy radiated through the air, the critical links
on either end depend on the right kind of transmission line cable and the right connectors between base station
and antenna.
RF Transmission Lines:
As a physical link, these cables must be able to flex where theyre needed, withstand the punishing elements, and
faithfully carry the frequencies that eventually reach you as your internet connection, land-line call, or mobile phone
call virtually anywhere in the world.
You live among small-scale examples of the same technology at home. From the USB cord on your computer mouse
to the century-old design of your telephones wall cord, each cable is designed to carry specific frequencies over
specific lengths, each one for a unique purpose. As a leading provider of coaxial and other transmission line
products for networks all over the world, CommScope is at the forefront of the race to develop innovative solutions
that will address the future of technology tomorrow.
The bridge between base station

and antenna
Adapted from designs once used
to carry simple electricity
Coaxial cable:
Characterized by insulated inner
and outer conductors
Solid dielectric
Air dielectric
Foam dielectric
Mechanics and materials:
Copper used for inner conductor
Copper or aluminum used for
outer conductor
Polyethylene used for dielectric
insulation
Various connectors for different
applications
Design considerations:
Cable impedance
Velocity of propagation
Power-handling capability
Heat and frequency limits
Measuring performance:
Conductor loss
RF leakage
Insulation loss
VSWR testing and fault detection
7
12
CHAPTER 8
Making every connection count:
Passive Intermodulation (PIM) Fundamentals
Its a fact of life for electronic devices: when something isnt working
correctly, we check the connections. From the most complex cellular
transmission system to the simplest toaster, junctions between cables
and components are the most likely place for problems to occur.
But beyond the obvious culprits like poor connections, water
infiltration or mechanical issues, a communications systems
Passive Intermodulation (PIM)

A potential side effect of
having more than one
high-powered signal operating
on a passive device such as a
cable or antenna. PIM occurs
at non-linear points in a system
such as junctions, connections
or interfaces between dissimilar
metal conductors, creating
interfering frequencies that can
decrease efficiency. The higher
the signal amplitude, or power,
the greater the effect.
connections can also play host to other problems. One example is

passive intermodulation (PIM), an inherent product of the systems
frequencies and their associated harmonics. PIM can create
undesirable sideband frequencies that interfere with the systems
assigned frequencies. It takes a knowledgeable partner like
CommScope to choose the right components and assist in the
design and installation of a communications system.
8
1
Intermodulation explained
The growing demand for wireless services has
increased the complexity of system design and the
resources to support that demand. As a result,
there are more RF components, configurations and
spectrums utilized in the RF path. Included in these
additional components are passive devices that can
contribute to PIM. With a good understanding of
these PIM contributors, we can proactively address
PIM and its impact on the system noise floor.
Because PIM will act as a component of the overall
noise floor, we will first discuss the components
of system noise and how noise impacts network
performance. The system uplink noise floor is
dynamic and affected by PIM and other factors.
It is also driven by the number of active users. For
every new user added to the site, additional noise
is added to the network, causing a noise rise.
As new users raise the noise floor, each user must
deliver a higher power transmit signal to overcome
the increased noise. This means the user must be
closer to the receiving cell tower. Consequently, the
cell coverage area is reduced.
There is a theoretical limit to noise rise and a
consequent corresponding limit to the number of
users that can be added. This theoretical maximum
number of users is referred to as the pole
capacity of the network.
8
2
Uplink pole capacity is proportional to the system

signal-to-interference/noise ratio (SIR) and several
other variables and, for WCDMA networks,
can be estimated using the following widely
accepted formula:
An example pole capacity calculation estimating

the uplink capacity for a WCDMA cell site is
shown as follows:
Np = (W / R)/((1+ f) * AF *10^(EbNo/10))
where
W = 3.84 Mhz (value for 3G UMTS)
R = 1
2,200 bits/second (value for
CS12.2K for 3G UMTS voice)
f = 65% (typical network value)
AF = 50% (typical network value)
Np = Pole capacity
Np = Pole Capacity
W = Spreading bandwidth
R = Users radio bit-rate
Eb/No = 5 dB (typical value for 3G UMTS)
f = R atio of other-cell interference to

in-cell interference
Np = (3840000 Mhz / 12200 bit/s) /

((1+0.65) * 0.50 * 10^(5 / 10))
Np = 20.6 users maximum
AF = Activity factor
Eb/No = R atio of energy per information

bit to power spectral density of
noise + interference
Notes:
1) Basically, Eb/No represents the amount of
gain that must be provided above noise and
interference for acceptable system performance
2) E
b/No can be expressed as Eb/No =
Processing Gain + SIR, where SIR is the Signalto-Interference/Noise ratio
3) F or 3G voice at a CS12.2K data rate, the
Eb/No requirement is typically 5 dB
We can see from the above pole capacity

equations that increases in the system noise floor
can degrade system performance, increase system
power consumption and reduce cell coverage
area. Because PIM, when not mitigated, can be
a significant contributor to noise, it is clear now
the serious impact it can have on wireless network
performance.
Now that we have developed an understanding
of the system level impact of PIM, we will describe
specifically how PIM is generated and how it can
be mitigated.
8: Passive Intermodulation Fundamentals
Generally speaking, intermodulation is the result of two or more frequencies (often, a duplexed systems receiving and
transmitting frequencies) interacting with one another according to certain mathematical relationships related to their
specific frequencies. The effect creates errant signals that contribute to noise and interfere with the systems operation.
Passive intermodulation is a particular kind of intermodulation that takes place in the passive parts of a system such as
cables and antennas often, often at connections that create nonlinearity in the system.
As the complexity of communications systems has increased, so has the potential for PIM, making it a top priority for
service providers to manage its effects. In a cellular base station, for example, a transmitting frequency can create PIM
interference in its own receiving frequency, or vice versa. Where PIM occurs depends on the separation of the two main
frequencies, as shown in the chart below (figure 8.1).
Understanding 2A-B
TX (F1) or A = 869 MHz
Calculating potential PIM

In this example, transmission
frequency A (869 MHz) and
transmission frequency B (894
MHz) create potential PIM
problems at 2A-B (844 MHz)
and at 2B-A (919 MHz).
This means we must expect
troublesome interference if our
reception frequencies include
844 MHz or 919 Mhz.
Nonlinearity
A location within an electrical
circuit where voltage does
not remain consistently
proportional to power. This
effect is caused by imperfect
connections between
components and cables.
TX (F2) or B = 894 MHz
2A-B RX PIM = 844 MHz

3rd Order
2A-B RX PIM RX PIM
8.1
Calculating where PIM will occur, based on two example frequencies, A and B; in this example, PIM occurs at 2A-B (a common
3rd order product) and again at 2B-A
8
3
Managing PIM
Since we dont always have the freedom to select
frequencies that avoid PIM issues, we need to look
at other methods of reducing its influence in our
communications system. Reducing PIM levels starts with
reducing nonlinearity in the circuit.
Nonlinearity in a passive RF circuit typically results
from current rectification at the conductor joints and
mechanical junctions. Resolving nonlinearity generally
means improving connections throughout the RF path of
the system. This means addressing problems such as:
Improper connector attachment
Poorly torqued connections with incorrect contact
pressure
Contamination or corrosion of conducting surfaces
Inadequate plating on rust-prone ferromagnetic
components
Poor connections due to cold solder joints
The most common and visible contributors to high PIM
levels in the system are associated with the mechanical
and physical integrity of the connections in the RF
path. Therefore, those who deal directly with the RF
components in the field, such as installers, service
technicians and test engineers are integral in the battle
against PIM. They will require training in proper field
installation, proper use of PIM test equipment and a
fundamental understanding of PIM.
8
4
In order to manage PIM, we also need to understand

the environment in which we are performing the PIM
testing. For a manufacturer, it is now common for PIM
to be tested in a controlled RF environment such as an
anechoic chamber. This is done to ensure the device
under test has an isolated and quiet RF environment
to confirm the PIM performance as it relates to the
published manufacturer specification.
Field testing presents an entirely different set of
challenges if PIM performance testing is required. This is
not an isolated or quiet RF environment. This noisy RF
environment can negatively impact PIM or provide false
PIM levels that are a direct result of the environment. In
other words, you may obtain PIM levels in your testing
that are not reflective of the actual device under test, but
rather the RF environment in which it is tested. Shown
on the next page are some examples of base station
antenna testing where the environment impacted the PIM
measured in the field.
Although conditions such as external RF signals or the
test environment may not be controlled, the selected
components, installation practices and testing are within
our control. Education and awareness are the first steps
in managing the difficulties associated with field PIM
testing.
System PIM Calculators

Reducing PIM in the RF Path
is important and challenging.
CommScope provides several
PIM system calculators to support
your RF Path analysis.
Download the latest tools below.
PIM and VSWR

System Calculator (Global)
Learn more
Band and Block Second and

Third Order PIM Calculator
(North America)
Learn more
Band and Block Second and

Third Order PIM Calculator
(EMEA)
Learn more
8: Passive Intermodulation Fundamentals
Clear sky
-123 dBm (-145 dBc)
Towards forklift
-84 dBm (-127 dBc)
Person nearby with

phone, keys, adapters,
and badge
-94 dBm (-137 dBc)
Near shelter
-102 dBm (-145 dBc)
Pointed at fence
-102 dBm (-145 dBc)
8.2
PIM Measurements Field Observations

On-site antenna measurements with iQA200 portable PIM
Clear sky RF field-of-view required to avoid any secondary PIM sources which could cause false PIM failure
Near cabinet and test

equipment
-96 dBm (-139 dBc)
8
5
Researching, testing and installing
Chapter 8 summary
The severity of PIM is directly related to signal amplitude, or power. Thats why PIM performance of different RF
components specify power levels along with their other properties. Typically, this figure is calculated by applying two
signals of close frequencies at 20 watts (+43 dBm), the industry standard for PIM testing. This standard helps assure
that comparisons between different products yield meaningful answers.
Passive intermodulation (PIM):

Caused by interactions
between multiple frequencies
and their harmonics
Understanding the PIM properties of components like cables, connectors, combiners, filters, tower-mounted amplifiers
and antennas allows you to design a system with minimal exposure to potential PIM issues. Its a meticulous process,
but its essential to preventing potentially crippling PIM problems later on:
C
hoose a knowledgeable provider that has demonstrated experience in the PIM specification of their products
one who can help you make the right component choices. CommScope makes this expertise freely available to
our customers.
Test your component performance against PIM specifications to assure trouble-free operation later on.
U
se trained installers certified in preparation and installation techniques. Since they will be managing connections,
and connections are the source of PIM, their skill is your best guarantee against problems.
By following these recommendations, you can count on an RF system that will operate efficiently, virtually free of
troublesome PIM effects.
PIM: best addressed at the planning stage
In engineering, connections are perennial trouble spots. Each connection, junction and interface is an opportunity for
something to go wrong, including passive intermodulation (PIM).
The only way to design the system to mitigate PIM is to study and test the PIM specifications of the components
comprising that system, which is why partnership with CommScope is so vital. We provide the experience and
insight to spot potential trouble early in the process. Visit the PIM-dedicated portal of our website, to learn how we
can assist you with awareness, prevention, identification, resolution and support.
8
6
Can cause transmission or

receiver frequencies to interfere
with each other
Occurs as a byproduct of
nonlinearity in a circuit, such
as at a connection
A critical consideration in the
selection of components and
installation of those components
in an RF system
CHAPTER 9
The infrastructure behind the connection:
Microwave Backhaul
Imagine two kids, each standing in their own backyards, talking
to each other on soup cans connected by a string. This is the
simplest of connections, nothing more than two users on a direct,
Backhaul
The process of connecting two
ends of a transmission through
a central routing point.
point-to-point, dedicated line. This same simplicity applies if we

replace the cans with walkie-talkies the communications system
is still reliant on just two points of contact.
Once the system becomes more complex, like modern distributed
communications networks with millions of users, these simple
connections are no longer practical or possible. A centralized
processing point is needed to route many conversations
simultaneously just to make the correct phone ring when you
dial its number.
This centralized processing is called backhaul and its the
infrastructure behind the connection where youll find many
CommScope solutions.
9
1
To imagine backhaul in action, consider the classic image of an early 20thcentury telephone operator, manually connecting calls at a switchboard.
As more and more people call at the same time, the task soon grows very
complex eventually, too complex for humans to perform.
Todays modern cell phone networks require much more complex
connectivity collectively called backhaul than even the fastest human
operator could provide. The process of routing network traffic for a cell
phone call requires many steps to complete, and looks something like this:
Microwaves and the electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum includes an incredible variety of radiation
types, all expressed in Hertz (Hz), a measurement of a particular radiations
frequency. Most frequencies used in electronics are expressed in thousands
of Hertz, or kilohertz (KHz); millions of Hertz, or megahertz (MHz); billions of
Hertz, gigahertz (GHz) or even trillions of Hertz, terahertz (THz). Some of the
more familiar types are listed below (table 9.1).
1. Mary makes a call to John on her cell phone from her office
Frequency
Wavelength
Application
2. Marys outbound call is picked up by the nearest cell tower
5060Hz
60005000km
AC electricity transmission
3. The tower routes Marys call to the areas regional network
330kHz
10010km
Sub-marine communication
30300kHz
101km
Long-wave radio broadcast
1801600kHz
1.7km188m
AM radio broadcast
6. The regional network broadcasts Marys call from the nearest

cell tower
1.830MHz
16710m
Shortwave radio
7. Bills cell phone rings, he answers and the call connects
88108MHz
3.42.7m
FM broadcast
3003000MHz
10.1m
UHF point-to-point
7002700MHz
0.430.11m
Mobile base station
0.3300GHz
10.001m
Microwave/Millimeter
Backhaul
352, 230, 193THz
1550, 1300, 850nm
Fiber-optic links
420750THz
714400nm
Visible light
4. The regional network sends Marys call to the national network

5. The national network routes Marys call to Bills regional network
Backhaul is the process of routing Marys cell call and all network traffic
up to, then down from the core processing backbone between the cell
tower nearest to Mary and the one nearest to Bill. While backhaul can be
achieved over a number of different materials, such as twisted-pair copper
cable, fiber optics or coaxial cable, microwave backhaul offers a time- and
cost-efficient backhaul link, ideally suited to cell phone networks that move
calls and data across the country and across the world millions of times
every day.
9.1
9
2
Applications associated with different radiation wavelengths within the

electromagnetic spectrum
9: Microwave Backhaul
Microwave backhaul frequencies
Frequency band
Frequencies (GHz)
Typical maximum
hop length (km)
Typical minimum
hop length (km)
0.9 (unlicensed)
0.9020.928
100
2.4 (unlicensed)
2.42.5
100
3.64.2
70
24
4.45.0
60
16
5 (unlicensed)
5.3, 5.4 & 5.8
50
L6
5.9256.425
50
16
You may notice that the table includes several

unlicensed frequency bands. While most microwave
frequencies are regulated to prevent interference during
hops, unlicensed frequencies are unregulated, requiring
cooperation between operators to prevent interference.
U6
6.4257.125
50
16
L7
7.17.75
50
10
U8
7.758.5
50
10
10
1010.7
20
10
11
10.711.7
20
10
The highest bands, 60 GHz and 80 GHz, possess

unique propagation characteristics, as shown in their
very small maximum hop length. They serve a special
purpose which we will discuss later in this chapter.
13
12.713.25
20
15
14.415.35
20
18
17.719.7
20
23
21.223.6
20
26
24.2526.5
20
28
27.529.5
15
32
31.033.4
10
1.5
38
37.040.0
10
42
40.543.5
10
60 (unlicensed)
57.066.0
80
7176/8186/9295
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

regulates the microwave spectrum available for
backhaul applications. Each band is best suited to
particular situations of topography, climate, bandwidth
requirements and cost, determined in large part by their
typical hop lengths, or the distance each band can travel
in open air between points (table 9.2).
9.2
Typical hop lengths for microwave frequency bands
9
3
A transmitter and receiver
that work in different time
slots or frequency slots on
the same device.
Microwave advantages
Microwave backhaul in action
The microwave band possesses characteristics ideal for

radio transmissions, including those from cell phones:
Lets revisit the process of making a cell phone call.

The user dials the call and the cell phone connects
with the nearest cell tower, operating on the networks
radio frequencies (within the 7002700 MHz part
of the spectrum). The cell tower hands off the call to a
microwave transmitter (typically into one of the bands
between 640 GHz) which directs it via a directional
beam a hop to a collection or aggregation
center which, in turn, makes the connection to the
mobile networks core network. The traffic is then
routed across the network to the region closest to the
receivers location, where it will be transmitted again by
microwave to the nearest cell tower.
T hey help directional antennas make hops from point

to point in narrow beams that dont interfere with
each other
T he low end of the band (below 11 GHz)
propagates over long distances, ideal for long-haul
connections to users in remote locations
T he higher end of the band (above 11 GHz)
propagates over shorter distances, ideal for shorthaul connectivity required in urban locations
In addition to their technical characteristics, microwave
links also offer practical and financial advantages over
cable solutions, which have made them the preferred
choice for modern communications networks:
Less expensive to establish and operate
Faster deployment
G
reater bandwidth than twisted-pair copper, critical
to high-traffic applications like modern cell phone
networks
Readily scalable to handle more traffic as required
Very reliable to operate
9
4
The receiving cell tower station down-converts the

microwave signal back to the networks radio frequencies
for its final journey to the target cell phone. The process
is reversed for traffic moving in the opposite direction.
This two-way microwave backhaul generally uses a
Frequency-Division Duplex (FDD) system that allocates
frequency channel pairs for simultaneous two-way, or
duplex communication (figure 9.3).
Another way to achieve duplex communication is via a
Time-Division Duplex (TDD), which achieves the same
goal by switching the required direction of transmission
in a very fast, precise manner (figure 9.4). While a more
efficient option, TDD requires very careful timing control
and is not the preferred system for microwave use.
f1
f2
9.3
Frequency-Division Duplex (FDD) System

with separate go/return frequencies
f1
9.4
Typical microwave deployments

Hop connections between microwave transmitters and receivers
usually require line-of-sight (LOS) clearance. LOS means both
ends can literally see one another without any obstructions in
between including the curvature of the Earths surface. For this
reason, microwave antennas are often mounted on towers or at
the top of high buildings for best LOS clearance.
Line of Sight (LOS)

The unobstructed space
between transmitter and
receiver. Longer hops must
even account for the curve of
the Earth as an obstruction.
To maximize the value of these choice locations and to reduce

the costs for leasing these locations microwave backhaul
antennas are often mounted adjacent to base station antennas,
which also rely on altitude for efficient operation (figure 9.5).
Time-Division Duplex (TDD) System using

just one go/return frequency
Base Station Antenna
Microwave Backhaul
Antenna and
Outdoor Unit (ODU)
9.5
Typical microwave backhaul antenna integrated into a base station antenna location
9
5
Split-Mount Radio System

A two-stage connection that
lets microwave radios located
in an Indoor Unit (IDU) receive
and transmit through an
antenna fitted with an Outdoor
Unit (ODU).
Many short-haul installations, typically operating above 11 GHz, use a split-mount radio system, which divides the
radio into an Outdoor Unit (ODU) and an Indoor Unit (IDU). The ODU houses the microwave circuitry, including the
go/return microwave signal separating diplexer and the up/down frequency converters. It is mounted in an enclosure
adjacent to the antenna, or more frequently integrated into the antenna assembly itself (figure 9.6).
The IDU contains the modulator/demodulator more commonly known as a modem and the control circuitry
necessary for translating the cell phone traffic into a form suitable for microwave transmission.
For high-density traffic and long-haul hops, multiple radios are typically housed in a remote radio room adjacent to the
base of the tower. Generally, these hops use larger antennas operating at frequencies under 11 GHz (figure 9.7).
Connections between the antenna and the radios are made by coaxial cable, elliptical waveguide or circular
waveguide transmission lines, depending on the frequencies involved (figure 9.8). Chapter 7 provides detailed
information on transmission lines.
Outdoor Unit
Antenna
Flex Twist or Elliptical W/G
I.F. Cable
Elliptical W/G
Radio Room
Indoor Unit
9.7
9.6
9
6
Antenna
Typical split-mount microwave radio

system showing IDU and ODU
A typical lower frequency

aggregation point
9.8
Connections between remote

microwave radios and a microwave
antenna
Planning a microwave link

When considering a new microwave backhaul path, it is important to
consider potential interference issues during the design process. The planned
link must not interfere with adjacent links or other operators in the area.
To prevent conflicts and other problems, you must consider:
Frequency coordination with other links in the vicinity
The chart describes the directional properties of the antenna by mapping

it directionality (in dB) against its azimuth angle. As this chart shows, the
envelope has a main beam area at zero degrees, corresponding to the
electrical axis of the antenna. This is the line-of-sight direction, where the
directionality is at its maximum.
Radio and radiation characteristics of the antenna

