polynomial

A formal power series, i.e. a sum of multiples of powers of an independent variable known

as the indeterminate (often written as x, s, or t), e.g. 3x4 + 7x2 + 2x + 5

or, in general,
The coefficients (ai) are elements of some algebraic system, S, having appropriate addition and multiplication operations; the
expression is then described as a polynomial over S. For example, if the coefficients are all integers, the polynomial is said
to be over the integers. If ar 0 but ai = 0 for all i > r, then r is called the degree of the polynomial, usually written r = deg (p)
If ar = 1, the polynomial is monic.
Arithmetic on polynomials consists primarily of addition, subtraction, and multiplication of polynomials; in some cases
division, factoring, and taking the greatest common divisor are also important operations.
Addition and subtraction are done by adding or subtracting the coefficients of like powers of x.
Multiplication is done by the rule (arxr + a1x + a0)(bsxs + b1x + b0) = (cr+sxr+s + c1x + c0)
where ck = a0bk + a1bk1 + ak1b1 + akb0 ai,bj for= 0 i > r, j > s
In coding theory, much use is made of polynomials over the ring of integers modulo q, for some integer q > 1. Such
polynomials themselves form a commutative ring with an identity. More particularly, coding theory employs polynomials over
the field of integers modulo p, for some suitable prime number p. (For binary systems, p = 2.) These polynomials can be
multiplied and divided; in general, they may be factorized. A polynomial (over a field) that can be factorized is said to
be reducible; otherwise it is irreducible. When divided by another, a polynomial over a field gives a unique quotient and
remainder. Every such polynomial can be uniquely factorized into irreducible factors.
The set of polynomials (over a field), modulo a given monic irreducible polynomial (over the same field), itself forms a field;
this is called an extension field of the original base field of coefficients (which were integers modulo p). Probability is

the measure of the likeliness that an event will occur.[1] Probability is quantified as a number between 0 and 1
(where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty). [2][3] The higher the probability of an event, the more
certain we are that the event will occur. A simple example is the toss of a fair (unbiased) coin. Since the two
outcomes are equally probable, the probability of "heads" equals the probability of "tails", so the probability is
1/2 (or 50%) chance of either "heads" or "tails".
These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical formalization in probability theory (see probability
axioms), which is used widely in such areas of study as mathematics, statistics, finance, gambling, science (in
particular physics), artificial intelligence/machine learning, computer science, game theory, and philosophy to,
for example, draw inferences about the expected frequency of events. Probability theory is also used to
describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems.[4]

Probability is the measure of the likeliness that an event will occur.[1] Probability is quantified as a number
between 0 and 1 (where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty). [2][3] The higher the probability of an
event, the more certain we are that the event will occur. A simple example is the toss of a fair (unbiased) coin.
Since the two outcomes are equally probable, the probability of "heads" equals the probability of "tails", so the
probability is 1/2 (or 50%) chance of either "heads" or "tails".

History The sixteenth century Italian polymath Gerolamo Cardano demonstrated the efficacy of
defining odds as the ratio of favourable to unfavourable outcomes (which implies that the probability of an event
is given by the ratio of favourable outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes [13]). Aside from the
elementary work by Cardano, the doctrine of probabilities dates to the correspondence of Pierre de
Fermat and Blaise Pascal (1654).Christiaan Huygens (1657) gave the earliest known scientific treatment of the
subject.[14] Jakob Bernoulli's Ars Conjectandi (posthumous, 1713) andAbraham de Moivre's Doctrine of
Chances (1718) treated the subject as a branch of mathematics. [15] See Ian Hacking's The Emergence of
Probability[9]and James Franklin's The Science of Conjecture[full citation needed] for histories of the early development of
the very concept of mathematical probability.
The theory of errors may be traced back to Roger Cotes's Opera Miscellanea (posthumous, 1722), but a
memoir prepared by Thomas Simpson in 1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors
of observation.[citation needed] The reprint (1757) of this memoir lays down the axioms that positive and negative errors
are equally probable, and that certain assignable limits define the range of all errors. Simpson also discusses
continuous errors and describes a probability curve.
The first two laws of error that were proposed both originated with Pierre-Simon Laplace. The first law was
published in 1774 and stated that the frequency of an error could be expressed as an exponential function of
the numerical magnitude of the error, disregarding sign. The second law of error was proposed in 1778 by
Laplace and stated that the frequency of the error is an exponential function of the square of the error.[16] The
second law of error is called the normal distribution or the Gauss law. "It is difficult historically to attribute that
law to Gauss, who in spite of his well-known precocity had probably not made this discovery before he was two
years old."[16]

Independent events[edit]
If two events, A and B are independent then the joint probability is

for example, if two coins are flipped the chance of both being heads is

.[22]

Mutually exclusive events[edit]

If either event A or event B occurs on a single performance of an experiment this is called the union of the
events A and B denoted as

. If two events are mutually exclusive then the probability of

either occurring is

For example, the chance of rolling a 1 or 2 on a sixsided die is

Not mutually exclusive events[edit]

If the events are not mutually exclusive then

Permutation and combination

1.