Transmission power levels
dB Down fom main lobe
10
10
20
20
30
30
40
40
50
50
60
60
70
70
Expanded Scale
80
9.9
10
15
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
To avoid these issues, industry standard software tools such as iQ-linkXG

from CommScope can smooth the planning process and assist in regional
overview. Antenna manufacturers offer assistance as well, providing planners
with the radiation pattern envelope (RPE). An RPE document includes a
performance summary and the key specifications related to antenna gain,
beam width, cross-polar performance and radiation patterns (figure 9.9).
80
180
Envelope for a
horizontally polarized
antenna (HH, HV)
Envelope for a
vertically polarized
antenna (VV, VH)
Away from the main beam, the directionality quickly decreases. This
corresponds to a drop-off in antenna sensitivity, whereby signals transmitted
or received away from the on-axis direction reduce rapidly. The link planner
uses this information to determine how much of their new proposed link
signal will deviate from the intended direction and assess whether this is
likely to present problems (e.g., interference, threshold degradation, etc.
Because of their importance in the planning process, RPE documents are
strictly regulated. In Europe, the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) publishes several classes of envelope standards that all
antennas must satisfy. A Class 2 antenna may be permissible in locations
where interference is not an issue, but cannot be used where a Class 3
antennas stricter standards are required. The importance of using Compliant
Class 3 or better specification antennas is discussed in further detail in a later
section.
Most regions across the globe have adopted ETSI standards with the notable
exceptions of Canada, Australia and the United States, which have their
own regulatory envelope minimum standards.
A typical radiation pattern envelope (RPE) document

9
7
Signal Polarization
The orientation of a signals
electric field relative to the
ground. It may be horizontal
or vertical.
Protecting microwave systems from the elements
Rain and snow
Like every stage in the chain of communication, backhaul

must be reliable and available at all times. Downtime
means lost revenues, irritated customers and expensive
repairs. In practical terms, downtime is measured as
a percentage, or in minutes per year (table 9.10).
A detailed explanation of reliability predictions and
measurement can be found in Chapter 11.
As mentioned earlier, lower-frequency microwave

bands propagate very well across long distances,
allowing hops of 50 km or more. In fact, the most
significant limiting factor is not distance itself, but
atmospheric conditions. Rain falling through the
signal path reduces signal strength, an attenuating
phenomenon known as fade.
9.10
Downtime, minutes per year
Availability
525.6
99.9000%
52.56
99.9900%
26.28
99.9950%
5.256
99.9990%
Downtime in minutes per year and corresponding

availability percentages
This growing need for reliable communications within

realistic budget constraints is partly what drives demand
for microwave backhaul. However, due to its open
exposure to the elements, certain reliability-limiting
factors are unavoidable:
Precipitation and moisture
High winds
Temperature variances
Lightning strikes
Atmospheric refraction
Fortunately, each challenge to reliability has an
available mitigating measure.
9
8
In frequencies above 11 GHz, rain-induced attenuation

becomes more pronounced, reducing hop distances
accordingly. Rain, and to a lesser extent, snow, can
scatter signals in these frequencies. The impact depends
on the rate of precipitation, the frequency involved and
the signal polarization (the orientation of the signal
wave, which may be horizontal or vertical).
Horizontal signals are more adversely affected by
rainfall due to the shape of raindrops as they fall,
so vertical polarization is the preferred choice for any
link-planning.
Fortunately, it is possible to mitigate these effects based
on the calculations of rain outage models, building a
safety margin into the transmissions power levels to
compensate for expected loss and assure a reliable
hop between stations. Modern microwave radios will
even adjust power on the fly when needed, using an
automatic transmit power control (ATPC) system.
Precipitation also interferes with polarized transmissions through an effect called polarization rotation, which essentially
turns a signals polarity enough to interfere with other signals. To counter this effect, a cross-polar interference canceller
(XPIC) samples signals in both polarities in order to produce a wave that cancels out the interfering, rotated part of the
signal.
Adaptive modulation
Automatic Transmission
Power Control (ATPC)
A system that dynamically
raises transmission power
to overcome the effects of
interference.
Another technique gaining widespread acceptance in microwave backhaul applications is called adaptive modulation.
In addition to compressing, or modulating, network traffic into smaller bandwidths at higher signal levels, adaptive
modulation adjusts the amount of modulation in response to any link impediments. The result is that adaptive modulation
can dynamically reduce traffic to compensate for the impaired signal level while still maintaining the link, albeit with
lower capacity.
Mitigation methods can also be built into link designs themselves. In multiple-hop situations, mesh and ring topologies
provide alternative signal paths that bypass problematic hops by rerouting around them. Path selection is dynamic and
adapts on the fly to changing conditions (figure 9.11).
9.11
Microwave Antennas with specialized

adaptive modulation schemes
Network topology with dynamic routing paths

9
9
Radome
A wind- and water-proofed
fabric or plastic cover that
protects an antenna from
the elements.
Fog
Fog only presents a challenge to the highest microwave bands above 60 GHz. Unlike rain, snow and other
precipitation, it presents no real obstacle to lower, more commonly used microwave frequencies.
Temperature
By itself, temperature has little effect on microwave signals. However, if water vapor is present in transmission lines,
it can condense there and impede performance when the temperature drops. The effect is similar to the attenuation
caused by rain.
The hardware effect
In addition to climate effects on transmission, weather also affects a microwave installations physical integrity. Snow
or ice accumulation on an antenna introduces critical weight considerations for the antennas design, as well as for
the components installed there.
Long-haul antennas generally employ a fabric enclosure, or radome, that protects sensitive components from wind
or moisture infiltration. Ice shields offer additional protection from falling ice, either from the antenna itself or from
positions above it (figure 9.12).
Wind
The force of wind on an antenna structure is called
wind load, and it can present a serious threat to towermounted equipment. Wind speeds rise with altitude,
so a breeze at ground level can become a gale a few
hundred feet up. This is why antennas are designed
to ensure mechanical integrity under all anticipated
environmental conditions, typically able to withstand
180 km/h (112 mph) winds without moving on their
mounts. Above this speed, some flexibility may be
permitted, with a topmost survival rating approaching
250 km/h (155 mph) wind speeds.
9.12
9
10
Ice accumulation on a radome-protected installation
Far below these extreme limits, an antenna will

flex and move slightly, even in moderate winds,
within its engineering standards. While this helps
maintain the integrity of the structure, it introduces an
obvious challenge to LOS transmissions that depend
on precise targeting between links. To ensure
that this slight movement doesnt interfere with a
successful hop between stations, these temporary
misalignments must be factored into the antennas
power budget.
Lightning strikes
Installed in open, unobstructed locations, microwave
antenna towers are natural targets for lightning
strikes. If a strike passed through the antenna itself,
serious damage to sensitive components would
result. To avoid this danger, low-resistance earthpaths in effect, lightning rods are installed
to direct lightning strikes away from critical
components. For a full exploration of how to guard
against lightning, see Chapter 13.
Atmospheric effects
Atmospheric effects can disrupt reception,
particularly for lower-frequency signals. Under some
circumstances, a signal may essentially be received
twice, first by its intended LOS connection, and then
again as a slightly delayed echo of itself as a result
of atmospheric refraction or ground reflection. The
tiny timing difference can mean the signal arrives
out of phase, in effect interfering with itself. This
effect is known as multipath fading or dispersive
fading, as illustrated at the right (figure 9.13).
Ducting atmospheric layers
Refl
dw
ave
wave
Re
fl
ec
ted
wa
ve
Dir
e
cte
d
wa
ve
Direct
ecte
9.13
Dispersive fading creating out-of-phase signal

echoes delayed signals bounce off the ground and
vertical obstacles, and also refract in the atmosphere
9.14
A typical vertical space

diversity arrangement
Option 1: Space diversity
Option 2: Angle diversity
Option 3: Frequency diversity
To counter the effects of

dispersive fading, we can add
a second, uncorrelated parallel
microwave transmission path,
separated vertically (figure
9.14) or horizontally. This
separation, discussed in detail
in Chapter 6, is called space
diversity.
Another countermeasure is
angle diversity, which requires
only one antenna instead
of the two. However, that
antenna requires two vertically
separated feed systems. While
a less expensive option, angle
diversity is also less effective
than space diversity and is
used only where a second
antenna cannot be added to
the installation.
Frequency diversity is
another means of combating
atmospheric or dispersive
signal loss. A secondary,
standby channel operates
at a different frequency
from the main channel.
Since different frequencies
propagate differently, two
signals of different frequencies
dont experience the same
attenuation, doubling the
chances of clear reception.
Because the two paths dont

share exactly the same space,
their signals dont encounter
exactly the same fading effects.
The practical result is that the
receiver has the option of
accepting its signal from the
path that happens to be less
disrupted at the time.
9
11
Flat Fading
Total signal loss caused by
atmospheric refraction. It is
the result of a signal being
bent completely out of its LOS
connection with its receiver.
Flat fading
Flat fading is another atmospheric hazard for low-frequency signals. Unlike dispersive fading, the entire channel is
attenuated because refraction has disrupted the LOS connection over the hop, so it misses the receiver entirely.
A second, uncorrelated microwave path or increased power via ATPC can counter this effect.
Improving network reliability
Some of the reliability-limiting factors can be avoided by using compliant spec antennas from a reputable manufacturer.
With the pressure to minimize total cost of ownership, it is tempting to purchase the lowest price antenna option, but
you must also consider ongoing operations expenses in budget calculations. An inexpensive install may end up costing
far more than a more expensive antenna with better characteristics for your application.
Noncompliant antennas are not simply identified by cheaper prices. They also include design problems that can spell
trouble from day one (figure 9.15). Generally, they are:
Not tested and feature non-repeatable designs
Prone to deteriorate too quickly, resulting in RF leakage, moisture ingress and degrading metallic components
U
sed with third-party add-ons for normal operation, which introduce new opportunities for corrosion, vibration and
other loss of integrity.
9.15
9
12
Example of RF leakage in a noncompliant microwave antenna
The hidden costs of noncompliance

CommScope recently conducted a study to measure the cost and benefits
of using lower-quality, noncompliant antennas. In this study, we examined
three types in the 15, 18 and 23 GHz bands. In actual operation, the true
costs began to emerge:
19% of the backhaul network failed in the 15 GHz band
Obviously, these failure rates are unacceptable to most modern applications.
Choosing a compliant antenna, even a more expensive one, offers benefits
that can save money and hassles once the antennas are in operation,
such as:
1. Take advantage of your suppliers resources to demonstrate structural

integrity under all anticipated environmental conditions.
2. Review the suppliers antenna interface design data and test range
facilities for each integration type.
3. Avoid third-party add-ons that dont qualify at the integration level;
the third-party supplier wont have this information, but your antenna
supplier should.
This basic due diligence will pay off in reliability, speed and total cost
of ownership.
Less potential external noise

Less RX threshold degradation
Longer hops
More link availability
More capacity
More efficient use of the spectrum
In addition, there are other initial cost savings that arent necessarily reflected
in the antenna price itself, such as:
Smaller antennas with lower shipping costs
Lower landed cost
Lower tower leasing cost
It all adds up to lower total cost of ownership, which makes good sense and
means good business. There are a few common-sense steps you can take
to avoid noncompliant antennas and assure your networks availability and
reliability. They all start with choosing a reputable supplier.
9
13
Co-Channel Dual-Polar
(CCDP) Operation
Using both horizontal and
vertical polarity of a single
frequency to double
available bandwidth.
Network capacity and managing demand

Simply put, capacity is a networks ability to handle
transmission traffic. In the case of cell communications,
this traffic means voice and data often, a great deal
of data. As capacity demands continue to rise with
the spread of long-term evolution (LTE) and 4G mobile
devices, smart planning becomes even more important
to assure headroom for tomorrows data-hungry
applications.
Modulation. One way to boost capacity along a
microwave link is called modulation. By employing
different modulation schemes, more traffic can be
squeezed into the limited bandwidth available
when needed. The tradeoff is that higher modulation
schemes require higher signal-to-noise performance
to maintain the integrity of the data, boosting
operating costs. Plus, any disruptive effects like those
described above create bigger problems than they
do for un-modulated traffic.
Adaptive modulation. Recently, adaptive
modulation has become a universally adopted
technique to help operators balance traffic and
reliability needs. Adaptive modulation scales
the amount of signal modulation employed as a
function of the links condition so, if rain or other
factors are present, modulation is dialed down to
maintain error-free, if somewhat slower, traffic rates.
When the link condition improves, modulation
is automatically increased to take advantage of
prevailing conditions.
9
14
Co-channel dual-polar operation. Another capacityboosting technique leverages the polarization

characteristics of microwaves themselves, which
allow two streams of traffic to travel the same
bandwidth at the same time one vertically, one
horizontally. This technique is called co-channel
dual-polar (CCDP) operation.
CCDP is often used in short-haul antenna systems
where an integrated dual-polarized antenna is
created using an Ortho-mode transducer (OMT) to
attach two ODU radios to a single antenna. This
arrangement maintains a high level of isolation
between the two signals for maximum clarity (figure
9.16).
9.16
An example of an integrated
dual-polarized antenna
Microwave capacity
With all these capacity-boosting tools at our disposal, modern microwave
backhaul data rates typically range between 32 and 155 Mbps (megabits
of data per second).
However, as technology and techniques continue to improve, much higher
data rates are becoming possible and economical. In the near term, 1 Gbps
(gigabits of data per second) single-channel systems are coming online now.
The future of microwave backhaul
Explosive demand for mobile communications drives the need for costeffective microwave backhaul, which, in turn drives new innovations. Old
technologies are replaced by new, more efficient ways of moving data
faster, more reliably and at less cost. Microwaves form the backbone of
these new technologies.
For instance, legacy networks built on circuit-based transmission protocols
maintain their connection regardless of how much, if any, traffic is actually
being transmitted at any given time. This was once necessary to carry
voice communications, but the world has moved on and this technology
isnt efficient in our on-demand data world. Packet-based microwave radios
encode traffic from multiple sources and routes it through IP over Ethernet,
so it only utilizes bandwidth as its needed, reducing wasted energy and
capacity.
Capacity and coverage
Improved network coverage is another critical requirement for emerging
mobile technologies, such as long-term evolution (LTE) and 4G mobile
networks. Customer-level access is required in all regions if high-speed
connectivity is to be available as a constant resource, and the ongoing
rollout of base stations (known as macro-cells) offers more and more
coverage to broad geographical areas.
At the same time, the capacity available from these macro-cells diminishes
with distance from the base stations, requiring the addition of smaller
coverage micro-cells to sustain capacity. Pico-cells represent a further layer
of coverage for built-up urban areas. Both micro- and pico-cells require
backhaul connectivity, and that means microwave links.
The techniques of tomorrow
There are currently a number of studies researching which type of backhaul
medium will be most suitable for these new scenarios, and it seems likely
that a mix of the various technologies will form the networks of tomorrow.
Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) schemes using unlicensed bands offer one method
of small-cell backhaul, allowing signals to turn corners and avoid obstacles in
urban environments where LOS systems arent as effective as they are in the
open.
In other exciting developments, there seems to be great promise in the
recently opened 60 GHz unlicensed band. At these high frequencies, the
oxygen in the air itself can absorb signal power, making it suitable for short
hops, often less than a single kilometer. While this may seem like a limitation
rather than an advantage, an urban environment benefits from this short-hop
option because they offer high data traffic rates and have such limited ability
to interfere with one another from one pico- or micro-cell to another.
Lastly, the recent opening of the E-band spectrum (71-76 GHz, 81-86
GHz and 92-95 GHz) promises to open new avenues for high-capacity
microwave backhaul. Operating under a light-licensing regime, very wide
channel assignments (n 250 MHz) are available to operators, making
1 Gbps data rates a real possibility without the restrictions of high-level
modulation schemes.
With so many advances in recent years and so many still to come this is
truly an exciting time in communications.
9
15
Backhaul makes modern communications possible
Chapter 9 summary
The ever-increasing complexity of modern communications networks demands more efficient and innovative
ways of managing backhaul. In our wireless age, microwave backhaul moves the information that moves the
world forward.
Microwave backhaul
Though an efficient and cost-effective means of moving data through central processing, microwaves face
challenges and limitations from weather, topography and interference from other nearby links. Smart planning and
the right equipment can overcome these obstacles, allowing microwaves to connect us to one another wherever
we may be.
As children, we first experienced the idea of backhaul as a length of string between two soup cans or the scratchy
sound of a walkie-talkie. As adults, backhaul has become a key part of daily life as we depend on our cell
phones, computers and other devices to connect with friends, family, colleagues and the world at large.
From strings to radio waves to microwaves, backhaul is the technology that keeps us all connected.
Communications moving through

a centralized routing center
Accomplished via links or hops
from station to station
Microwave deployments
Rely on line-of-sight between
hop points
Can connect multiple radios to
antenna via paired ODUs
Issues affecting reliability
Rain, snow and hail
Wind loads
Ice buildup on antennas
Lightning strikes
Dispersive fading
Avoiding external interference
Coordinate with other links in
vicinity
Use manufacturer RPE to choose
specifications
Avoiding trouble
Choose a reputable supplier
Look at entire cost, not just the
purchase price
Maximizing capacity
Adaptive modulation
Co-channel dual-polar operation
9
16
CHAPTER 10
The energy that connects the world:
Powering Wireless Networks
Every year, our reliance on always-on technology grows. We expect to be able to place a call or
surf the Internet with our cell phones at any time, under any circumstances. However, the electrical
infrastructure that powers our networks has not kept pace with the explosive growth of cellular
access and certainly hasnt kept pace with our expectations of 24/7 availability.
In previous chapters, we have explored some of the intricate and complex ways different
components in a cellular base station come together to work efficiently and reliably. So far,
the idea of powering these stations has been taken for granted. In real life, however, we dont
have this luxury. Power supply connection is a very real challenge, and planning for the inevitable
outages and interruptions is critical to keeping the network operating, no matter
what complications may arise.
10
1
Direct Current (DC)

An electrical current that
runs continuously in a single
direction, making it well
suited for use in motors and
electronic components such as
semiconductors. Batteries also
produce DC current.
Alternating Current (AC)
An electrical current that
changes polarity (direction)
50 to 60 times per second.
It offers significant efficiencies
when transmitted across power
lines, making it the standard
current for household use.
DC vs. AC power
The core technology that drives modern communications
runs on direct current (DC) electricity. DC is different than the
alternating current (AC) we use in our homes and offices.
Since electrical power sent across transmission lines from
power plants is AC, a device called a rectifier is needed to
convert the AC current to DC before it can be used by the
communications equipment.
10.1
The rectifiers output is connected to both the radio and its

transmission equipment the load for the current as well
as the backup battery equipment (figure 10.1).
Basic power system diagram arrows indicate

the DC currents direction
Why go to the extra trouble of converting AC to DC? There are several reasons. First, most communications
equipment includes semiconductors and other integrated circuitry that are specifically designed to operate with DC,
such as:
Telephone switches
Microwave transmitters
Fiber-optic transmitters
Mobile radio and cellular systems
Another reason DC power is preferred for communications systems is its reliability advantage. Even the most
advanced electrical grid can fail from time to time, and no one is immune to the possibility of power interruptions
that may last for hours or days. When the outage occurs at a cell station, shutting down is not an option. So battery
or fuel-cell backups are installed to allow continuous operation and these power sources produce DC power. This
system is used for both cellular and conventional land-line telephone service, which is why you still get a dial tone
even when your homes AC power is out.
10
2
10: RF Control and Site Monitoring Systems
DC power by the numbers

Communication equipment requires specific voltages
of DC current. Most commonly, the requirements are
positive 24 volts (+24V) and negative 48 volts (48V).
These high voltage values reduce their associated
current and lighter current requirements allow for
smaller and less expensive fuses, circuit breakers
and cables.
The +24V value evolved from the early mobile radio
industry, back when equipment was designed to draw
power from a +12V automobile battery or +24V truck
battery, the same kinds of batteries used today.
Going beyond the basics
As mentioned above, the basic core components
of a communication systems power connection are
the rectifier, which converts AC current to usable DC
current, and the batteries which assume the load when
external power is interrupted. Once DC is online,
however, we must consider the specific power needs,
or loads, of different equipment. We need a means
to distribute the correct voltages to each piece of
equipment.
To make these adjustments, devices called DC-DC

converters can modify the primary DC voltage to suit the
needs of a piece of equipment that demands a different
voltage. In the event that some equipment requires AC
current, we can also include a device called an inverter,
which changes DC back into AC. Because this all takes
place behind the stations main rectifier, this reconverted
AC power isnt subject to interruptions from the external
power supply. A sample diagram showing all these
components appears below (figure 10.2).
Volt (V)
A measurement of electric
potential difference between
two points in a path. Voltage
is sometimes referred to as
pressure, because it shares
many characteristics with
pressure in a water pipe.
You may also notice an important new element

appearing in this diagram: the generator. Generators
supply AC power for the stations rectifiers if external
power is interrupted. This keeps all systems operating
and the batteries fully charged. There are several kinds
of batteries and generators in common use. Selecting
the right generator often depends on space, budget and
operational expectations.
10.2
Block diagram of a basic telecommunications

power system
10
3
The chemistry of batteries
Lead-acid batteries
At its most basic, a battery is an electro-chemical method of storing and

releasing electrical energy. A battery contains chemicals that react with
one another, producing DC electrical current as a byproduct. The specific
chemicals and processes may vary we will examine some common
varieties below but, on a fundamental level, all batteries operate on this
core principle.
These are commonly used as backups for telecom power systems. They are
highly compact relative to their output, and are the same kind you would find
under the hood of your car. They are available in vented and valve-regulated
forms (figure 10.3).
While the battery is receiving a charge from a fully operational system, it

does not discharge any current. Rather, it consumes a small amount of DC
from the power relayed by the rectifier. When this current is interrupted,
natural processes kick in and the batteries discharge their stored DC power
in accordance with the load placed on the circuit. Most importantly, this shift
occurs seamlessly and leaves no interruption in current.
Reliable backup times usually range from two to eight hours, depending
on the load. Since telecommunications providers must be able to specify
expected operational times, choosing the best type and configuration of
batteries is critical.
Flooded battery
10.3
VRLA battery
Vented (flooded) and valve-regulated (VRLA) batteries
Vented (also known as wet or flooded) batteries are a mainstay of telecom

central offices and switching centers. They maintain a charge for up to 20
years or longer. However, they demand a great deal of costly maintenance
such as water treatment, spill containment and forced-air ventilation. These
drawbacks make them less suited to remote cell base stations.
Valve-regulated lead acid batteries (VRLAs) are recombinant batteries,
which means oxygen and hydrogen can recombine to prevent water loss.
Because they dont need added water and can therefore be built in
spill-proof containers with pressure relief valves, these are often called
sealed lead-acid batteries. They are easier to ship, maintain and install,
and cannot freeze like a flooded battery, making them the preferred choice
for cell base station use.
10
4
Voltage Polarity: Positive (+)

and Negative () Voltage
The + and designations
of +24V and 48V refer to
which polarity of the battery
circuit is measured; in terms of
actual power produced, the
distinction is meaningless.
Battery cell configurations

Each battery is comprised of cells arrayed in electrical
series. The number of cells used in a particular battery
is determined by the overall required operating voltage
and the voltage of each cell. For VRLA batteries, a
standard voltage of 2V per cell is the norm so, to power
a +24V system, 12 such cells must be connected in
a series. Likewise, a 48V system requires 24 cells.
Often, VRLA batteries are available in 12V blocks,
like those seen in figure 10.4.
The arrangement of these batteries in series determines
the voltage polarity. If each of the 12V batteries shown
above is rated for 100 amp-hours, then each series
string of batteries could be expected to produce 100
amps of current for one hour. Capacity is directly related
to the size of the battery, but rather than spending more
on larger batteries, we can achieve the same boost
to capacity by adding more strings of batteries to the
system in parallel as opposed to adding them in series.
This option also provides safeguards against the failure
of an individual battery, which would remove its string
from the system altogether. By connecting in parallel, the
spare capacity is already online and ready to maintain
the current for its rated length of time. A diagram of
sample parallel battery strings rated at 240 amp-hours,
appears below. Note that if a battery failed in any of
the three series strings, the remaining two strings would
continue to supply steady power at 160 amp-hours
(figure 10.5).
10.4
10.5
VRLA batteries configured in series for

+24V and 48V applications
A multi-string battery configuration offering

additional redundancy
This configuration also provides a convenient means of

maintaining the batteries. Often, these strings will be
installed with separate disconnection breakers, which
make it easier to locate failures and isolate problems that
could otherwise cripple the entire system.
10
5
Generators: the first line of defense

If batteries are the last line of defense against service interruption, generators
are the first. Since batteries alone can only maintain operations for a few
hours, longer AC service interruptions require a longer-term solution and that
means generating our own power.
Unlike batteries, generators provide power by burning fuel. Like batteries,
there are different types and configurations available. Which one you install
depends on factors like space, cost and service expectations.
Since they operate outside the cell stations internal DC system, generators
arent considered part of that system. Because they supply the DC systems
rectifiers with the AC they need, however, theyre a vital link in assuring
reliable operation. In the event the station must switch from external to
generator-supplied AC power, an electrical device called a transfer switch
shunts the load to the generator.
For stations with permanently installed standby generators, an automatic
transfer switch (ATS) monitors external power levels and performs the
changeover to generator power if the voltage drops below acceptable
levels. View an example of AC generator. (Figure 10.6)
AC permanent genset
10.6
10
6
AC permanent generator
Generator fuel sources

You may have an emergency generator at home, or use one for electrical
service in a remote location. Chances are that your generator runs on
ordinary gasoline. Larger generators may also use compressed natural gas
or diesel fuel, but the optimal generator for a DC system like a cellular base
station is hydrogen fuel cell technology, for several good reasons.
Hydrogen fuel cells use proton electrolyte membrane (PEM) technology to
generate DC power. Well explore this later, but from a practical standpoint,
hydrogen fuel cells offer several key advantages over their petroluem-fueled
cousins.
The science of fuel cells

In a PEM fuel cell, hydrogen atoms are stripped of their negatively charged
electrons at the anode end of the battery. This ionizes the hydrogen atoms,
giving them a positive charge. The liberated electrons provide the actual
DC to the connected equipment. Meanwhile, at the cathode end of the
battery, oxygen combines with the hydrogen and electrons returning from
the circuit, creating water (figure 10.7).
As long as the system is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, the fuel cell
will produce a predictable amount of current.
Hydrogen fuel cells:
Load
Run on inexpensive, readily available hydrogen

Produce very little heat, preventing damage to other components
PEM
Offer higher efficiency than typical diesel generators

Operate in ambient temperatures from 40F to 122F
O2
H2
Are more compact than other fuel cell types
||||
Are quiet and non-polluting

Have no moving parts, extending their operational life spans
Anode
||||
Cathode
Require very short warm-up periods so they come online quickly
Water
Vaper
||||
Generators in general, and hydrogen fuel cells in particular, can provide

large amounts of steady, predictable power for extended periods of time.
10.7
Basic operation of a hydrogen fuel cell
10
7

Propane tank
Hydrogen fuel cell installation

Hyrdogen fuel cell installations include three main components: hydrogen
storage, a fuel cell stack and power module, and an integrated bridge
battery. A typical layout is shown in figure 10.8, along with a view of an
actual installation in figure 10.9.
Fule cell and

equipment pad
Hydrogen
storage
cabinet
Generator
Hydrogen storage
Like many liquid or gaseous fuels, hydrogen is stored in tanks. For a fuel cell
deployment at a cellular base station, this storage would usually comprise
8 to 16 cylinders of compressed hydrogen.
Storage shed
Fuel stack and power module

Because of the power demands of base station equipment, a single fuel
cell cannot provide enough power by itself, so multiple cells, called a stack,
are linked together in a fuel cell power module (figure 10.10). This linked
arrangement is similar to the multiple battery configurations discussed earlier.
Chainlink
fence
Fule cell and

equipment pad
Hydrogen
storage
cabinet
Storage
shed
10.8
A typical layout for a base stations fuel cell power plant
The PEM fuel cell

Load
Electricity
Anode
The fuel cell module
Water
Heat
Proton
exchange
membrane
(PEM)
Hydrogen, (H2)
Oxygen, (O2)
Single cell by-products are heat and water
10
8
An actual fuel cell and hydrogen storage cabinet installation
10.10
The fuel cell cabinet solution
Cathode (+)
Catalyst
layers
10.9
Tower
Transformer
Multiple cells layered

to create a stack
Heat and water

management
Software and
hardware controls
Power conditioning
Fuel management
The connection between fuel cell, fuel cell stack and fuel cell power module
Bridge batteries
Rectifiers: the AC-DC interface
While hydrogen fuel cell generators warm up quickly and are ready for
service shortly after an AC power interruption, there is a brief bridging
period when batteries must carry the load alone. These integrated battery
backups provide the necessary power to cover the brief time needed for a
fuel cell to come online.
Once beyond the external source of power, whether its commercial AC

electrical service or an AC generator, the rectifier is the core of the systems
DC power distribution needs.
Fuel supply and maintenance

Hydrogen fuel cells are efficient, quiet, reliable and long lasting. But, like
any generator, they require a supply of fuel to operate. When the hydrogen
supply dwindles, an automatic alarm alerts the systems operator that fresh
supplies are needed. To preserve hydrogen, fuel cells are designed to shut
down once external AC power has been restored. They are then ready to
engage the next time an interruption occurs.
With no moving internal parts to wear out and very little heat radiation, fuel
cells require very infrequent maintenance, often amounting only to an annual
inspection of their oxygen intake filters and radiator fluid levels.
10.11
The rectifier is designed to provide an output DC voltage level that maintains

the battery charge. This level is called float voltage, and it supplies the
equipment load as well as a trickle charge to the battery. In the event of an
AC power interruption, the rectifiers go offline and the batteries automatically
kick in, providing the same level of power to the rest of the system. When
external AC power is restored, the rectifiers re-engage and the batteries
return to their trickle-charging state (figure 10.11).
In practical deployments, multiple rectifier modules are usually required
to supply power for the stations load. Rectifier modules are connected in
parallel, letting each one share an equal part of the load, a practice known
as load sharing. With load sharing, operators can design in a degree of
redundancy to guard against individual rectifier module failures.
External AC power on (float mode) and off (discharge mode)
10
9
How redundancy
adds up to reliability
For a 48V application
with 200 amps of load, an
operator may choose to install
five 50-amp rectifiers.
Why add a fifth, when four
would provide the requisite
200 amps? To ensure N+1
redundancy. Arranging
multiple rectifiers in parallel
allows load sharing to even
out and shift the load.
Choosing the right rectifier

The first consideration in deciding which rectifier will best suit a given
installation is the kind of AC power it will receive. Switchmode rectifiers are
the preferred choice for cell and microwave sites since they can support
multiple AC inputs and have a broader operating range from single-phase
to three-phase inputs. This flexibility means fewer rectifiers are required, saving
money, space and maintenance.
Another consideration is the required output voltage. As weve seen, the
rectifier must be able to output the voltage required by the stations equipment,
that is, +24V or 48V. The amount of current must also be sufficient to power
all the loads, such as the radio, transmission equipment and battery backup.
83A Switchmode
6.3H x 3.4W x 11.8D
10.12
10
10
Example of a typical rectifier
DC/DC converters
DC in
=
=
DC out
Distributing the power

The rectifier is merely the first stage in the DC power system.
Once converted, the power must be distributed to the many
component loads within the system. As mentioned above,
these loads include core elements like the radio, transmitter
and battery backup, but they can also include secondary
systems like lighting, security networks and HVAC systems
(figure 10.13).
In the most complex installations there may be so many
components that up to 80 circuit breakers are required to
manage them.
The most visible parts of the distribution system are the fuses
or circuit breakers, which safely distribute DC power from
the rectifier to each individual load. Fuses and breakers are
connected in series between the power system and their
loads, protecting them from short circuits and damage from
overload conditions. They also provide a safe, simple way
to manually shut down individual components or batteries for
service, maintenance or replacement.
48V
breaker
panel
Charge (+)
LVD
Panel
+24
breaker
panel
Breaker
Alarm
Temperature Comp
Sense Probe
(electrically isolated
from battery)
Batteries
Modular rectifier shelves

N+1 parallel modules
Charge ()
LOADS
Shunt
Controller
Return
Ground bar
Charge/discharge panel
(Terminal panel)
10.13
A diagram of a typical +24V power distribution system

Images and illustration courtesy of GE.
10
11
Fuses vs. circuit breakers

While both fuses and breakers provide overcurrent protection, they do it in
different ways. Fuses are designed to melt under unsafe currents, physically
breaking the connection between the power source and the load. Circuit
breakers have internal switches that pop to the off position under unsafe
conditions, again providing a physical break in the circuit.
Sensitive wireless equipment requires fast blow fuses or short delay-curve
breakers to provide the needed protection. Fuses are generally used for
lower loads and offer the advantages of lower cost, greater flexibility and
fast action. Circuit breakers are preferred for larger loads and do not require
replacement every time they are tripped. Some typical examples are shown to
the right (figure 10.14).
Because complex cell sites can require from 24 to 80 breakers of varying
capacities, wireless carriers have adopted modular distribution structures that
can accept a wide range of breaker sizes.
10.14
Common types of telecom fuses and circuit breakers
10.15
Typical surge protector devices (SPDs); image courtesy of Raycap Corporation
Surge protection
Typical variations in AC power are not the only threat to a cell site.
Electrical events like lightning can also produce excessive voltages and
currents, events known as electrical surges. Surge protection devices (SPDs)
are incorporated to reduce the effects of these surges on sensitive electronics
(figure 10.15).
An SPD features a non-linear voltage-current characteristic that reduces unsafe
voltages by increasing the conducted current. In this case, a cell sites SPD
operates on the same principle as a surge protector does in your home,
safeguarding expensive electronics from lightning-induced surges.
10
12
Bus bar conductors
Battery disconnects
The cell sites distribution system is supported by the bus bar conductors,
which physically connect the rectifiers to the batteries and DC loads. There
are two bus bar connectors: the charge bus and battery return bus.
Battery disconnects are switches installed on a battery string that allow

easy disconnection for maintenance or replacement. Some disconnects
incorporate safety measures such as overcurrent fusing or breakers.
The charge bus is a current-carrying conductor that connects the

rectifiers output to the battery string. For instance, in a 48V system the
negative rectifier lead would terminate on the charge bus along with the
corresponding negative lead of the battery.
Load disconnects
The battery return bus provides a common return point for the loads
connected to the power system. This common point is grounded to
provide a low-impedance path for transients and noise, and offers a
ground reference to all connected equipment.
The shunt
In a distribution system, a shunt is a low-resistance resistor designed to
provide a specific voltage drop at a particular level of current. As the current
passes through the shunt, it develops a small voltage proportional to the
amount of that current. This voltage drop allows an operator to calculate the
current flow in the system.
Low-voltage disconnects (LVDs) are designed to respond to low voltage

conditions in the circuit. Low-voltage load disconnects (LVLDs) can
disconnect individual loads, while low-voltage battery disconnects (LVBDs)
can disconnect a fully discharged battery.
LVDs serve three main protective functions:
1. They prevent damage to sensitive electronics caused by low-voltage
(and hence, high-current) conditions
2. They prevent permanent damage to the battery from over-discharging
3. They prioritize which components are disconnected, and in which order,
preserving limited function when necessary
10
13
Supervision, monitoring and control

Modern telecommunication power plants are
equipped with electronic monitoring and control
systems, generally called controllers. They keep
track of system voltages, currents, temperatures
and other key indicators. They also allow
operators to make adjustments from a central
monitoring point, usually on the power plant itself,
on the distribution cabinet or in a rectifier slot
(figure 10.16).
With a modern controller, there is very little you cant learn about your cell sites power
system performance.
This controller centralizes several key functions in a single, simplified interface, including:
P lant control. Control functions are extended
from the supervisory panel to control other
power system components. These panels
communicate directly with the rectifiers, and
in some cases can coordinate the sequenced
restart of all rectifiers to prevent power surges
during switchovers from external AC to a
backup power source.
M
anual equalizing. This allows a user to
engage all rectifiers in equalize mode at
once. This is useful for maintenance on
VRLA batteries, equalizing cell voltage
within a battery string.
High-voltage shutdown/overvoltage
protection (HSVD/OVP). Controllers can
automatically shut down rectifiers when DC
output overvoltage conditions are detected,
avoiding costly damage to load components.
10.16
10
14
A system controller interface displaying

voltage, amperage and alerts
L ow-voltage disconnect (LVD). If a low

voltage condition is detected in the backup
batteries, the controller can open additional
contacts to equalize voltage and close them
again when levels equalize.

Battery temperature compensation.
The controller can adjust rectifier output to
meet the temperature-driven voltage needs
of the batteries.

Charge current control. This feature limits
the current flow to a battery when it begins
recharging after a power interruption.
By keeping the battery from recharging
too quickly, it prevents overheating and
prolongs life.

Battery diagnostics. The controller can
estimate the health of the battery and
predict how long it will provide power
based on its charge status.
A
larm monitoring. The controller monitors
critical functions like distribution and battery
fuse alarms, rectifier failures, converter
failures and so forth. It reports these alarms
by way of network backhaul interfaces and
LED indicators. Some units include audible
alarms as well.