Factorial Notation:
Let n be a positive integer. Then, factorial n, denoted n! is defined as:
n! = n(n - 1)(n - 2) ... 3.2.1.
Examples:

2.

i.

We define 0! = 1.

ii.

4! = (4 x 3 x 2 x 1) = 24.

iii.

5! = (5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1) = 120.

Permutations:

The different arrangements of a given number of things by taking some or all at a time, are called
permutations.
Examples:

3.

i.

All permutations (or arrangements) made with the letters a, b, c by taking two at a time are
(ab, ba, ac, ca, bc, cb).

ii.

All permutations made with the letters a, b, c taking all at a time are:
( abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, cba)

Number of Permutations:
Number of all permutations of n things, taken r at a time, is given by:
Pr = n(n - 1)(n - 2) ... (n - r + 1) =

n!
(n - r)!

Examples:
i.

P2 = (6 x 5) = 30.

ii.

P3 = (7 x 6 x 5) = 210.

iii.
4.

Cor. number of all permutations of n things, taken all at a time = n!.

An Important Result:
If there are n subjects of which p1 are alike of one kind; p2 are alike of another kind; p3 are alike of third
kind and so on and pr are alike of rth kind,
such that (p1 + p2 + ... pr) = n.
Then, number of permutations of these n objects is =

n!
(p1!).(p2)!.....(pr!)

triangle
Combinations:
Each of the different groups or selections which can be formed by taking some or all of a number of
objects is called a combination.
Examples:
i.

Suppose we want to select two out of three boys A, B, C. Then, possible selections are AB, BC
and CA.

ii.

All the combinations formed by a, b, c taking ab, bc, ca.

iii.

The only combination that can be formed of three letters a, b, c taken all at a time is abc.

iv.

Various groups of 2 out of four persons A, B, C, D are:

AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD.

v.
2.

Note that ab ba are two different permutations but they represent the same combination.

Number of Combinations:
The number of all combinations of n things, taken r at a time is:

Cr =

n!
(r!)(n - r)!

n(n - 1)(n - 2) ... to r factors

r!

Reflection
One triangle can be a mirror image of the other, but as long as they are the same shape, the
triangles are still similar. It can be reflected in any direction, up down, left, right. In the figure below,
triangle PQR is a mirror image of P'Q'R', but is still considered similar to it.

How to tell if triangles are similar

Any triangle is defined by six measures (three sides, three angles). But you don't need to know all of
them to show that two triangles are similar. Various groups of three will do. Triangles are similar if:

1. AAA (angle angle angle)

All three pairs of corresponding angles are the same.
See Similar Triangles AAA.
2. SSS in same proportion (side side side)
All three pairs of corresponding sides are in the same proportion
See Similar Triangles SSS.
3. SAS (side angle side)
Two pairs of sides in the same proportion and the included angle equal.
See Similar Triangles SAS.

Phythagoras theoram

Many different proofs exist for this most fundamental of all

geometric theorems. The theorem can also be generalized from a plane triangle to atrirectangular tetrahedron, in which case it is
known as de Gua's theorem. The various proofs of the Pythagorean theorem all seem to require application of some version or
consequence of the parallel postulate: proofs by dissection rely on the complementarity of the acute angles of the right triangle,
proofs by shearing rely on explicit constructions of parallelograms, proofs by similarity require the existence of non-congruent similar
triangles, and so on (S. Brodie). Based on this observation, S. Brodie has shown that the parallel postulate is equivalent to the

Pythagorean theorem.

How to use formula to express exact values

The double angle identities take two different formulas

 sin2 = 2sincos
cos2 = cos sin
The double angle formulas can be quickly derived from
the angle sum formulas
Here's a reminder of the angle sum formulas:
sin(A+B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
cos(A+B) = cosAcosB sinAsinB
If you let = A = B in the double angle identities then you get
A + B = 2
sin(2) = sincos + cossin
sin(2) = 2sincos
cos(2) = coscos sinsin
o cos(2) = cos sin

Solutions of Systems of Sine and Cosine graphs

Pictured below is a system made up of the equation y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) over the
interval 0X2

Can you figure out how many, if any, solutions there are for the following system of
trigonometric equations has any solutions over the interval 0X2
The system of equations

 y = sin(x) 1
y = cos(x) + 1
Can you figure out how many, if any, solutions there are for the following system of
trigonometric equations has any solutions over the interval 0 X
The system of equations
y = sin(2x)
y = cos(x)

Measurement Information
Why teach measurement?

Measurement tools and skills have a variety of uses in everyday life. The ability to use measuring tools, rulers,
thermometers, scales, and to estimate with these tools are necessary skills that enable us to quantify the world around us.
They can tell us how tall we are, how hot we are, how much we drink, how heavy we are and how far it is from here to
there. Basic measures of distance and time allow us to calculate speed and acceleration and ultimately tell us how fast we
need to project a rocket to allow it reach the Moon, and how populations change and grow.