Status monitoring. The controller can
measure and compare the battery charge
to the system load via an external shunt.
Plant history. Controllers can log power
system details over a span of time,
including such statistics as thermal
performance of outdoor enclosures, battery
cell states, or variations in AC
input experienced by the rectifiers.
DC-DC power conversion

Some wireless sites require multiple DC voltage outputs, such as +24 VDC
and 48 VDC. One solution is to install a second rectifier plant, but doing so
comes with the burden of including a second battery backup array as well,
which consumes considerable space and adds cost.
Another solution is to use a DC-DC converter system, an electronic power
conversion device that changes a DC input voltage to a different DC output
voltage. Below, you can see where a DC-DC converter system is connected
in series between the main DC power system and the sites load (figure
10.17).
A DC-DC converter system actually consists of multiple DC-DC converters
arranged in parallel. It may also incorporate many of the same functions as
the primary DC power system, such as distribution. It also has dedicated
fuses or circuit breakers, isolating it from the rest of the system.
Since a DC-DC converter system does not have an associated battery

connected to its output, it isnt bound by a battery systems requirement for
precise output voltage. However, since it is necessarily energized by the
primary DC power system, that demand must be figured into the power
systems initial design.
Dual-voltage power plant using DC-DC converters
Ordinarily, a DC power plants rectifiers and batteries supply consistent
power for a single voltage requirement. If two requirements exist at the site
and the demand is heavily skewed toward one voltage or the other either
predominantly +24V or 48V the secondary voltage may be supplied
through the addition of a DC-DC converter system.
Because the conversion takes place between the rectifiers/batteries and the
load, the secondary voltage will still receive all the backup support of the
primary voltage in the event of external AC service interruption and only
one set of backup batteries is required (figure 10.18).
Secondary
voltage
network
equipment
loads
Primary
voltage
network
equipment
loads
10.17
A DC-DC converter system connected in series to a cell sites power system
10.18
Supporting two voltages at a single site using one power plant and converters
10
15
Integrated power systems

Space-saving combinations
of related components, built
into a single device for easy
installation.
Advantages of converting voltage

Modern DC-DC converters are essentially plug and
play devices that are designed to fit in the racks
alongside rectifiers and other converters (figure 10.19).
This approach offers communications providers
the greatest flexibility in adopting next-generation
technology, offering new services while maintaining
older standards. As the deployment of the newer
technology grows, additional converters can be added
to the system to increase the secondary voltages share
of the power supply. It should be noted, however, that
doing so may require upgrading the rectifier capacity
as well, while making sure to maintain the usual
redundancy margin.
Disadvantages of converting voltage
10.19
Converters and rectifiers occupying adjacent

power shelf slots
Mapping the positions

Since a single power plant can generate varying
amounts of both primary and secondary voltages,
the need arises to assign numbers to the distribution
positions of each voltage. A selectable voltage
distribution panel makes this organization possible
(figure 10.20).
On the downside, converting to a given voltage is

inherently less efficient than drawing that voltage directly Selectable voltage distribution:
15 positions
from the rectifiers, so losses increase as more and more
DC power is converted away from the primary voltage.
Also, many traditional power plants cannot support
the direct addition of converters to their systems.
To draw two voltages in these instances, a separate
converter plant must be installed. The converters draw
power from the existing DC power plant via fuse or
breaker positions in the distribution system, just like
any other load device. This reduces the number of
available distributions for the primary voltage
equipment at the site.
10
16
Power slide interlock feature
Return connections
Load connections
Circuit breaker in 48V position
Circuit breaker in 24V position
10.20
A selectable voltage distribution panel, showing

both +24V and 48V applications

So far, we have focused on the individual
components that comprise a cell sites power
system. With so many components, you can
imagine how quickly the space limitations of a
sites shelter or cabinet become an obstacle.
To address these space limits, CommScope
produces integrated power systems with several
components built into a single device, and suited
for installation in a single rack. This approach is
increasingly common in modern cell sites.
A typical integrated cell site power system includes
one or more shelves of rectifiers along with one or
more shelves of DC-DC converters. This integrates
power conversion and power distribution
functions, connecting them with bus conductors.
The distribution system contains an integrated DC
bus, fuses or breakers and cabling tie-downs to
distribute power to the load (figure 10.21).
Cell site power requirements range from
100 amps to several hundred amps of primary
DC power. In +24V applications, these systems
are configured to deliver 1,000 to 1,200 amps
of primary power; 48V applications, about 600
amps. This may seem like a great
deal of capacity, but the actual power
consumption is typically far less than the systems
theoretical capacity.
Since integrated power systems feature modular

design, additional power can be added simply by
plugging an additional rectifier into a vacant rack
slot. Likewise, if there are secondary loads that use
different voltages such as adding a +24V radio
to a 48V system then DC-DC converters can be
added to open slots to accommodate those needs.
This is particularly useful in an age where radio
technologies evolve at a rapid pace.
DC-AC inverter
Some of the equipment operating at a cell site may
require AC current from battery backup supplies.
Since the entire system is built around DC power, a
DC-AC inverter is needed to provide the necessary
AC voltage (figure 10.22).
There are two basic types of inverters:

Offline inverters feature an AC input and an
AC output with a standby DC line connection
available. This is the type generally used in cell
site applications.
10.21
An integrated rectifier, DC distribution and

controller power system

Online inverters feature a DC input and an
AC output with an optional AC standby line
available.
Like DC-DC converters, the input for a DC-AC
inverter is supplied by the primary power plant.
Like converters and rectifiers, inverters are often
installed and configured for redundancy. A static
switch maintains equalized voltage to the load
by switching automatically between external AC
power and the inverters AC power. This switching
is done instantaneously, assuring no interruption in
operation.
Along with the static switch, many systems also
include a maintenance bypass switching panel
in an inverter installation, which allows an operator
to power down an inverter for servicing or
replacement without disturbing the systems load.
During this power-down time, however, the system
load is entirely dependent upon external
AC power.
10.22
A DC-DC converter system connected in

series to a cell sites power system
10
17

A recent design advance in
base station architecture that
separates a cell site base
stations RF and baseband
functions for improved
efficiency.
AC power sourcing flexibility

With ever-increasing utility costs, the ability to combine power from renewable sources with utility power is another
aspect of power flexibility. To address this, some rectifiers can accept AC power from attached solar panels or wind
turbines just as easily as they can draw it from the utilitys transmission lines. An illustration of this flexibility is shown
below (figure 10.23).
Wind
Loads
48V or 24V DC Distribution
Batteries
or DC
Utility grid
Water
AC 10
AC 30
AC 10
AC 30
Solar
DC
DC
fuel cell
10.23
10
18
Power source flexibility lets rectifiers draw from conventional or renewable sources
AC or DC generator
Architectural improvements to power management

Significant power losses occur as a signal moves from the radio transmission
equipment in a cell sites base station shelter to the antenna up on the
tower. These losses are a natural consequence of traversing long stretches
of coaxial cable. However, the simple architectural change of moving the
transmitter and amplifier known collectively as the radio head from the
shelter to the tower eliminates these losses and reduces power requirements.
This design is called the remote radio head (RRH). This innovation is
discussed in more detail in chapter five.
The baseband equipment remains on the ground and external AC power
still enters at the cabinet or shelter. But with the transmitter amplifier mounted
adjacent to the antenna on the tower, more space is freed up and less heat
management is required.
Battery Plant
Battery
storage
Because of its exposed location, the tower top is not suitable for the
battery backups, but other RRH equipment can be easily sealed against the
elements. Instead of coaxial cable running up the tower, now only power
transmission lines are needed. Below are two possible methods of providing
power to the RRH (figure 10.24).
As useful as this design is, it also introduces new challenges. For instance,
since the battery backup is now located far away from the critical
components in the RRH, a heavier gauge of power transmission line is
needed unless the power is converted to a higher voltage down at ground
level and then converted back to the needed voltage (+24V or 48V) at the
RRH itself.
This arrangement sometimes uses line power equipment, which is now
available for these applications. With line power, the ground-level voltage
is increased to +/190 V DC, reducing the current and thereby reducing
transmission loss (figure 10.25).
Remote...
48V DC
DC
electronic
load
Traditional UPS
Battery Plant
Battery
storage
xxxVac
Power supply with backup
10.24
DC powering options for remote radio heads (RRHs)
DC
electronic
load
Remote radio head
Battery
storage
Power supply with backup
10.25
Remote...
DC
electronic
load
+/ 190V DC
Remote radio head
Line power voltage conversion used for an RRH application

10
19
Cell site power system configurations
Chapter 10 summary
Different cell sites store their power equipment in different ways. Some
sites have equipment shelters at the base of the cell tower. Inside these
climate-controlled enclosures, equipment is mounted in equipment racks,
with an integrated power system in one rack and battery strings in
another, and radio equipment in still another.
Powering wireless networks
Other sites place integrated compact equipment in outside plant (OSP)

cabinets. This approach offers less space and fewer opportunities for
environmental management, so only components specifically designed
for OSP cabinet environments can be installed. It is common practice
to keep power and radio systems in separate cabinets. Because of
their size, often batteries will have a dedicated cabinet as well. A few
examples of OSP cabinets are shown in figure 10.26 and 10.27.
DC vs. AC power
Cell site equipment requires DC
power
Rectifiers convert AC to DC
Batteries
Lead-acid batteries are available
in flooded and valve-regulated
versions
Backup systems built of batteries
stringed in series and in parallel
10.26
Generators
Integrated cell site battery only
cabinet
Fuses, circuit breakers
A lot of thought, planning and effort is required to deliver and support

our always-on, 24/7 world of communications. When power outages
occur, as they inevitably do, it falls to forward-thinking engineers and
companies like CommScope to put effective, reliable contingencies
in place.
Surge protectors
Shunts
Battery and load disconnects
Combine multiple elements in
one device
Many of the same systems that keep your home electronics in good
working order like battery backups, circuit breakers, DC converters
and surge protectors also keep our national cellular backbone in a
state of constant readiness.
10
20
Hydrogen fuel cells

Distribution
Keeping the power and communication flowing
Interruptions in power shouldnt mean interruptions in our lives, and with

the technology and expertise of CommScope and our partners in the
communications industry, they dont have to.
On-site power generation
New efficiencies
Dual-voltage power plants
Remote radio heads
Line power voltage conversion
10.27
Integrated cell site power and

battery cabinet
CHAPTER 11
Successfully planning against failure:
Reliability in Wireless Systems
Its simply a fact of life that items left out in the elements will become more susceptible to problems
as a result of such exposure. Outdoor furniture ages more quickly than indoor furniture, the car
parked at the curb shows more wear than the car kept in the garage. As a matter of necessity, a
homes exterior paint will need refreshing more often than its interior. The elements, as a rule,
are harsh.
Planning for environmental punishment is also a key concern for cell site operators, as new
efficiencies that wring more work from every watt often mean placing components farther out into
the network, and that means placing them outdoors, high on antenna towers. The same degrading
effects that peel a houses paint work relentlessly against the sensitive electronics that drive modern
cellular communications.
The precise balancing act of increased component failure rates against operational efficiencies has
led to a revolution in how cell towers and cell systems are developed and built.
CommScope is at the forefront of this new network architecture and its impact on reliability. We
offer the tools and expertise to help operators maximize redundancy, improve weatherizing and
plan for system component failure and systems all over the world.
11
1
Reliability
The probability of a device
working correctly over a defined
length of time, operating under
specified conditions.
Reliability, objectively defined

In everyday conversation, reliability usually refers to your experience with a device or service. Its somewhat subjective
in that no two people have exactly the same experience, and they dont react in the same way when a problem
does occur.
For instance, your home Internet service may occasionally go down for a few minutes in the middle of the night, but
since youre not using the Internet when it happens, you would refer to your service as highly reliable even though
it occasionally fails. Another person might need a stable connection during a particular time of day and experience
an Internet outage during that critical moment. Even though the interruption may last only seconds, that person would
describe his connection as unreliable.
In engineering terms, however, reliability takes on an entirely new meaning. It has an objective, empirical value based
on study, analytics and calculation. In this sense, reliability is defined as the probability that a product or service
will perform as it should at any given time, under specific conditions. In engineering, failure is something to be
anticipated, controlled and compensated for via system redundancy.
Generally, reliability rates can be defined with a classic bathtub curve, so named for its bowl-like shape (figure 11.1).
As you can see, it predicts higher failure rates at the beginning and ending of a devices life cycle. For any given
device, this graph provides a general guide as to its rate of failure decreasing initially, and increasing during end of
life.
Initial failure
(early life)
Constant failure
(steady-state)
End of life
(wear-out)
Increase Failure Rate

11.1
11
2
The reliability bathtub curve, showing the failure rate over the operational life of a device
11: Reliability in Wireless Systems
The three stages of component life introduce three common causes of failure:
1. Early-life initial failure may be due to manufacturing problems, incorrect
installation or damage during shipping.
2. Steady-state constant failure indicates random failure as a normal
function of operation. This is the stage we are most concerned with
in this chapter.
3. End-of-life wear-out failure occurs when fatigue, corrosion or other
factors accumulate to the point where failure becomes more and
more likely.
Determining when a devices end-of-life stage occurs depends on complex
computations. For example, one must take into account known life
expectancy of the devices main components, such as motors and fans with
moving parts that are eventually subject to mechanical wear.
Similarly, electronic components also have life expectancies. For example,
electrolytic capacitors used in wireless electronics are subject to degradation
from high temperatures and AC ripple currents.
Quantitative reliability predictions
As you might expect from a complex wireless communications system,
predicting likelihood of failure is a complicated process, but a necessary
one. There are several methods:
1. Collection of empirical field data from customers
2. Accelerated life testing data
Each method offers different advantages. The parts count method, for
instance, is particularly useful for new product designs, even before the
product moves beyond its design stages. This method applies established
life cycle information for the components used in the design
the steady-state failure rates indicated in figure 11.2 to create an
aggregated model of potential failures.
This computation relies on industry software reliability prediction tools such
as Telcordia SR-332 Reliability Procedure for Electronic Equipment.
It adds up individual component failure rates and applies designer-specified
multipliers accounting for specific temperature, electrical stress, production
quality and environmental conditions to yield a final, steady-state failure
rate for the component. The various stress parameters are:
Stress factor for operation is de-rated from specified limits
T emperature factor (often adjusted up or down from a reference point
of 40C)
Quality factor accounting for supplier and process controls
Environmental factor accounting for indoor vs. outdoor conditions
From such prediction tools, a designer can compute a predicted failure
rate with a 90 percent or greater confidence limit, which means at least
a 9-out-of-10 chance that the actual failure rate will be no higher than
predicted. These estimates usually reflect conservative numbers, making
them highly reliable predictors.
3. Prediction models based on parts count method

4. System availability models for large systems with internal redundancy
11
3
Stress factors
Of the several stress parameters, perhaps the most critical factors in
predicting reliability in the wireless communications industry are temperature
and environmental stress.
Temperature factor, more specifically operating temperature, is the sum of
the ambient temperature and the temperature of the heat produced by the
component itself. In practice, a 10C increase in operating temperature
can double the likely failure rate. Likewise, reducing the temperature by a
similar amount can reduce predicted failure rates by up to 50 percent.
Environmental factor is just as important as a predictive element. For
example, an outdoor environment introduces a multiplier of 1.5 to 2.0,
depending on the outdoor application. This factor accounts for variations
in temperature, vibration and other environmental variables in an
uncontrolled outdoor deployment versus the same equipment in a climatecontrolled enclosure. Recent data suggest that a 1.5 factor is typical
for outdoor wireless equipment such as tower-mounted antennas and
remote radio head (RRH) equipment. Much of this data was collected by
monitored RRHs, which we discussed in chapter five.

Water ingress protection starts with the careful analysis of points of
ingress, design considerations for protection of critical RF connection
points, formulation of condensation and management of condensation.
Addressing each element often means tradeoffs between cost and
efficiency in the design.
The final product of the reliability prediction tool includes detailed, part-bypart information such as that shown on the right (table 11.2).
Part
Number
Category
Unit FR
(FITs)
Quantity
90% CL
Failure rate
(FITs)
Ref Des
7094037
Capacitor
0.21
0.26
C37
7131706
Resistor
0.57
15
9.42
R3, R44, R6,

R20
7131748
Resistor
0.57
2.10
R150, R151,
R152
7131797
Resistor
0.57
5.80
R1022, R243
7144735
Capacitor
0.21
10
2.24
C152, C162
7144739
Capacitor
0.21
0.49
C58, C740
7164258
Miscellaneous
3.80
25.82
AT1, AT2
7165048
Resistor
0.57
0.80
R126
7500917
Resistor
0.57
0.80
R23
7501483
Resistor
0.57
0.80
R135
7512949
Capacitor
0.21
0.26
C1053
7541771
Integrated Circuit
6.02
16.66
U1007, U1011
7563383
Integrated Circuit
6.02
9.31
U1017
11.2
11
4
Example of a component reliability table
Measuring reliability
As mentioned above, reliability is the probability
that a device will perform correctly under defined
operational conditions over a specific span of
time. But supporting this general definition are
several practical ways of measuring reliability in
real-world applications.
Mean time between failure (MTBF) is the time
between two consecutive failures. This is the
most common definition for reliability. MTBF is
expressed as the inverse of the failure rate.
When describing the reliability of an entire

system, availability is a more useful measurement.
Thats because redundancies built into the design
may tolerate some individual failures without
seriously compromising the function of the system
as a whole.
Unavailability (U) is the flipside of availability, in
that it expresses the percentage of time a system is
not working properly. Also, like availability, it can
be calculated as a function of MTBF and MTTR.
U = MTTR / [MTBF + MTTR]
MTBF = 1 / Failure Rate = 109 / FITs.
As you may expect, A + U always equals 100%.
Mean time to repair (MTTR), sometimes called

mean time to restore, is the time needed to repair
or replace a failed component and restore its
function. This includes procurement and travel
time, so the figure is comprehensive in its scope.
Downtime (DT) is derived from unavailability and

expressed as the average amount of time per year
the system will be in an unavailable state. Since it
measures failures that often last only minutes, and
expresses them as a percentage of a full year, we
simply multiply the unavailability percentage by
the number of minutes in a year, or 525,600.
Availability (A) is the percentage of time the

system as a whole operates normally. When
someone refers to 4 nines of reliability, they
mean 99.99% uptime (table 11.3). Availability
is a function not only of how often a component
fails, but also how long it takes to restore service
when it does fail, so it figures in both MTBF and
MTTR.
A = MTBF / [MTBF + MTTR]
Percent
availability
Number
of nines
Downtime
(Minutes/Year)
Service
quality level
99%
2-Nines
5,000 m/y
Moderate
99.9%
3-Nines
500 m/y
Well
managed
99.99%
4-Nines
50 m/y
High
availability
99.999%
5-Nines
5 m/y
Very high
availability
11.3
Service quality measured by uptime; more

nines mean more availability
Failures in time (FITs)

The number of expected
component failures per billion
operating hours.
DT = U x 525,600
To illustrate, consider a system with 99.99%
availability, or 4 nines. That means its
mathematical value is .9999, resulting in a
U value of .0001. Multiplying .0001 by
525,600 yields an expected annual downtime
of 52.5 minutes per year, or less than a full hour.
This is a key indicator in overall service quality
(table 11.3).
11
5
Availability on a systemwide scale

Because of the vast number of components that make up a wireless
communications system each with their own failure rates, redundancies
and importance to overall operation of that system predicting long-term
performance of the system as a whole can be quite a challenge.
In practical applications, these models are more concerned with the

functioning state of a system or subsystem, rather than with the actual
hardware or software itself. At this level of planning, MTBF and MTTR
become more meaningful descriptors of reliability than failure rate alone.
Failure Mode, Effects and Analysis (FMEA)
From a design standpoint, cost constraints make it impossible to build

components that are not subject to some degree of failure. Therefore, the
design must incorporate redundant subsystems to avoid complete system
unavailability due to any single components failure. Properly implemented,
these subsystems will allow the system to continue functioning at full
performance, even in its degraded state, until repairs can be economically
performed on the failed component.
Given enough time, component failure is a certainty. Where and when it

occurs, however, is a variable that must be modeled to be predicted.
That means a lot of what-if scenarios, not only of component failure but
the effect of that failure on its subsystem and the effect of that subsystem
on the system as a whole. For this kind of analysis, Failure Mode, Effects
and Analysis (FMEA) is a simple, table-based method of measuring these
variables together.
Budgeting for failure
The FMEA for a particular system lists each failure mode and its effect on
overall system performance. Failures that result in total loss of service are
combined to calculate the systems total availability, while failures that
cause only minor effects on service are combined to calculate the systems
partial availability.
Dividing a systems functionality into subsystems allows a reliability budget

to emerge. By breaking down the complex whole into manageable
segments, subsystem reliability can be more easily modeled based on its
parts count or by another appropriate method. Then, the likelihood of failure
of the entire subsystem can be modeled to learn its effect on the overall
function of the system itself.
In a practical example, consider the mass of electronic components mounted
atop a cell site tower. The system can be broken down into subsystems
involved in the transmit path, the receive path, the power system and other
related functions. Each of these will have a maximum allowable failure rate
assigned based on its importance to the operation of the system. So the sites
designers can plan accordingly, the overall reliability budget is split up and
allocated where it is needed most.
11
6
Fault-tolerant design
The reliability block diagrams
Redundancy is the key to boosting availability within a system without

requiring the subsystems to be more reliable themselves. Redundancy
schemes vary by application, but they all have one thing in common:
on-demand access to a device or service that can assume the function of a
failed device until it can be repaired or replaced. Sometimes this includes
a spare component; other times it means shifting load to other systems.
Common redundancy schemes include:
Another widely used approach to measuring system reliability is the Reliability

Block Diagram (RBD). Unlike the lists of the FMEA table, it graphically
shows the interconnections between subsystems on a conceptual level and
how redundancy measures are integrated. Also, unlike the FMEA table,
these element blocks are described purely by function, not by individual
component; the systems reliability depends on how these blocks are
connected. Arrows represent the direction of information flow, but may not
necessarily correspond to the physical direction of current in the system.
Active/hot standby, a spare component built into the system that

operates all the time and can assume more load when needed
due to primary component failure
Active/cold standby, a spare component built into the system,
which only comes online in the event of failure, with a possible
interruption in service
1 + 1 load sharing, providing two active routes for communications
so one will be available in the event that component failure causes an
outage in the other
How the RBD shapes up depends on the kind of system architecture under
consideration. A typical architecture may include both redundant and nonredundant subsystems, as shown in figure 11.4.
An RBD is extremely useful in predicting system reliability, but it does have
disadvantages. The main limitation is its static nature: it can only predict
individual failures without accounting for cascading effects throughout the
system as it continues to operate in a degraded state.
N+1 load sharing, providing a standby alternate route for

communications to assume the load in the event that component failure
causes an outage in any of the other routes
Main power
Remote radio unit
The downside of adding redundancy is increased cost. Therefore,

redundancy should be added in circumstances where benefits
outweigh costs.
Backup power
11.4
A simple RBD showing redundant power and non-redundant radio unit
11
7
State transition diagram (Markov Model)

In non-redundant systems, there are two states of being: working and not
working. Transitions between these two states are defined by failure rates
(1/MTBF) and repair rates (1/MTTR). Between these two measurements,
availability can be easily determined.
However, more complex and more fault-tolerant systems have many
levels of operational efficiency. We have referred to systems operating in
degraded states, or a state of partial failure. To measure the reliability of
these complex systems, the Markov Model defines all possible degrees of a
systems operation and maps every state transition involved in making those
states occur.
To illustrate, consider a simple system with two subsystems, A and B, each
with the same failure rate (figure 11.5). As you can see, there are three
possible operating states: fully operational, partially degraded and complete
unavailability.
2xD
State 1
A and B work
1xD
State 2
A or B fail
11.5
State 3
A and B fail
A basic Markov Model describing the three

possible states for a two-subsystem design
The arrows indicate potential failure and repair transitions between states
with the failure and repair rates for each. Different failure rates among
subsystems naturally introduce additional variables, but the computations
remain the same.
11
8
Markov Models can account for multiple combinations of failure conditions

and the effect each has on system performance. This offers a better view
of the comparative severity of different subsystem failures and what kind of
degraded performance can be expected.
Markov Models are very useful in calculating the cost/benefit analysis of
steps designed to reduce failure rates at various places within a system
essentially putting a time and trouble cost on any possible subsystem failure,
which is particularly valuable when considering how difficult it is to service
tower-mounted wireless communications equipment. It can also inform design
decisions at the planning stage, taking into account accessibility factors early
in the process. The downside to the Markov Model, however, is that it cannot
assign a single MTBF value or failure rate to the system as a whole.
Reliability factors
Now that we are able to determine system reliability by multiple methods,
we can examine what can be done to improve that reliability. These
measures start in the design phase and carry through to installation and
maintenance practices.
Product complexity is a primary factor to consider.
Simply put, adding more components means adding
more opportunities for failure. Take the integrated
remote radio head (RRH) discussed in chapter five
(figure 11.6).
With thousands of electronic parts built into a single
device mounted in an outdoor environment, the
predicted failure rate may be as high as 5 percent
per year. This rate takes into account the ambient
temperature, internal temperature and the RRHs heat
dissipation features, as defined by Telcordia SR-322
software. Reducing the number of components in this
or any device will directly increase its reliability.
11.6
A compact,
tower-mounted
remote radio
head
Redundant hardware improves reliability by

increasing the number of states in which the
system may operate, adding flexibility to address
service levels and repair schedules. However,
redundant hardware will not reduce maintenance
costs and it requires a greater up-front investment.
Heat dissipation is vital to the long-term reliability
of any electronic system or subsystem, whether
mounted atop a tower or located in a ground
enclosure. For instance, a 60-watt amplifier may
generate an internal temperature rise of 25C
to 30C, which, when added to an ambient
temperature of 25C, yields up to 55C of heat,
exceeding the default operating temperature of
40C found in the Telcordia SR-322. Recall that
reducing operating temperature by just 10C may
reduce failure rates by 50 percent.
Thermal limitations relate to how heat dissipation
is handled in a device. In the example of the RRH,
front- and rear-mounted heat sinks arrayed in fins
dissipate internal temperature rise into the air. The
larger the fins, the more heat can be transmitted
away. Limitations appear in the form of mounting
orientation, available space on the mount and the
physical size of the RRH itself.
Environmental issues are a key factor when

dealing with electronics mounted outdoors atop
a cell tower. Temperature variations, moisture,
lightning strikes and other local conditions
all play a part in how reliability is measured
and improved. Each consideration should be
thoroughly qualification tested and take into
account prevailing industry standards.
Installation practices are just as important

as design factors when it comes to ensuring
reliability. As discussed in chapter two, its
vitally important to work with a competent and
experienced cell site services company with
well-documented safety records and tower climbcertified technicians to handle both mechanical
and electrical services.
Thermal design considerations

Robust margins for thermal tolerance
Design to conform to outdoor
cabinet specifications
Integrated thermal protection
against over-thermal conditions
Qualified technicians will reduce the chances of

improper lightning protection, poor connections,
mishandled feeder cable and weatherproofing
problems. In the long run, maintenance and
troubleshooting are much easier and less
disruptive to your network when trained
professionals handle your work.
Mechanical considerations
Resistance to high winds and
vibrations on rigid mounting
Accommodation of expansion
and contraction
Mechanical change-induced
drift compensation
Atmospheric considerations
Resistance to water infiltration
Resistance to corrosion,
fading and peeling
Connectors, seals and gasket design
Proper lightning mitigation
(shielding and grounding)
11
9
Reliability testing
A number of reliability test programs are designed to improve product reliability from early design prototype to deplopment. Such tests include the following.
Design Verification Testing (DVT)
Products are tested to electrical and mechanical specifications contained in their product specifications. Testing includes, but is not limited to:
Ingress protection
Temperature and humidity exposure

Part Number
Antennas/RF components
Outdoor cabinets
Cold exposure
Test per IEC 60068-2-1 at -40C

for 24 hr.
Test to -40C per GR-487CORE.
Heat exposure
IEC 60068-2-2 at +70C for 24

hr.
Test to +46C per GR-487CORE.
Temperature
cycling
IEC 600068-2-14 cycling

between -40C and 70C for 96
hrs.; dwell times at limits shall be
1 hr. past chamber equilibrium
and transition times between limits
shall be less than 2 hrs.
Test from -40C to +50C

per GR-487-CORE.
Damp heat
(humidity)
Test per IEC 600068-2-30,

Test Db; one 24-hr. cycle; 9 hr. at
25C / 95% RH and 9 hr.
at 40C / 90% RH
with 3-hr. ramp transitions.
Perform 7-day Temperature/

Humidity cycling per GR-487CORE for Outdoor Cabinets.
Part Number
Water ingress
IEC 529; for IP67 mated

connectors: 0.5-hr. immersion
under 1 meter of water (9.78 kPa
at 25C).
(Unless sand & dust tests are
required, physical ingress rating
is inferred from design and water
ingress rating).
Sand and
dust ingress
IEC 60068-2-68, or per Telcordia

GR-487-CORE section 3.28.4.
Enclosure door(s) opened and
closed 50 times before exposure
and dust collectors (consisting of
1.3 cm thick, 2.5 cm X 2.5 cm
black conductive, high-density
polyurethane foam pads) placed
inside. 0.9kg (2 lbs) of simulated
dust (consisting of 325 mesh
white hydrated alumina silicate,
or equivalent) is blown into the
enclosure at minimum velocity of
27 m/sec (60 mph) for 1 hr. The
foam collectors are then removed
and visually inspected for dust
accumulation.
Telcordia GR-487-CORE section

3.28.4. Enclosure door(s)
opened and closed 50 times
before exposure and dust
collectors (consisting of 1.3
cm thick, 2.5 cm X 2.5 cm
black conductive, high-density
polyurethane foam pads)
placed inside. 0.9kg (2 lbs)
of simulated dust (consisting
of 325 mesh white hydrated
alumina silicate, or equivalent)
is blown into the enclosure at
minimum velocity of 27 m/sec
(60 mph) for 1 hr. The foam
collectors are then removed
and visually inspected for dust
accumulation.
Wind-driven rain
IEC 60068-2-18 Test Ra, Method

1, using a four-quadrant spray
chamber simulating 40-mph, 70in/hr rain for a minimum of 4 hrs.
70-mph wind and

5.8-in/hr rain per
GR-487-CORE
Corrosion (salt mist)
11
10
Part Number
Outdoor cabinets
Continuous
exposure
IEC 60068-2-11 Test Ka (ASTM

B117) for a minimum of 720
hrs at 35C with a salt mist
concentration of 5 wt% NaCl
720 hrs. per ASTM B117 and

GR-487-CORE
Cyclic exposure
IEC 60068-2-52 Test Kb (Severity

Level 4 2 cycles) at 35C with
a salt mist concentration of 5 wt%
NaCl
Outdoor cabinets
Other tests include UV weathering effects from sun exposure:
Lightning protection:
U
V-A exposure with fluorescent lamps per IEC 60068-2-5, procedure B at
55C for a minimum 240 hours
T est per IEC 61000-4-5, 1.2/50s Voltage 8/20s Current

Combination Waveform, 10 repetitions @ 6kV, 3kA.
Full spectrum UV-A/B exposure with xenon arc lamps per ASTM G155
Some examples of testing and analysis in action are shown below

(figures 11.7 through 11.10).
Other multi-year outdoor weathering tests in urban environments
Group 1
11.7
Group 1, 1000 hours of corrosion
Group 2
Weathering and corrosion test of silver-plated steel products
11.9
11.8
Group 2, 1000 hours of corrosion
UV and weathering test of base station antenna assemblies
Outdoor wireless cabinet

thermal testing
11.10
Remote radio head

subassembly thermal
simulation
11
11
Robustness and Life Testing

Accelerated life testing (ALT)
ALT is performed to demonstrate the long-term reliability of a product.
During ALT, a sample of units is subjected to more severe thermal conditions
than would normally be experienced in the field. This is implemented with
a greater temperature excursion and an increased frequency of thermal
cycles. Though product variable, a typical ALT includes high temperature
dwells and thermal cycling to stress the units electrical components as
well as their mechanical attachments. The duration of the testing is again
product variable, but typical testing can last 60-100 days to evaluate the
products long-term reliability.
Highly accelerated life testing (HALT)
HALT reveals latent defects in design components and manufacturing that
would not otherwise be found by conventional test methods. HALT stresses
the products to failure in order to assess design robustness and marginality.
Our regime includes:
Step temperature stress
Voltage stress
Thermal dwell stress
Rapid thermal cycling stress
Random vibration stress
Combined thermal cycling-vibration stress
Other stress tests that may be product applicable
11
12
Recent developments in reliability

While its easy to establish areas of attack when it comes to improving
reliability turning those insights into real-life design advances requires a great
deal of experimentation and testing. For every theoretical opportunity, there is
a practical obstacle, but CommScope is dedicated to leading the charge
for improved reliability on every available front.
Thermal design
In the arena of thermal design, CommScope is always working to
develop new designs and alternative materials to make heat sinks that
more effectively transfer heat from components to the air. This approach
means less reliance on costly and failure-prone cooling fans. As mentioned
earlier, every 10C reduction in operating temperature doubles reliability.
Internal redundancy
CommScope is focused on load-sharing redundancy to improve system
availability. While not every single subsystem can be built to ideal fault
tolerances, were making every effort to cover as many subsystems as
possible.
Field data analysis
CommScope continuously monitors field returns and performs rootcause analyses on those returns. These analyses inform our design and
manufacturing processes, so we can prevent potential problems at the
source rather than on the tower and field results prove that the process
works, showing continuous improvement over time. Were building a
whole new layer of reliability right into each product.
Industry forums
In 2008, the International Wireless Packaging Consortium convened the
Tower Top Reliability Working Group to address carrier concerns over the
reliability of tower-mounted equipment.

Chapter 11 summary
The best minds from carrier companies, equipment suppliers and other industry experts split into subgroups in order to
draft a comprehensive best practices document. Results will be published at future IWPC proceedings and early results
suggest that the study will become an ongoing fixture in the development of industry standards.
CommScope is proud to share our expertise, as we are well-represented in several key subgroups and lead the
team dealing with reliability prediction.
Reliability in wireless systems

More tower-mounted equipment
improves efficiency but poses
challenges to reliability and
maintenance.
Reliability over life span defined by
bathtub curve
Ensuring a reliable network
Reliability stress factors
In wireless communications, every design choice involves a tradeoff. In exchange for more efficient use of power and
space in cell site deployments, there exists a greater risk of component failure. Such failures are a part of life, but, they
have to be part of the plan.
Temperature extremes
Environmental stress
Heat and heat dissipation
Predicting and measuring reliability can be a complex process with many competing aspects. Determining the
reliability of a component, a subsystem or an entire cell site depends heavily on what matters most: maintenance time,
upkeep costs, fault tolerance and a host of other considerations. There are ways to improve reliability, but the tradeoff
in cost may not always be worth it.
Failure rate
MTBF
MTTR
Availability
Unavailability
Downtime
In modern communications, there are no one-size-fits-all solutions. Every step to improve reliability represents a
careful balancing act between performance expectations, installation, and maintenance budgets and risk tolerance.
CommScope helps make those decisions easier with the technology and insight that lets you choose the right
solution from the best available options.
Measurements of reliability
Reliability prediction tools

FMEA
RBD
Markov Model
Testing regimens
Design verifications testing (DVT)
Accelerated life testing (ALT)
Highly accelerated life testing (HALT)
Reliability improvement opportunities
Product simplification
Redundant hardware
Better heat dissipation
Installation best practices
Improved prediction tools
Field data analysis and integration of
findings into production processes
Industry forum leadership
11
13
11
14
CHAPTER 12
On call or off-site:
Control and Site Monitoring Systems
A modern cell site is capable of accurately routing incredible amounts of data, serving thousands
of users around the clock. It may surprise you to learn that these technological marvels are usually
serviced, maintained, adjusted and monitored in person and at the site itself an expensive and
time-consuming proposition.
It may be counterintuitive, but these vital links in the worlds communications networks have
traditionally been limited in what they can communicate about themselves, their systems and their
efficiencies and even more limited in what adjustments may be made remotely by their engineers.
CommScope is working to break those limitations with cutting-edge technologies that promote
full network visibility of vital cell site equipment and create a unified reporting structure for different
kinds of alerts. Moreover, these solutions include the means to increase the efficiency and
capabilities of those components through remotely managed controllers. We will explore these
solutions in detail in this chapter.
12
1
Antenna Interface
Standards Group (AISG)
An industry body formed in
2001 to create and publish
standards defining interface
and control mechanisms
between different pieces of
RF equipment from different
manufacturers.
A new standard emerges
Interoperability Testing (IOT)

The practice of testing for
operational problems in a cell
site that employs equipment
from multiple manufacturers.
As an original member of AISG, CommScope was an early contributor to the standards and still plays an active
role as the standards for the future of technology are determined and defined.
Over the years, cell towers have grown more crowded with different equipment from more and more operators.
It became clear that there was a critical need for comprehensive antenna standards.
In 2001, the Antenna Interface Standards Group (AISG) was formed to create and publish a common standard for
antennas using remote electrical tilt (RET) antennas and tower-mounted amplifiers (TMAs). The standards also defined
a common control mechanism to bridge these different types of equipment.
Testing the new standards

Interoperability testing (IOT) is critical to assuring the smooth cooperation of different systems operating together at a
single cell site under AISG standards.
While there is no official test or IOT certification available under current AISG standards, CommScope has
placed itself among the leaders in the industry by establishing our own IOT lab to assure successful deployments of
CommScope products.
12
2
12: Control and Site Monitoring Systems
This position of industry leadership is built on a record of passing both independent and customer-sponsored IOT evaluations covering key components from
across the RF path:
Connectors
Cables
Smart Bias Tees
RET antennas
TMAs
Primary controllers
By testing these components in every possible combination with other major OEM equipment, CommScope has established a detailed IOT Matrix
(figure 12.1).
AISG interoperability test matrix | Andrew RETs

Part Number
Katherin
Powerwave
KMW
Amphenol
Ericsson
NSN
Huawei
ZTE
Gemintek
Andrew RET
AISG 1.1
Andrew RET
AISG 2.0
Internal RET
Single RET
Internal RET
Multi-RET
Ericsson
Proprietary RET
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
As of June 2011
12.1
The CommScope IOT Matrix, updated in June of 2011, describes interoperability across the RF path with equipment from other top
manufacturers
1 = This AISG controller does not support this function
2 = This test was not attempted
12
3
Connecting and controlling

Controlling the RF path within a particular cell site depends on AISGcompliant controllers linked to the sites critical systems. Generally, systems
such as RET antennas are connected via dedicated AISG cables with
multiple RETs connecting to a common AISG bus. However, AISG signals
may also travel on RF cables at a frequency of 2.176 MHz. In this case, a
modem interface with a Smart Bias Tee capability injects and receives the
AISG signal (figures 12.2 and 12.3).
Once AISG networking is integrated into a cell site, controlling the RF path is
generally performed one of two ways:
1. Localized on-site control performed by a technician
through a portable, handheld device, or
2. T rue remote control via a control unit permanently
installed at the cell site.
In the latter case, it should be noted that CommScope controllers installed
at cell sites include on-site administration as well as remote control capabilities.
Smart Bias TMA

Tee Option Option
Antenna
Antenna
Actuator
Actuator
Junction box
RET control cable
Computer interface not supplied
Lightning protection unit

ATC300-1000 controller
OR
Smart bias tee
AISG TMA
ATC200 lite usb

portable connector
AISG
AISG control
cable
ATC200 lite usb

portable connector
Smart bias tee

OR
AISG
USB
Network
OR
Network
Crossover
ethernet cable
Computer interface not supplied

12.2
12
4
An example of a cell site using dedicated AISG cable
OR
Ethernet cable
OR
AISG connector
Anmstm
antenna network
management system
Coaxial cable
USB
BTS
ATC300-1000 controller
ANMStm
antenna network management system
Aisg connector
12.3
An example of a cell site using RF cable to carry AISG controller signals
CommScopes controller hardware

Depending on the specific customer need, CommScope can field a variety
of controller solutions. Current products include:
ATC200 LITE-USB A portable, handheld controller that provides
localized, on-site control of AISG equipment (figure 12.4).
ATC300-1000 A permanent, rack-mounted AISG controller that allows
remote control management of RF path components (figure 12.5).
12.4
The CommScope ATC200 LITE-USB controller, allowing on-site control of

AISG components
+

24V or -48V
input power

Alarm relays
AISG Port AUSF
comm via RS-485
6 SMB Ports AISG comm via RF Link

Ethernet port remote communications
12.5
The CommScope ATC300-1000 controller, permanently

installed and able to remotely control RF path components
Teletilt RET System Video
(full specifications)
12
5
How monitoring and control systems work
The ANMS Site Manager
Weve already explored a few of the basics, such as the site controllers
described previously. This is the first important link in the chain of
communication. These controllers, whether used remotely or on-site, serve as
connection points and aggregators; that is, they collect, centralize and report
data from multiple sources, then relay it to the technicians by conventional
network backhaul, such as microwave transmission. Backhaul is explored in
more detail in chapter 8-2.
In short, the ANMS Site Manager is a server/client architecture system.