Measurement is important in providing links between strands of mathematics. For example, it provides a rich and
meaningful context for the use of number skills and of spatial concepts.

Measurement also provides links between mathematics and other school subjects. Measuring skills, especially estimating,
have an important place in many games and sports. In addition to being required in many science investigations they also
play a part in some artistic and musical experiences.

Learning Sequence for Measurement

1.

Identifying the attribute

The first step in the measuring process is understanding that objects have attributes that can be measured. Initial
experiences are needed to develop awareness of the attribute and to introduce the necessary language, for example, big,
heavy, tall, empty. The students need lots of opportunities to manipulate the attribute being explored and to discuss these
experiences with others. Considerable time may have to be spent on these experiences to allow the student to become
aware of what can be done to an object without changing the quantity of the attribute that is being investigated (this is
often described as conservation of measure) . For example, does the length of the pencil change when it is moved? Does
the volume of water change when it is poured into a different container?

2.

Comparing and Ordering

When students are aware of the attribute being investigated they should be given opportunities to compare different
objects. Adults realise that to say something is "long" does not have a lot of meaning. "Longer than what?" is a usual
response. Students need also to discover that they cannot make themselves clearly understood unless a descriptive term
compares two or more objects. For example, "My pencil is longer than yours."

Activities for comparing two objects lead to activities for ordering or seriating 3 or more objects.
Comparison activities are a measurement process in their own right in that adults often measure in real life without using
units. Direct or indirect comparisons often provide the information that is required. For example, using your own height to
check if there is space for the fridge.
3.

Non-standard units
Some form of unit needs to be used if a question such as "How much longer is your pencil than mine?" is asked. Nonstandard units are ordinary objects which are used because they are known to students and are readily available, for
example, paces for length, books for area and cups for volume. Students should be provided with many opportunities to
measure using these kinds of non-standard units. Non-standard units introduce the students to the use of units to provide
numbers that describe a measure outcome, for example, the desk is 4 handspans across. Non-standard units introduce
most of the principles associated with measurement:
Measures are expressed by counting the total number of units used.
During a measurement activity, the unit must not change.
Units of measure are not absolute but are chosen for appropriateness. For example, the length of the room could be
measured by handspans but a pace is more appropriate.
Prior to introducing standard units, students need to realise that non-standard units tend to be personal and are not the
most suitable for communication. For example, my hands are smaller than yours, so telling me to measure a piece of cloth
three hands wide may not be useful.

4.

Standard units
Standard units have been created to allow consistency and communication of measures. The standard units used in New
Zealand are the metric units.
Appropriate learning experiences are needed to allow students to become familiar with the quantity involved in each unit,
the correct language for naming each unit and the conventions for writing measured amounts using approved symbols.
Students then need much practical experience in using measuring, using measuring devices, in making estimation of
quantities in real-world situation and in mastering equivalence between units.

5.

Applications
When students are comfortable and efficient in measuring and estimating using appropriate standard units, learning
experiences can be directed towards applications of measurement and to the use of measurement formulae. For example,
simple measurement formulae may be developed and used to generalise methods for calculating areas, volumes and
perimeters.

sets
A set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set (also known as
the elements or members of a set) can be anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so

on. Georg Cantor, the founder of set theory, gave the following definition of a set at the beginning of
his Beitrge zur Begrndung der transfiniten Mengenlehre:[1]
A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception [Anschauung] or of our
thoughtwhich are called elements of the set.
Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely
the same elements.[2]
Cantor's definition turned out to be inadequate for formal mathematics; instead, the notion of a "set" is taken as
an undefined primitive in axiomatic set theory, and its properties are defined by the ZermeloFraenkel axioms.
The most basic properties are that a set has elements, and that two sets are equal (one and the same) if and
only if every element of each set is an element of the other.

Describing sets[edit]
Main article: Set notation
There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set. One way is by intensional definition,
using a rule or semantic description:
A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers.
B is the set of colors of the French flag.
The second way is by extension that is, listing each member of the set. An extensional definition is
denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:
C = {4, 2, 1, 3}
D = {blue, white, red}.
One often has the choice of specifying a set either intensionally or extensionally. In the
examples above, for instance, A = C and B = D.
There are two important points to note about sets. First, a set can have two or more
members which are identical, for example, {11, 6, 6}. However, we say that two sets which
differ only in that one has duplicate members are in fact exactly identical (see Axiom of
extensionality). Hence, the set {11, 6, 6} is exactly identical to the set {11, 6}. The second
important point is that the order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant (unlike
for a sequence or tuple). We can illustrate these two important points with an example:
{6, 11} = {11, 6} = {11, 6, 6, 11} .
For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated. For
instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified extensionally as
{1, 2, 3, ..., 1000},
where the ellipsis ("...") indicates that the list continues in the obvious way. Ellipses
may also be used where sets have infinitely many members. Thus the set of
positive even numbers can be written as {2, 4, 6, 8, ... }.