It works with the ATC200-1000 or ATC300-1000 to provide full network
visibility of all monitored systems at connected sites (figure 12.6).
The key advantages of this architecture include:
If monitoring is performed remotely, the networks operating center

management systems (such as the ANMS Site Manager from
CommScope, which are discussed in more detail below) provide full
network visibility of all monitored systems at any particular AISG-compliant
cell site, along with full control of whatever systems are integrated into the
controllers functions.
This is a very convenient and cost-effective way for operators to observe
and control network performance, since it can be performed via graphical
user interface (GUI) on any suitable computer with IP connectivity. A single
monitoring system can realistically supervise the operation of up to 2,000
individual cell sites.
12
6
Multiple clients allowed on the network

Automatic discovery of connected cell sites
Real-time alarm status and system reporting
Automatic archiving of system logs
One-button downloading of software updates across the network
Import and export of sites with current and requested movement
parameters
Scheduled antenna movements
ANMS Network
Since both the ATC200-1000 and the

ATC300-1000 are fully AISG 1.1 and
AISG 2.0 compliant, a technician can control
and maintain a complete antenna network system,
including TMAs and other AISG-compliant devices
connected via the controller to the ANMS Site
Manager, allowing such actions as:
Quickly determining the state of the entire AISG
network
Configuring groupings of sites for easier
management
Monitoring, measuring and optimizing
antenna performance
Distributing software updates across the
entire network
12.6
A diagram of an ANMS Site Manager connected to multiple AISG-compliant cell sites

An example of aggregated data reports, revealing power usage patterns that may yield more efficient
operating policies
Executing tilts across one, many or all

antennas or precisely scheduling such tilts to
occur at specific dates and times
These powerful capabilities not only improve
network efficiency, but they also reduce the
number of on-site technician calls for routine tilt
adjustments or maintenance and therefore
reduce the costs associated with such site visits.
12
7
Off-site, but in charge
Chapter 12 summary
The emergence of new remote monitoring and control systems is changing how operators do business. With fewer
site visits and mass tilting of RET antennas, operators are able to realize significant benefits on both sides of the
balance sheet. By reducing maintenance costs and boosting network efficiency, the cell networks of today deliver
more performance for fewer watts.
Cell site monitoring and control
Based on the standards established by AISG, CommScope solutions are designed to leverage efficiencies at
every stage of a remotely monitored and controlled RF path. On-site and remotely, these solutions work together to
give technicians the big picture as well as the tiny details.
Antenna Interface Standards

Group (AISG)
CommScope understands that better knowledge and control can only lead to better results for customers and
wireless users. CommScope will continue to strengthen the worlds networks while reducing costs helping all of
us benefit from greater efficiency and improved performance.
Traditionally managed on-site

by technicians
Increasing trend toward remote
monitoring/control capabilities
Industry body convened to

establish controller standards
CommScope was and
remains an original member
of the group
Interoperability testing (IOT)
There is no established AISG
testing certification
CommScope IOT lab assures
product interoperability
On-site AISG network solutions
Can operate on dedicated
AISG cable
Can use RF cable with
Smart Bias Tee
Remote management product
ANMS Site Manager
12
8
CHAPTER 13
Covering all the bases:
Distributed Antenna Systems
A population map of the United States illustrates what you already
know: people are not evenly distributed across the country, or even
across a particular state (figure 13.1).
Since cell network service is driven in large part by the population
it serves, it makes sense that coverage must be denser in those
places where population is denser. While this map shows
how population density changes from state to state and from
county to county, it doesnt show how density changes from one
neighborhood to another, or even from one building to another.
These localized differences matter in cell network planning,
defining cell size, shape and power requirements. A key part of
13.1
A map of the United

States showing relative
population density
Distributed Antenna System

(DAS)
A network of nodes serving a
specific place or building. They
connect through a central base
station for backhaul out to the
public network.
that plan is the distributed antenna system (DAS), which serves

geographical areas and buildings with the highest demands.
13
1
A DAS is a network of spatially separated antenna nodes called microcells arranged to support cell network
service in a particular place, often a single building or a campus of buildings (figure 13.2).
Remote Unit
and Antennas
DAS Head End
DAS Head End

ODAS Node
Remote Unit
and Antennas
Remote Unit
and Antennas
Optical Fiber
DAS Head End
13.2
13
2
An overview of a typical DAS deployment
13: Distributed Antenna Systems
These nodes are compact, so they can be placed

almost anywhere. DAS nodes typically have smaller
footprints than macrocells. You can see a diagram
of DAS architecture in figure 13.3.
Remote
unit
MASTER RACK
Remote
unit
Local unit
DAS systems can be used to support an amazing

variety of different communication and data
network services, from analog to cutting-edge
LTE and WiMAX (table 13.4).
This flexibility, combined with their small size and
ability to cover small, specific areas, makes DAS
an ideal means to extend or improve cellular
service into locations that lack adequate coverage.
Sometimes this need is a result of problematic
location or geography, and; other times by limited
network capacity. In either event, a DAS system
can be a direct connection to the public network
for locations unserviceable by macrocells.
Remote
unit
Point of
interface
Point of
interface
BTS
Combining/
splitting
Multi-band
Remote
unit
Combining/
splitting
To multiple
local units
Remote
unit
Remote
unit
Local unit
Remote
unit
Remote
unit
13.3
A summary of DAS-supported frequencies and network services
Frequency range
700 MHz
800 850 MHz
Service types

Analog, GSM, LTE
Analog, GSM, iDEN, CDMA
900 MHz
1700 MHz
CDMA, W-CDMA, LTE
1900 MHz
Analog, CDMA, W-CDMA
2600 MHz
13.4
Analog, iDEN
WiMAX
A summary of DAS-supported frequencies

and network services
13
3
DAS can be deployed indoors, outdoors and even in places that are a
combination of the two, such as:
Indoor
High-rise apartment or condo buildings
Large corporate offices
Exhibition halls and shopping centers
Hotels, hospitals and restaurants
In these installations, nodes are arranged to provide even coverage across
each area or each floor. An example of an indoor DAS layout appears
below (figure 13.5).
Outdoor
Open metropolitan areas
13.5
An indoor DAS layout for a building remote nodes connect to the base station
Railways
Outdoor deployments create service areas in the open, but the architecture
remains basically the same as an indoor DAS (figure 13.6).
Combination
Corporate campuses
Industrial parks
Airports
Stadiums
Subways, tunnels and trains
Combination DAS layouts include elements of both indoor and
outdoor designs.
13
4
13.6
Outdoor DAS layout nodes create service areas outside
DAS components
DAS in practice
A DAS network layout is based on three core components:
Perhaps the best way to understand how a DAS can bring

enhanced network service to a specific area is to look at a few
real-world examples.
1. Master Unit. This is the DAS interface to the outside world, connected
to a nearby macrocell base station that provides access to the larger
network.
Indoor DAS deployment: Rome Telecom Italia Mobile
2. DAS Remotes. These distributed devices receive traffic from the master unit
via optical cable and relay RF transmission to and from the antenna via
coaxial cable.
A corporate office building provides all the networking challenges

DAS was designed for. In general, these environments are
characterized by:
3. DAS Antennas. These are the entry and exit points between the DAS and
individual network users. They relay traffic to and from the remote.
Large, dense populations of users. The DAS must meet and

maintain reliable service in high-traffic situations, whatever
the circumstances.
Seen together, youll notice that the entire system starts to resemble the
topology of an ordinary computer Ethernet network, in which a central server
connects to individual workstations as well as to any outside networks, such
as the Internet (figure 13.7).
DAS Master Unit
Takes feed from base station
13.7
DAS Remotes
Indoor or Outdoor
S
caling needs for service. The DAS must be able to offer
seamless coverage from one node to the next and scale itself to
meet the changing capacity requirements of users as they move
through the building.
ver-evolving service needs. As technology changes and future E
proofing becomes a necessity, the DAS must be able to add
or remove services without disrupting access or degrading
performance, including those shown above in table 13.4.
Typical DAS components the antennas connect via coax to remotes

13
5
A good example of a DAS that meets all these needs is the ION-B system
offered by CommScope. The ION-B series can manage multiple
technologies over several bands simultaneously. Depending on the situation,
a designer may choose single-band, dual-band or triple-band versions with
wireless LAN (WLAN) on an auxiliary channel.
Rome Telecom Italiaia Mobile (TIM) needed a reliable DAS solution that
would link users at their headquarters.
Floor 6
CommScope delivered a DAS network that met all these requirements,

with a slim public profile.
Floor 5
The layout of the DAS reveals the structure of data flow throughout the two
buildings, including in hard-to-serve places like the two underground parking
levels and stairwells (figure 13.8). The system was installed and optimized in
just four weeks and featured four IP-based base transceiver stations to support
the high traffic requirements between the DAS and the outside network.
Floor 2
Floor 4
Floor 3
Floor 1
CELL 3
CELL 2
Floor 0
Floor -1
CELL 1
Floor -2
13.8
13
CELL 4
Layout of the TIM HQ system, connecting two buildings through

a single DAS
Dallas/Fort Worth
International Airport:
A busy cargo and passenger
hub for multiple carriers
5 large terminals dispersed over
an area of 18,000 acres
More than 28,000 parking
spaces in ramps and lots
Over 56 million passengers and
630,000 flights annually
Combination indoor/outdoor deployment:

Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
Airports are high-traffic areas in more ways than one. In the dynamic world of air travel, expansion and evolution are
inevitable. DAS serving an airports personnel and its travelers must be able to expand and evolve as well. Like most
indoor/outdoor installations, an airport DAS must offer:
Flexible service support. With so many different technologies on the airwaves, an indoor/outdoor DAS must support
the standards of today and tomorrow.
Broader coverage areas. By definition, indoor/outdoor deployments tend to cover wider spaces and more diverse
terrain. Expanding the DAS range cannot come at the cost of reliability or speed.
The DAS solution would need to:

Cover vast spaces between
terminals and parking areas
Include capacity for public
safety traffic
Scale with airport growth
Allow flexible leasing by
airport management to multiple
participating partners
Be designed and installed
quickly with minimal
environmental impact
Not interfere with other RF
traffic in the area
Steeper demands for on-the-fly scalability. Wider coverage areas have greater potential traffic needs. For efficient
operation, the DAS must be able to dynamically allocate capacity where and when it is needed.
Again, the ION-B series from CommScope proved an effective solution for these challenges, as well as other specific
circumstances related to our DAS installation at the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport.
13
7
The CommScope Solution:

Phase 1
128 remote units
218 antennas
150,000 meters of
fiber-optic cable
30,000 meters of
coaxial cable
Phase 2
58 remote units
182 antennas
5,500 meters of
fiber-optic cable
10,000 meters of
coaxial cable
10,000 meters of
composite cable
Andrew Integrated Management

and Operating System
(A.I.M.O.S.)
The network management solution
for all CommScope distributed
antenna systems. Part of our
Andrew Solutions portfolio, it
performs configuration fault and
inventory via SNMP for alarm
forwarding.
13
8
CommScope provided the right solution in a ION-B system with all the power and flexibility needed to meet the
airports present and anticipated future challenges.
To address the long distances between components, the optical links between remotes and master units were rated for
signal integrity up to 20 kilometers. This meant remote units could be placed literally anywhere on the property and
still communicate effectively with the master unit.
The ION-B system is also transparent over its full operating bandwidth (from 800 MHz to 2500 MHz) so each
licensed user within the airports hierarchy could count on top performance without interfering with other RF traffic in
the area.
Cellular and other wireless signals from passengers, personnel and safety officials are distributed down hallways, into
alcoves and through corridors. Intelligent network management also permits priority service for emergency responders.
To control maintenance and monitoring costs, the ION-B also allows remote, Web-based supervision by such
common protocols as TCP/IP, SNMPv2, FTP or Telnet with its integrated Andrew Integrated Management and
Operating System (A.I.M.O.S.). To date, four wireless providers have leased access to the network.
Combination indoor/outdoor deployment:

Allianz Arena Munich
While the installation at Dallas-Ft. Worth International
Airport (DFW) presented unique challenges in regard to
area of coverage, stadiums and other indoor/outdoor
applications require special attention to matters of variable
capacity. While meeting all the requirements of the DFW
example, a stadium installation must also deal with the
additional task of assuring QoS in hard-to-serve indoor
spaces as well as open-air spaces above. This is not only
for the fans in the seats, but the enormous media presence
required to broadcast the biggest events to a global
audience.
For the Allianz Arena in Munich, CommScope deployed the ION-M series precisely because it could address these
specific requirements.
Because the CommScope ION-M series can transmit on several bands simultaneously with no restriction on the
number of carriers it was the natural choice for this application.
The combination of high-powered remotes and a flexible master unit allowed easy customization to penetrate even
the hardest-to-serve locations. To scale along with the significance of the events taking place, ION-M also supports
multiple configurations, like point-to-point, star and daisy-chain.
If fiber-optic cable access is limited, both coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) and dense wavelength
division multiplexing (DWDM) can be used to establish multi-sectored sites with a single fiber connection. With all the
maintenance and monitoring capabilities of A.I.M.O.S., the system offers cost-effective upkeep.
Allianz Area:
Home field for two German
soccer teams
Sitting and standing capacity of
nearly 70,000 fans
Hosted the globally broadcast
FIFA World Cup in 2006
Will play host to UEFA
Championship Finals in 2012
Accommodate a full house of
users without overloading the
network
Support multiple services such
as GSM900, GSM 1800 and
UMTS
The CommScope solution:
28 remote units
350 antennas
150 meters of radiating cable
Coarse/Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (CWDM/
DWDM)
Methods of duplexing signals in
an optical cable by using different
colors of laser light for increased
capacity.
To date, four operators have signed contracts to use the system, which has proven equal to the task of keeping fans
and the media connected even for the most important tournaments.
13
9
Swiss high-speed rail project:

Route between Heitersberg and
Dniken covers 20 km
High-speed trains may travel up
to 300 km/hr
Accommodate seamless
handoffs between cells
Manage calls through multiple
operators
Support GSM900, GSM1800
and UMTS services
Cost significantly less than a
macrocell solution
24 remote units
48 antennas
Outdoor DAS deployment:

Swiss Rail Corridor from Heitersberg to Dniken
Full outdoor deployments place unique demands on the
design of a DAS. It becomes even more challenging when the
average network user is passing through your service area at
more than 300 kilometers an hour, as they do on European
bullet trains. For passengers to connect while they ride the
rails, they need a DAS that offers:
Seamless coverage and capacity. Handoffs between cells is tricky when the user is moving through at bullet train
speeds yet dropped calls are not an option.
Closed coverage. Clean connections to the macro network keep the signal clear no matter what kind of
interference sources the train is passing at the moment.
Remote administration and maintenance. When the DAS is miles long, remote management capabilities are critical.
Multiple carrier support. To keep development costs reasonable, the DAS must offer shared infrastructure to
support multiple carriers simultaneously.
When the Swiss rail lines requested that CommScope build a DAS that would keep their passengers as connected
as they were comfortable - even at the highest speeds - these stringent criteria put us to the test.
The ION-M system proved the best solution. By creating several radiation points along the length of the track, the cells
comprising the DAS elongate and stretch in just the right direction to perform reliable handoffs, even at top speed. The
coverage is dedicated and localized, keeping outside interference at bay and assuring enough capacity for the most
crowded passenger trains.
All master unit equipment is concentrated in the BTS interface located in the middle of the track, while remote units are
spaced along the length of the track. By elongating the cells, CommScope was able to achieve distances between
remotes of up to 2 km, and with the integrated A.I.M.O.S. capability, system monitoring and adjustment can be
performed remotely.
13
10
Outdoor DAS deployment:

The Moscow Metro underground
When the same technology is applied to subterranean
settings with limited access, distances between remotes and
master units become even more important. Both the ION-B
and ION-M series guarantee signal quality for distances
up to 3 km. By applying the optical link option, theoretical
distances of up to 20 km are possible, helping future-proof
the system against growing capacity needs.
As users and their associated network traffic move from one part of the DAS to another, the remotes must be powerful
enough to manage dynamic changes in capacity while remaining small enough for safe installation in tight spaces
found underground. In the case of the Moscow Underground, we find that reliable communications are much more than
a matter of passenger convenience. They can make the difference in the event of an emergency situation as well.
The Russian government ordered a DAS system that
would provide seamless communication through the vast
underground network, both for passenger convenience and
for emergency responders, due to the threat of terrorist attacks.
This capability was also needed for more commonplace
emergencies such as fires, accidents and other injuries. As a
government directive, installation time was of the essence.
13.9
The ION-M deployment in the Moscow Metro

underground
Moscow Metro underground:

12 lines with 182 stations and
a total rail length of 301 km
11 million riders daily
A historically high-profile target
for terror attacks
Increase security efficiency
Provide highest reliability
Offer fast access for emergency
responders
Present little or no visibility
Be delivered on a very
aggressive schedule
260 remote units
10 master units
400 km of radiating cable
ommScope designed and installed a dedicated ION-M

C
DAS using remote units that could be installed without damage
to the legendary dcor of the Metros elegant stations, which
are often called underground palaces (figure 13.9).
Indoors, outdoors or both the right solution makes the connection work
All these examples bring dedicated cellular services to locations that were not otherwise accessible, or at least not
reliably accessible. A DAS network can achieve this primary objective by several methods, but the result is always the
same: better, more reliable coverage, indoors and out.
13
11
Capacity on demand, wherever its needed
Chapter 13 summary
If the worlds population were evenly distributed, designing the perfect cellular network would be as simple as
drawing circles on a map. S When the Swiss rail lines requested that CommScope build a DAS that would keep
their passengers as connected as they were comfortable - even at the highest speeds - these stringent criteria put us to
the test. ince the real world is ful l of high-density and low-density population centers
as well as variations in geography, government oversight and terrain we need to adjust our methods. Its the
only way people can connectno matter where they are.
Distributed antenna systems (DAS)
As more and more places are connected to accommodate our on-demand world, companies like CommScope
continue to innovate new ways to improve service while reducing visibility, bringing access without eyesores.
Distributed antenna systems help service operators reach their customers in crowded buildings, deep underground
and even as they cross the countryside at hundreds of miles an hour. They can connect a stadium of die-hard fans to
their loved ones at home and let the whole world watch whats happening on the field below in real time one of the
many benefits of putting the right communication infrastructure to work.
Microcell solutions
Compact, flexible and scalable
Support for multiple services
Best circumstances for DAS
Poor existing coverage
Variable capacity requirements
Exceptionally dense traffic areas
No cost-effective macrocell
solution
Indoor deployments
Ideal for office buildings, shopping
centers, apartments, expo halls,
hotels and hospitals
Outdoor deployments
Ideal for railways, metro areas
and other outdoor spaces
Combo in/outdoor deployment
Ideal for office campuses, airports,
stadiums, subways and moving
trains
DAS components
Master units
DAS remotes
DAS antennas
13
12
CHAPTER 14
Going to ground:
Lightning Protection
Even in the 21st century, the source of atmospheric lightning is the subject of scientific debate.
Different theories assign different mechanisms to the creation of lightning: wind and friction,
ice formation inside clouds even the accumulation of charged particles from solar winds.
Far better understood is the behavior and power of lightning. Weve all been cautioned not to
stand out in the open during a lightning storm and for good reason. A lightning bolt can reach
temperatures of 54,000 Fahrenheit, five times the temperature of the suns surface and hot enough
to fuse loose sand into hard glass in an instant. Superheated air around the bolt expands violently
as it passes, creating the familiar deep rumble of thunder.
Like any electrical discharge, lightning always seeks the path of least resistance to the ground.
Often, this is through the tallest or most electrically conductive object available, which is why you
dont want to stand in an open field during a storm. The human body presents the shortest path into
the earth, boosting conductivity by shaving five or six feet off the distance a bolt must travel through
the air.
14
1
Lightning by the numbers

In the 30 microseconds it
exists, an average lightning
bolt (at its peak discharge
level) can carry:
30,000 amperes of current
1 trillion watts of electricity
500 megajoules of energy
But how do we deal with sensitive electronics that cant take shelter from the storm? One look at a cell antenna tower
will tell you that by virtue of its metallic composition as well as its height its a prime target for lightning strikes.
A number of components are particularly attractive to lightning, including:
Antennas and their support structures
Coaxial lines and waveguides
Steel buildings, cabinets and other equipment housing
Connected communication and power lines
This exposure opens up the installation to expensive damage, maintenance and downtime, so its vitally important that
we take protective measures to minimize the risk of lightning damage.
Understanding the risks
Unfortunately for planners, most of the risk factors for lightning strikes are the same characteristics that make for a
good cell site: open land and high elevation. Since there is little that can be done about location, lightning mitigation
efforts must be directed elsewhere. Lets look first at the two types of meteorological events that present the greatest
risks:
C
onvection storms are caused by the heating of air near the ground and its interaction with cooler air above.
These create the localized, short-lived storms we see most often in the summer months.
F rontal storms are created by warm and cool fronts meeting. These storms can extend hundreds of miles and
regenerate their strength over and over again, allowing them to persist for days and affect enormous areas.
Frontal storms present the greater lightning risk.
14
2
14: Lightning Protection
Electrical potential
Measured in volts, this is the
difference in electrical charge
between two points in space.
The greater the difference,
the higher the potential
and therefore, the greater
the voltage.
The overall pattern of these storm types can be

anticipated by season and location. Historical
trends are accurate predictors of future activity.
While government statistics dont include specific
numbers regarding the number or severity of lightning
strikes, they do provide overall counts of thunderstorm
days in a given area (figure 14.1).
The nature of lightning
Lightning occurs in two common forms:
Cloud-to-cloud lightning discharges itself by
equalizing its charge with another cloud, remaining
high above the ground in the process.
Cloud-to-ground lightning seeks discharge through the
earth. This is the kind that creates problems for objects
on the ground, including cell sites.
over 70
50 to 70
30 to 50
10 to 30
under 10 (includes Alaska and Hawaii)
14.1
A meteorological map showing the annual number

of thunderstorm days
In both cases, the lightning occurs when a difference in electrical charge the electrical potential exists. When this
difference grows to a magnitude that overcomes the natural insulating properties of the air, the electrical difference
seeks equilibrium by discharging itself along the path of least electrical resistance. For cloud-to-ground lightning, the less
distance traveled in the air, the easier it is to discharge thats why it seeks a more conductive object on the ground as
its preferred path.
In most cases, this discharge represents a negative charge seeking a positive charge and may represent an electrical
potential of as much as 100 million volts.
14
3
Coaxial cable
A type of cable featuring an
inner conductive core, an
outer conductive layer and a
dielectric, or insulating, space
between them. Coaxial cable
connects antennas to their base
stations.
The birth of a bolt

As we can see in the three-step illustration below, cloud-to-ground lightning begins as a faint or invisible pilot leader
high in the cloud. As it progresses downward, it establishes the first phase of the strike path. This pilot leader is
followed by the step leader, a surge in current following the new path. The step leader jumps in roughly 100-foot
increments, or steps, until it approaches the positively charged point on the ground.
At this point, something incredible happens: a secondary discharge extends upwards from the ground, meeting the
bolt in midair and completing the circuit. It happens so fast that the human eye only sees the bolt descending from the
sky, not the one reaching up from the ground (figure 14.2).
14.2
14
4
The origination and path of a cloud-to-ground strike
The intense light of a lightning bolt is created by molecules of air energized by the current passing through them. The
shape of the visible lightning can help you identify its type:
Streak lightning is the most commonly seen type, characterized by a single line running from cloud to cloud or
cloud to ground.
Forked lightning reveals the full conductive channel as smaller tributaries branching off the main line.
Grounding
Measures taken to control and
facilitate the path of an electrical
discharge from its source to
the ground, avoiding potential
damage to sensitive equipment
along the way.
Sheet lightning is a shapeless, wide-area illumination commonly seen in cloud-to-cloud discharges.

Ribbon lightning is a streak that seems to repeat itself in a parallel path. This is due to high winds moving the air
in the midst of the strike.
Beaded lightning, also called chain lightning, appears to break up into separate branches and persist longer
than the main strike.
Heat lightning is not truly a lightning type, but the red-tinted appearance of other lightning types visible on a
distant horizon. The coloration is due to atmospheric reflections and light scattering between the lightning and the
observer.
Dealing with lightning
Now that we know a little about the challenges we face, lets look at some of the ways we can guard against the
damaging effects of lightning.
The science of grounding
All electrical facilities are inherently connected to the ground, either by design or by circumstance. The earth itself
represents the common electrical potential, or voltage, that other electrical sources naturally seek for equilibrium. By
improving the way these discharges reach the earth, we can control the path and divert its damaging power away
from equipment and structures that would otherwise be harmed.
When you imagine an electrical grounding system, you may have an image of a simple lightning rod with a wired
connection to the ground. In the case of cell site installations, a grounding system is much more complex and serves
purposes other than simply diverting lightning strikes; it also minimizes the chance of shock from the equipment
itself, reduces noisy voltages that interfere with signals and protects sensitive electronics from damaging overvoltage
conditions from all sources.
14
5
Grounding limits
Wooden tower structures
As important as effective grounding is, its often not enough by itself. Any
path you install to ground a discharge has a certain physical limit to the
voltage it can handle. Even the most substantial methods, like water pipes
and specially designed grounding rods, are restricted as to how much
voltage they can pass to the ground. To address these limits, its wise to
design in multiple paths so the grounding system can dissipate the most
voltage possible.
In wooden structures, conductive paths must be added to give strikes a

direct route to the ground. If wooden support poles provide a nonconductive
obstacle from a metal tower, additional lightning rods should be affixed
atop these poles to prevent them from splitting under the force of a strike and
potentially collapsing the tower they support.
Protecting the tower

The antenna tower presents the most obvious electrical target, as well as the
best opportunity to protect the rest of the installation. Thats because drawing
lightning to the tower for safe discharge also gains us valuable insurance for
the harder-to-protect components down on the ground and those connected
by transmission lines.
Rods for this kind of application are typically #6 AWG bare copper stapled
to the pole on the side opposite the antennas transmission line. This ground
line should be connected to all equipment on top of the pole as well as any
lines leading away to a connected shed or cabinet (figure 14.3).
Top cap
Grounding down-lead
By its very nature, a tall metallic tower can conduct lightning current into the
ground. The danger arises when the voltage exceeds the structures ability to
dissipate it and electrical arcing occurs. This current can damage microwave
antennas and, in particularly powerful strikes, fuse the dipole elements of
two-way radio antennas.
To protect these and other components mounted on metallic towers, lightning
rods should be affixed directly to the tower above the components to assure
safe interception of the strike. Its also important to ensure that the towers
base, footings and any guy wires are also properly grounded.
Additional protective measures include insulating gaps built into the design
and devices called shorting stubs that can be added to allow a short circuit
at lightnings natural frequencies. Well dig deeper into these measures on
the following pages..
14
6
Metallic coaxial line shield
Electric service cabinet

Radio cabinet
Wooden pole
Bonding
Copper ground wire

19" minimum
6'
U guard
Bare copper
8' ground rods
14.3
Grounding details for a wooden pole-mounted antenna
Electric
service
ground
Two-way radio antennas

Conventional coaxial dipole antennas are often fitted with a serrated washer that forms a physical gap between the
dipole whip and its support. Should lightning strike this point, the gaps in the serrated washer force the current to arc
across the open space, creating a short circuit and dissipating the discharge.
Another protective measure is the insertion of a quarter-wave shorting stub in the coaxial transmission line at the base
of the antenna. Theyre called quarter-wave shorting stubs because their place in the circuit does not impact normal
operating frequencies of the site, and their length (a quarter of one wavelength), will cause an immediate short circuit
for electrical frequencies associated with lightning. In this, they act as a sort of electrical release valve that will only
divert a certain kind of dangerous current away from the system.
Quarter-wave shorting stub

A device inserted into the
connection between transmission
line and antenna that does not
affect normal frequencies, but
will immediately short and
dissipate energy when lightning
frequencies cross.
Other types of antennas tend to be self-protecting, such as folded dipoles, ground plane and Yagi antennas (chapter
three for more information on different antenna configurations). These types are generally constructed of materials
capable of handling most strikes, and their transmission lines are adequately shielded to direct any lightning current to
the ground by other, easier paths.
Microwave antennas
Common types of microwave antennas, such as the paraboloid (dish-shaped) and horn reflector varieties are
generally rugged enough to sustain normal lightning strikes without damage. However, the warning lights visible atop
these installations are not so durable. To protect these regulatory-mandated devices, lightning rods are used to divert
lightning discharges away from their more delicate wiring.
These protective systems may seem like a lot of expense to protect what are essentially blinking red lights, but the
labor involved in replacing them after a lightning storm quickly becomes a costly maintenance situation.
Two-way radio antenna support structures
The buried end of a ground line can take several forms. Ideally, you would want the buried end to extend deep
into the earth, providing a more reliable interface for dissipating the voltage. In some locations, such as rocky
mountaintops, these depths arent available. In these cases, the support structure can be protected by laying in
multiple ground lines in a radial pattern to achieve horizontally what a single deep line would achieve vertically.
14
7
For antenna structures installed atop buildings as is

more frequently the case these days all equipment,
transmission lines and other conductive objects within
a six-foot radius of the base should be commonly
connected. The entire array should attach to a separate
conductor with a minimum of two conductor systems
integrated into the building itself. These conductors may
be water pipes, steel framing or other electrically sturdy
materials having direct contact with the ground below.
For those antenna structures mounted on metallic towers,
grounding is a much simpler matter, since the tower
structure itself provides a clear path to ground in the
event of a lightning strike. Of course, this all depends
on properly grounded base supports. Four methods of
assuring this effect are shownto the right (figures 14.4
through 14.7).
Ground rod
Guy anchor
Eadwelded connection
Additional
grounding
Solid copper
conductor
Radio equipment
18"
minimum
building
Tower base
14.4
For ground lines terminating through concrete bases and

guy wire anchors, good conductive continuity inside the
concrete itself should be virtually immune to any negative
effects from lightning strikes. This is true for towers built
on the ground as well as structures installed on top of
buildings.
However, inadequate welds within the concrete may
lead to electrical discontinuity, which can cause electrical
arcing within the support with potentially explosive
results. For maximum safety, a secondary ground line is
highly recommended.
1'
14.5
Support grounding installed in

a tower pier
Buried
peripheral
ground ring
18"
minimum
Ground rod
Support grounding achieved

via guy wires
Wire fence bonded to ground ring
Solid copper conductor
Waveguide support
frames
or coaxial
lines connected
to ground
Counterpoise
conductors used
when needed
14.6
14
Peripheral ground
Support grounding installed in a

towers guy wire anchors
14.7
To external
ground ring
around equipment
building
Support grounding for a freestanding

tower structure
Coaxial transmission lines

Coaxial cables are subject to two potential hazards from surge currents reaching the outer conductor layer:
1. Damage to the insulating dielectric layer between the inner and outer conductors, which may destroy the cable
and damage any equipment connected to it.
2. Mechanical crush forces that are associated with surge currents. While solid dielectric and larger cables (7/8"
and up) are resistant to this effect, air dielectric and smaller-diameter cables have been known to be physically
crushed by the magnetic effects of lightning-induced surges.
Dielectric layer
The insulated, tube-shaped
layer separating a coaxial
cables inner and outer
conductors. Dielectrics may be
made of solid material, flexible
foam or open air channels
supported by nonconductive
spacers. If the dielectric
becomes damaged, the cable
will short.
Providing a shunt path from the antenna to the ground line will usually prevent both kinds of damage. This
danger highlights the rationale for securing the cables at such frequent intervals to prevent arcing between
cable and tower.
Protecting the DC power system
As discussed in chapter 10, cell sites generally operate on DC power provided by the sites rectifiers. This energized
part of the system presents an attractive target for lightning. The devices used to prevent overvoltage conditions are
surge protectors. They work much like the consumer-grade version you may have installed in your home to protect
sensitive electronics like computers or televisions.
Surge protector devices (SPDs) are in-line devices that feature a non-linear voltage-current characteristic which
mitigates high voltages by increasing the associated current (figure 14.8).
14.8
Typical surge protection devices (SPDs)

14
9
SPDs are used to safeguard all cell site components connected to the DC power system, but any devices connected to an external metallic conductor will
require separate protection.
The most vulnerable components connected to the DC power system are remote radio heads (RRHs), which we discuss in chapters five and ten. Mounted
as they are atop the cell sites tower and adjacent to the antenna, the RRH and its copper power cable are natural targets for lightning, much like the power
distribution equipment at the towers base. Insertion of SPDs as close as possible to these locations protects the RRH units from overvoltage damage (figures
14.9 and 14.10).
Cell site tower top

Antennas
RRH units
RRH DC surge protection
Cell site base

Radio
Power and backup
RF and DC surge protection
Base station antennas
Remote radio heads
RRH surge protection module

enclosure
14.9
14
10
Vulnerable components at the top and base of a cell tower
14.10
A surge protector mounted alongside the RRH
An SPD capable of withstanding not just one, but multiple lightning strikes
must possess a robust resiliency to avoid costly maintenance and downtime
for replacement. A detailed look at the inner layout of a sample RRH surge
protection module appears below (figure 14.11).
Equipment at the base of the tower requires protection as well. Key
components like the radio, the transmitter and backup battery systems, visible
at the bottom of figure 14.9, are all vulnerable to damage from lightninginduced overvoltage. To prevent this, rack-mounted SPD units safeguard the
power distribution systems connections between the RRH power cables and
the rest of the equipment installed at the base (figures 14.12 and 14.13).
Rack-mounted SPD unit
14.12
An SPD assembly mounted in a DC power and battery enclosure
14.11
Inside an RRH surge protector module, cover removed
14.13
The interior detail of an SPD unit designed to protect an RRH
14
11

DC/DC converters
DC in
=
=
DC out
Other forms of overvoltage protection: fuses and breakers

SPDs serve functions other than simply protecting components
from lightning strike-induced overvoltage situations. As we
learned in chapter 10, SPDs also offer protection in the form
of fuses and circuit breakers that keep more common forms of
overvoltage from damaging components and batteries.
In a cell sites DC power distribution system, as many as 80
circuit breakers may regulate DC power from the rectifier to all
the connected loads, both in the enclosure and on the tower
(figure 14.14).
Charge (+)
LVD
Panel
+24
breaker
panel
Breaker
Alarm
Modular rectifier shelves

N+1 parallel modules
Charge ()
Shunt
Controller
Return
Ground bar
Charge/discharge panel
(Terminal panel)
14.14
Block diagram of +24V power and distribution system, typical of a cell site installation
Images and illustration courtesy of GE.
C
ircuit breakers incorporate short-delay curve or fast-blow
fuses to break the circuit and protect the load
Because of the large number of circuit breakers required
often from 24 to 80 per cell site wireless carriers have
adopted modular distribution structures that accept a wide
variety of circuit breaker sizes. You can learn more about these
features in chapter 10.
GTM fuse
14.15
14
12
LOADS
Temperature Comp
Sense Probe
(electrically isolated
from battery)
Batteries
Both fuses and circuit breakers perform the same basic

function, which is to interrupt power to the load when levels
grow unsafe. Examples of each are shown below (figure
14.15).
F uses incorporate conductors designed to melt under the
stress of overcurrent conditions, breaking the circuit and
protecting the load on the other end
48V
breaker
panel
TPL fuse/holder
Commonly used telecom fuses and circuit breakers
Plug-in circuit breakers
Taming lightning by controlling the current
Chapter 14 summary
No matter how many times we witness it, the incredible power of a lightning bolt can instill fear and awe. When
lightning strikes exposed cellular installations, only careful planning can divert its devastating power away from the
sensitive components that keep modern networks operating.
Lightning protection
With the right components, design and experience, a cell site can become virtually immune to the damaging effects
of lightning as well as other electrically dangerous situations. CommScope supplies networks with the equipment
and expertise required to harness lightning and direct it harmlessly away keeping the worlds key communications
systems operating safely.
Lightning types
Lightning seeks a ground

Providing safe paths around
equipment protects cell sites
Cloud-to-cloud
Cloud-to-ground
Grounding an installation
Metal towers can be selfgrounding
Wooden structures require paths
Ground wire can travel deep or
radiate horizontally
Tower and base station protection
Remote radio heads (RRHs)
Power distribution
Radio, transmitter, battery
backups
DC power system
Surge protection devices
Fuses and circuit breakers
14
13
14
14
APPENDIX A
Spectrum Configurations Around the World

Applicable Technologies
Region
Countries
Frequency Bands
Africa, Eurasia,
South America
Argentina, Belarus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Georgia, Ireland, Latvia,

Madagascar, Moldova, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Sweden,
Tajikistan, Tanzania, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vietnam
450 MHz
Eurasia
Czech Republic, Hungary, Latvia, Mongolia, Romania, Russia
450 MHz
Africa, Eurasia
Cameroon, Kazakhstan, Moldova
450/800 MHz
Middle East
Iraq
450/800/1900 MHz
Asia, North America,

South America
Canada, Kazakhstan, Peru, United States of America (USA)
700 MHz
Asia
Taiwan, Uzbekistan
700 MHz/2.6 GHz
North America
Canada, USA
AWS & 700 MHz
Europe
Germany
800 MHz
Africa, Asia, Caribbean,

Central America,
Middle East, Oceania,
South America
Afghanistan, Angola, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Brazil,

Cambodia, Cayman Islands, China, Colombia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ecuador, Fiji,
Ghana, Guam, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, Macau,
Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, South Africa,
South Korea, Sudan, Taiwan, Thailand, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam
800 MHz
Asia
Japan
800 MHz & 1.5 GHz
Europe
France, Germany, United Kingdom
800 MHz & 2.6 GHz
Europe
Germany
790 - 862 MHz
Caribbean, North America,

Oceania, South America
Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bolivia, Canada, Colombia,

Ecuador, Guam, Honduras, Nicaragua, Northern Mariana Islands, Paraguay,
Peru, Puerto Rico, USA, Virgin Islands (USA)
850 MHz/1900
North America,
South America
Argentina, Canada, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama,

Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Venezuela
850 MHz/1900
Asia, North America, Oceania,

Brazil, New Zealand, Pelephone, Philippines, Uruguay
South America
850 MHz/2100 MHz
Caribbean, Central America,

Europe, South America
850 MHz
Aruba, Belarus, British Virgin Islands, El Salvador, Honduras, Trinidad/Tobago,

Ukraine, Venezuela
GSM
CDMA
UMTS
LTE
WIMAX
A
1
A
2
Region
Countries
Frequency Bands
GSM
Africa, Asia-Pacific,
Caribbean, Central America,
Europe, Middle East,
Andorra, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, China, Comoros, Cook Islands,

Cuba, Djibouti, East Timor, East Timor, Ethiopia, Falkland Islands, Faroe Islands,
Fiji, French Polynesia, Ghana, Gibraltar, Greenland, Guyana, Iraq, Kazakhstan,
Libya, Mali, Micronesia, Morocco, Myanmar, Niger, Norfolk Island, North
Korea, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Samoa, Sao
Tome and Principal, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Solomon Islands, Swaziland, Togo,
Tonga, Vanuatu, West Bank/Gaza Strip, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe
900 MHz
Africa, Asia-Pacific,
Caribbean, Europe,
Middle East, Oceania
Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Armenia, Aruba, Australia, Austria,

Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Benin, Bhutan, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic,
Congo, Cote dlvoire, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt,
Eritrea, Estonia, Finland, France, French Guiana, French Westside, Gabon,
Gambia, Gaza Strip/West Bank, Georgia, Germany, Greece, GuineaBissau, Guinea, Holy See, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia,
Iran, Ireland, Isle of Man, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Jersey, Jordan, Kenya, Kuwait,
900 MHz/1800 MHz
Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Liberia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macau,
Macau, Macedonia, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta,
Mayotte, Mongolia, Montenegro, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands
Antilles, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Palau,
Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Reunion, Romania, Russia, San Marino,
Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somalia, South
Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Taiwan,
Tajikistan, Tanzania, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab
Emirates, United Kingdom, Uzbekistan, Vietnam
Asia, Caribbean
Aruba, Barbados, Dominican Republic, Thailand
900 MHz/1800 MHz/

1900 MHz
Caribbean
Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica
900 MHz/850 MHz/

1900 MHz
Caribbean, South America
Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominican Republic, Jamaica,

Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Turks and Caicos Islands
900 MHz/850 MHz/

1900 MHz/1800 MHz
Island - British Channel
Guernsey
900 MHz/850 MHz/

1800 MHz
Eurasia, Oceania
Armenia, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Hong Kong, Poland,

New Zealand, Romania, Slovenia, Sweden, Australia
900 MHz/2100 MHz
Asia
Japan
1500 MHz
CDMA
UMTS
LTE
WIMAX
Appendix A: Spectrum Configurations Around the World
Region
Countries
Frequency Bands
GSM
CDMA
UMTS
LTE
North America
USA
1.6 GHz
Asia
Japan
1.7 GHz
Asia, North America
Canada, Japan, USA
1700 MHz
North America
USA
1.7 GHz/2.1GHz
Europe
Poland
1800 MHz
Caribbean, North America,

American Samoa, Bahamas, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, Chile, El Salvador,

Guatemala, Mexico
1900 MHz
Africa, Asia, Caribbean
Algeria, Argentina, Aruba, Barbados, Bermuda, Brazil, Cayman Islands,

Chile, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guam, Guatemala, Jamaica,
Philippines, Puerto Rico, Uruguay
1900 MHz
Asia, Caribbean,
North America,
South America
Barbados, Canada, Indonesia, Mexico, Trinidad/Tobago, USA
800 MHz/1900 MHz
Africa
Nigeria
cdma2000 1x/EV-DO
Africa, Caribbean, Eurasia,

Middle East, Oceania,
South America
Albania, Andorra, Angola, Armenia, Aruba, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan,

Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria,
Cambodia, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia,
Finland, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Gibraltar, Greece, Guernsey, Hong Kong,
Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Ireland, Isle of Man, Israel, Italy, Japan,
Jersey, Kenya, Kuwait, Laos, Latvia, Lauritius, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania,
2100 MHz
Luxembourg, Macau, Macedonia, Malaysia, Malta, Moldova, Monaco,
Montenegro, Morocco, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, Nigeria, Norway,
Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia,
Serbia, Seychelles, Singapore, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Africa, South
Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Taiwan, Tajikistan,
Tanzania, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United
Kingdom, Zimbabwe
Europe
Germany
2.1 GHz/800 MHz/

2.6 GHz/1800 MHz
Oceania
Australia
2.1 GHz/1800 MHz
WIMAX
A
3
A
4
Region
Countries
Frequency Bands
GSM
CDMA
UMTS
LTE
WIMAX
Asia
India
2.3 GHz
Eurasia
Georgia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Russia, Tajikistan
2.3 GHz
Eurasia
Russia
2.3 GHz/2.4 GHz
Asia
China
2.3 GHz/2.5 GHz
Europe
Denmark
2.5 GHz
Africa, Eurasia,
North America
Angola, Canada, Russia, USA
2.5 GHz
Africa, Central America,

Eurasia, South America
South Africa, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Lithuania,

Uzbekistan, Austria, Finland, Germany, Jersey, Netherlands, Sweden
2.6 GHz
Europe
Finland
2.6 GHz/1.8 GHz
Europe
Germany
2.6GHz/2.1GHz
Asia
Indonesia
3.3 GHz
Europe
Germany
3.4 GHz-3.6 GHz
Africa, Eurasia,
North America, Oceania
Italy, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Croatia, Dominican Republic, Ethiopia,

Macedonia, Malta, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Russia, Sri Lanka
3.5 GHz
Europe
Estonia
3.5 GHz 3.6 GHz
Oceania
Australia
5 GHz
Asia, Caribbean,
Middle East
Cayman Islands, Indonesia, Jamaica, Saudi Arabia
802.16d
Africa, Caribbean, Eurasia,

North America
Cayman Islands, Bangladesh, Canada, Indonesia, Libya, Russia
802.16e
Biographies
Robert Cameron
Applications Engineer
Robert is an invaluable resource to CommScope
customers, providing insight and training on the latest
solutions and how best to implement them. He is
also responsible for providing background technical
information and troubleshooting. He has spent the
past 17 years in the RF industry, working in amplifier,
antenna and RF system design. Roberts career began as part of an ambitious startup
company, where he designed cellular network repeaters before moving into system
design and project management to round out his expertise. He has managed several
high-profile projects, including the two stadiums where the Kansas Citys Chiefs and
Royals play football and baseball, respectively, as well as in-building systems for
the Library of Congress and the World Bank. He has also managed installations
for the US military and several key airports and large banks. Robert holds a B.S. in
Electrical and Computer Engineering from Ohio State University, with a focus on RF.
Fred Hawley
Principal Reliability Engineer
Fred has spent more than 35 years in
telecommunications and military reliability engineering.
Currently, he focuses on reliability prediction and
modeling for CommScope products. His expertise
helps direct the development of such diverse solutions
as power amplifiers, remote radio heads and other
base station- and tower-mounted wireless communication equipment. His work helps
ensure superior performance from every solution CommScope builds. Fred holds a
MSEE from Columbia University in New York, and is an active member of IEEE.
Mark Hendrix, P.E.

Engineering Manager, New Product Development
Mark is responsible for directing innovation efforts in
wireless communications systems and modular data
centers for CommScope, with particular focus on
thermal design, power systems and other efficiency
drivers. He brings 27 years of expertise in electronic
packaging, with strong backgrounds in both defense
electronics and telecommunications for such names as Texas Instruments, Fujitsu
and Xtera Communications. Mark holds eight U.S. patents and is a registered
Professional Engineer in the State of Texas. He holds a B.S. in Mechanical
Engineering from Clemson University, and an M.S. in Mechanical Engineering from
Southern Methodist University.
B
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Chris Hills
Technical Director, Microwave Systems
Chris is an important part of CommScopes Andrew
Solutions team, offering leadership in the field of
microwave antennas and array antennas and aligning
new technology to marketplace conditions. In an earlier
role as RF Engineering Manager for Andrew, Ltd., Chris
devoted nearly 20 years to advancing antenna design,
resulting in the development of the highly successful ValuLine family of antennas
used the world over for point-to-point communications, as well as other significant
intellectual property. Chris earned his B.S. degree with Honors in Electronic and
Electrical Engineering from the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom. He holds
multiple patents and serves as an active member of IEEE and IET.
Erik Lilieholm
Applications Engineering Manager,
Wireless Network Solutions
Eriks diverse background in North Americas wireless
communications industry dates back to the launch
of the first cellular communications networks. He has
built his expertise with Allen Telecom, LGP Telecom
and Ericsson. With more than 25 years in RF design,
product management and technical marketing, Erik provides critical leadership to
CommScopes families of wireless solutions, helping each product fulfill its specific
role and customer need. He holds several patents in the field of RF filter technology.
Erik earned a Master of Science degree in Electrical Engineering from the Royal
Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden, and an MBA from the University of
Nevada, Reno.
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Louis Meyer, P.E.

Director of Technical Marketing RF Path
Louis has spent a lifetime advancing RF technology,
taking it from the drawing board to practical use.
Over the years in various roles with Allen Telecom,
Andrew Ltd. and CommScope, Louis was responsible
for supporting the sales teams for such solutions as
remote antenna control systems, transmission lines,
diplexers and other important components. Prior to joining Allen Telecom, Louis
worked with Decibel Products as V.P. Antenna Design and V.P. International OEM
Relations. Earlier, Louis worked with Harris Corporation in RF communications and
Bendix Corporation in their missile systems division. Louis holds five patents and has
been active as a chair and vice-chair of the TIAs TR-8.11 Antenna Standards subcommittee. He earned his B.S. in Electrical Engineering from Marquette University in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin and is currently a registered Professional Engineer in the state
of Texas.
Larry Seper
Director of Construction Services
Larry provides telecommunications installation solutions
for CommScopes customers, supporting products
and systems such as antennas and transmission lines,
power amplifiers, remote radio heads and PIM/Sweep
testing procedures. He also focuses on civil site work,
helping establish the physical foundations of wireless
communication as well as its technological foundations. Larry brings more than 36
years of financial and operations management experience to bear for CommScopes
customers, and is a key player in making certain that every CommScope solution
is the right solution. Larry holds a B.S. in Accounting from Marquette University in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin and is an active member of AICPA.
Biographies
Tom Sullivan
Director, Global New Product Introductions
Tom currently oversees new product introductions for
CommScope, and hes served in many roles since
joining Andrew, Ltd. in 1982 as an antenna design
engineer. In that position, Tom developed the antennas
and supporting devices customers needed to build
point-to-point communications networks. He has also
served as a Global Sales Manager for OEMs including Ericsson, Nokia, Lucent
and Motorola. He also worked in quality control and product line management in
support of CommScopes successful HELIAX cable and connector solutions. Tom is an
active member of IEEE, and holds a B.S. in Electronic Engineering Technology from
DeVry Institute of Technology, and an MBA in International Business from St. Xavier
University in Chicago, Illinois.
Dr. Junaid Syed

Electrical Engineering Manager, Microwave Systems
Junaid directs new product development for CommScope
in the areas of microwave and millimeter wave
antenna systems, flexi waveguides and waveguide
components that support mobile backhaul systems.
He brings 26 years of international experience in the
telecommunication and defense industries. He holds
seven patents and is a current member of SE Scotland IET and Technical committees.
He also represents CommScope as a technical committee member with ETSI. Junaid
earned his B.S. in Aero Sciences from Punjab University with Silver Medal honors,
and a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Electronics/Avionics from NED University
of Engineering and Technology with Gold Medal honors, both in Pakistan. He
earned his Ph.D. in Microwave and Millimeter Wave from the University of London
and conducted his post-doctoral research on reflect array antenna design at Queens
University Belfast, both in the United Kingdom.
Dr. Keith TappinIn Memoriam

Director of Engineering, Microwave Systems
It is with heavy hearts that we share the news of Dr. Keith
Tappins sudden passing. His significant influence on this
book is one of many positive contributions Keith made
as a part of the CommScope family. He was a first-rate
engineer, manager and leadera warm man with a
great sense of humor and a genuine passion for his
profession. Please join us as we offer our condolences to Keiths family, friends and
colleaguesand our gratitude for the life he shared with us.
Keith was responsible for developing new products and processes related to
advanced passive microwave applications for CommScopes Microwave Systems
group. Keith built his expertise in microwave components and antenna design for
15 years, focusing heavily on defense and commercial communications systems.
Prior to joining CommScope, Keith conducted research at the University of Illinois
(U.S.) and The University of Birmingham (UK), where he investigated metallic radiation
interactions and developed high-temperature alloys for aerospace applications.
Keith published more than 20 technical papers and held two patents. He earned his
degree in Metallurgy and Materials Science from the University of Liverpool in the UK,
where he later completed his Ph.D.
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RFP-Bios-v1.indd 3
11/8/12 8:26 AM
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Glossary
Alternating Current (AC)
An electrical current that changes
polarity (i.e., direction) 50 to 60
times per second. It offers significant
efficiencies when transmitted across
power lines, making it the standard
current for household use. See also:
Direct Current.
Attenuation
Measured in decibels (dB), attenuation
is the loss of power experienced by an
RF signal as it moves from one point to
another. Transmission line attenuation is
expressed in either decibels per 100
feet (dB/100 feet) or decibels per 100
meters (dB/100m) of cable length.
Andrew Integrated Management and

Operating System (A.I.M.O.S.)
The network management software
solution for all CommScope-distributed
antenna systems. Part of the Andrew
Solutions portfolio, A.I.M.O.S. performs
configuration fault and inventory via
SNMP for alarm forwarding.
Automatic Transmission Power

Control (ATPC)
A system that dynamically raises
transmission power to overcome the
effects of interference.
Antenna
The portion of an RF system that radiates
radio energy into space and collects it
from space.
Antenna Interface Standards Group
(AISG)
An industry group comprised of more
than 40 top manufacturers and service
providers from all over the world. AISG
was founded in 2001 and publishes
universally accepted industry protocols
for communications between base
stations and tower-based equipment,
such as antennas and tower-mounted
amplifiers.
Azimuth Coordinate System

The polar coordinate system used in the
field by RF engineers and surveyors to
map the radiation pattern of antennas.
See also: Radiation Pattern, Spherical
Coordinate System.
Backhaul
The process of connecting two ends
of a transmission through a central
routing point.
Bandpass Cavity
A frequency filter that limits the
channels that pass through the filter to a
radio receivers select set of frequencies.
Other frequencies are prevented from
passing. Most devices have multi-stage
bandpass cavities that filter out different
frequencies at each stage.
Bandpass Duplexer
A duplexer that uses multiple bandpass
cavities to separate transmitter
and receiver signals, allowing for
simultaneous two-way communications.
See also: Duplexer, Duplex
Communications, Bandpass Cavity.
Bypass (Pass-Through) Configuration
A single-band tower-mounted antenna
with an integrated diplexer that adds
a secondary, non-amplified RF path to
the system.
Co-Channel Dual-Polar (CCDP)
Operation
Using both horizontal and vertical
polarity of a single frequency to double
available bandwidth.
Co-Siting Solutions
The technology and techniques that
allow cellular base stations and air
interfaces to share architecture and
operate within limiting factors of
their locations.
Coaxial Cable
A transmission line built to prevent
interference while carrying multiple
signals. Coaxial cable consists of an
inner core conductor and an outer
sleeve conductor, separated by a
nonconductive dielectric layer.
Coaxial cable is often used to
connect antennas to base stations.
See also: Dielectric Layer.
Dielectric Layer
The insulated, tube-shaped layer
separating a coaxial cables inner
and outer conductors. Dielectrics may
be made of solid material, flexible
foam or open air channels supported
by nonconductive spacers. See also:
Coaxial Cable.
Direct Current (DC)
An electrical current that runs
continuously in a single direction,
making it well suited for use in motors
and electronic components such as
semiconductors. Batteries also produce
DC current. See also: Alternating
Current.
C
1
Distributed Antenna System (DAS)

A network of nodes serving a specific
place, area or building. They connect
through a central base station for
backhaul out to the public network.
Dummy Load
A simulated power load applied to an
electrical system for testing purposes.
See also: Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
(VSWR).
A transmitter and receiver that work at
the same time on the same RF device,
allowing two-way communications.
See also: Duplexer.
Duplexer
A device situated between a duplexed
antenna and its associated transmitter
and receiver that provides isolation
between the two signals. See also:
Duplex Communications.
Electrical Potential
The difference in electrical charge
between two points in space, measured
in volts. The greater the difference, the
higher the potential and therefore, the
greater the voltage. See also: Volt.
Electrical Tilt Antenna
An antenna fitted with actuators that
can adjust its tilt relative to the ground.
These adjustments affect gain, or
performance, of the antenna within
defined geographical areas.
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2
Environmental Factors
Circumstances of temperature, sunlight
exposure, humidity and other specific
characteristics of an installation.
Environmental factors play a large role
in determining what kind of antenna,
transmission line, power and other
components are ideal for use in a
particular location.
Failures in Time (FITs)
The number of expected component
failures per billion operating hours.
See also: Reliability.
Flat Fading
Total signal loss caused by atmospheric
refraction. It is the result of a signal
being bent completely out of its LOS
connection with its receiver.
Frequency Multiplexing
A configuration that connects multiple
base station services that operate in
separate bands to multiple antennas
via a single feeder cable and its
associated couplers.
Grounding
Measures taken to control and facilitate
the path of an electrical discharge
from its source to the ground, avoiding
potential damage to sensitive equipment
along the way. Grounding is a key
element in protecting an installation from
damage by lightning strike or
other hazards.
Guard Bands
Narrow gaps inserted into the
bandwidths managed by the low loss
combiner (LLC) to distinguish between
different signals riding on the same
bands. See also: Isolation, Low Loss
Combiner, Transmitter Noise.
Horizontal Separation
The practice of placing a transmitters
antenna a certain distance from the
same devices receiving antenna to
achieve the necessary isolation.
See also: Duplex Communications,
Isolation, Vertical Separation.
In Phase
A state of operation referring to multiple
antennas radiating together at precisely
the same time and rate.
Integrated Power Systems
Space-saving combinations of related
components, built into a single device
for easy installation.
Interoperability Testing (IOT)
The practice of testing for operational
problems in a cell site that employs
equipment from multiple manufacturers.
Isolation
The amount of separation achieved
between the transmitter and receiver
in a duplex communication system.
In general, more isolation translates
to less interference between the
two functions, and correspondingly
clearer communications. See also:
Duplex Communications, Horizontal
Separation, Vertical Separation.
Line of Sight (LOS)
The unobstructed space between
transmitter and receiver. Longer hops
must even account for the curve of the
Earth as an obstruction.
Low Loss Combiner (LLC)
A device in the RF path that permits
the simultaneous operation of multiple
transmitters on a single antenna. It
applies guard bands and bandpass
cavities to provide the necessary
isolation between signals. See also:
Bandpass Cavity, Guard Bands,
Isolation.
Nonlinearity
A location within an electrical circuit
where voltage does not remain
consistently proportional to power,
generally caused by imperfect
connections between components and
cables or damage to a cables structure.
Glossary
Ohm
The unit of measurement of a materials
electrical resistance. When applied
to discussions of RF transmission
lines, ohms refer to the inherent, or
characteristic, loss of strength a signal
encounters as it passes along a length
of cable.
Pass-Through (Bypass) Configuration
A single-band tower-mounted antenna
with an integrated diplexer that adds
a secondary, non-amplified RF path to
the system.
Passive Intermodulation (PIM)
A potential side effect of having
more than one high-powered signal
operating on a passive device such
as a cable or antenna. PIM occurs at
non-linear points in a system such as
junctions, connections or interfaces
between dissimilar metal conductors,
creating interfering frequencies that
can decrease efficiency. The higher the
signal amplitude, or power, the greater
the effect. See also: Nonlinearity.
Quarter-Wave Shorting Stub
A device inserted into the connection
between transmission line and antenna
that does not affect normal frequencies,
but will immediately short and safely
dissipate energy when lightning
frequencies attempt to cross.
See also: Grounding.
Radiation Pattern
The three-dimensional shape of an
antennas strongest signal transmission.
Radome
A wind- and water-proofed fabric or
plastic cover that protects an antenna
from the elements.
Receiver Desensitization
Interference caused by unwanted
frequencies entering a receivers upper
stage passbands. These errant signals
create electrical variances that impede
the receivers operation. See also:
Bandpass Cavity.
Reliability
The probability of a device working
correctly over a defined length of time,
operating under specified conditions.
See also: Failures in Time (FITs).
A recent advance in base station
architecture that separates a cell
site base stations RF and baseband
functions for improved efficiency.
RRH advantages include no active
cooling requirement, lower overall
power loss, less weight on the tower
and compact size.
Resonant Frequency
The natural tendency of a system
to oscillate with larger amplitude
at particular frequencies. At these
frequencies, even small periodic driving
forces can produce large amplitude
oscillations.
Same-Band Combining (SBC)
A base station configuration that
allows multiple services to share the
same bands.
Service Company
A cell site development partner
responsible for actual construction on
the site, including antenna towers,
concrete footers and pads, security
fencing, and equipment shelters.
Shannons Law
Created by Claude Shannon and
Ralph Hartley, this law establishes a
theoretical limit to how much data can
be reliably pushed through a given
amount of bandwidth.
Signal Polarization
The orientation of a signals electric
field relative to the ground. It may be
horizontal or vertical.
Spherical Coordinate System
A geometric polar coordinate system
used to mathematically map the
radiation pattern of antennas.
See also: Azimuth Coordinate System,
Radiation Pattern.
Split-Mount Radio System

A two-stage connection that lets
microwave radios located in an Indoor
Unit (IDU) receive and transmit through
an antenna fitted with an Outdoor Unit
(ODU).
Transmission Lines
In RF applications, the physical medium
that conducts RF power from one point
to another, usually between a base
station and an antenna.
Transmitter Noise
Interference experienced by a receiver
as a result of transmission power
leaking into other nearby frequencies.
Vertical Separation
The practice of placing a transmitter
and receiver in separate locations
on a single antenna, allowing
the height difference to achieve
the necessary isolation. See also:
Duplex Communications, Horizontal
Separation, Isolation.
Volt
A measurement of electric potential
difference between two points in a
path. Voltage is sometimes referred
to as pressure, because it shares
many characteristics with pressure in
a water pipe.
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3
Voltage Polarity (+ and )

The positive (+) and negative ()
designations of voltage refer to which
polarity of a circuit is measured; in
terms of actual power produced, the
distinction is meaningless.
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
A key measurement of cable
performance and signal quality. It
quantifies the amount of signal reflected
backward along a cable to its source.
Theoretically, perfect operation yields a
VSWR value of 1.0, or unity, meaning
zero reflections.
Yagi Antenna
Also known as a Yagi-Uda antenna,
this is a common type of directional
antenna, first created in Japan in 1926
by Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda.
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Visit our Web site or contact your local Commscope representative for more information.
2012 Commscope, Inc. All rights reserved.
All trademarks identified by or are registered trademarks or trademarks, respectively, of Commscope, Inc.
This document is for planning purposes only and is not intended to modify or supplement any specifications or warranties relating to Commscope products or services.
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What are some of the key RF technologies discussed?

What are some of the key RF technologies discussed?

UNDERSTANDING THE RF PATH

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

Introduction: Welcome to RF Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1

Getting the signal across: Base Station Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

Working within the limits: Co-siting Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

A new kind of remote control: Remote Radio Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

The many ways to connect: RF Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1

Making every connection count: Passive Intermodulation (PIM) Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1

The infrastructure behind the connection: Microwave Backhaul. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1

Successfully planning against failure: Reliability in Wireless Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1

On calleven off-site: Control and Site Monitoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1

Covering all the bases: Distributed Antenna Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1

Going to ground: Lightning Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1

Appendix A Applicable Technologies

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

RF systems, then and now

Doing our part

Wireless communications systems have been in commercial use since the

The shared link

... and many others

RF communications: The early years

The business case for technical expertise

While the full story of RF communications is far from complete, the

Cell providers monitor key performance indicators within their territories to

The first RF systems featured a base radio using an omnidirectional antenna

Have a quality experience

Stay on the network

The interconnection of technology, design and optimization

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

A services company building a cell site tower

2: Cell Site Development and Construction

As with building any structure, it pays to research your construction company

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

Step two: Choosing coaxial cable and connectors

2: Cell Site Development and Construction

Handling the cable and connectors during these installations is a delicate

Lift smart. Getting cables up an antenna tower is difficult. Fortunately,

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

Electrical Tilt Antenna

Step three: Setting and troubleshooting remote

Efficiently changing the orientation of an antenna to

An electrical tilt mechanism, or actuator,

These mechanisms are controlled by an Antenna

A base station antenna (BSA) with

An example of an AISG RET controller module

2: Cell Site Development and Construction

As precision equipment, these tilting antennas can be a challenge to install

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

Best practices always yield the best results

Cell site development and

CommScope: Understanding the RF Path

3: Base Station Antennas

Voltage Standing Wave

Calculating Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Lift smart. Getting cables up an antenna tower is difficult. Fortunately,

1. We can increase the power or current density in the antenna so it

1. Omnidirectional antennas, which we defined previously as antennas

2. Directional (or sector) antennas, which operate in a specific