The Concept of Education and Social Research
The Concept of Education and Social Research
The Concept of Education and Social Research
concepts in education and in social sciences are common and are interlinked so
far as the goals and ideals of a particular society or a community is concerned.
Educational research aims at to develop new scientific tools, techniques,
concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human
behaviour in teaching-learning situation in the school or in the classroom, while
the social research aims at to develop new scientific, tools, techniques and
theories which would facilitate reliable, and valid study of human behaviour in
the street i.e. society or social life. Social research like educational research
adopts a systematic method of explaining, analyzing and conceptualizing social
life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge. Basically there is no
difference in the concept, approach and in the spirit of these two approaches.
The difference is if any, may be relating to the situation i.e. inside the
classroom and outside the classroom. If an educational researcher seeks to find
explanation to an unsolved educational problem, the social worker strives to
find out explanation to an unexplained social problem in the society. The
educational ideals are inspired by the ideals of the society for the achievement
of which institutions are established and these institutions are influenced by
social, cultural values and differences of the society. So, there is no 'dichotomy'
in education and social sciences. They are infact. two sides of the same coin.
Mahatma Gandhi once rightly said, "School is the replica of society" Schools
are established for preservation and promotion of ideological, social, cultural,
and also economic and political ideals of the society. Therefore, the mutual
discussion on educational and social problems and seeking their solution
through scientific methods will not be out of place for which the writing of this
book has been attempted.
The content of the book spreads over thirteen units, which are briefly stated:
Unit-1:
areas
of
educational
and
social
research,
Unit-3:
Unit-4:
Unit-5:
Unit-6:
formulation
of
historical
problems,
historical
criticism,
Unit-8:
Unit-9:
Unit-10:
Unit-12:
This unit reflects the general nature of the research report, chapter
wise content of the research report, other characteristics relating
to the presentation of the research report in appropriate manner,
have been described in this unit.
Unit-13:
As the writer is associated with Allama Iqbal Open University for supervising
its M.Phil and Ph.D students for a long time, the material support extended to
the writer for this purpose, has greatly facilitated to enrich the content of this
book, for which the writer is highly indebted.
The important feature of this book is that it is written according to the courses
in research techniques, offered almost in all departments of Arts and Social
Sciences. More particularly the contents are related to the courses in research in
vogue in the Institute of Education and Research, Sociology and Anthropology
Department, University of Peshawar who have kindly collaborated in the
provision of material for the preparation of this book.
Time and resources were constraints facing the writer. Selection of content
appropriate to the subject was an other problem. Consequently, large margins
have been left for improvement of this document in future. Therefore, readers
are requested to kindly examine the book critically, identify weaknesses and
forward valuable suggestions for improvement and revision of the book so that
it could be reproduced in a more meaningful and acceptable manner in future.
The writing of this book is mainly attributed to the encouragement and
assistance of the writers colleagues and friends Prof. Arbab Khan Afridi, M.
Arshad Ali, Mohammad Rauf IER and Dr. Rashid Khan, Sociology and Social
Anthropology Department, University of Peshawar.
UNIT-1:
THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL
RESEARCH
1.1 THE NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
Research is a purposeful activity. It creates new knowledge and expands the
frontier of the existing knowledge. If research adds to the existing knowledge,
it is done in an orderly and systematic manner. It is tested, validated and
generalized and utilized when need arises.
Research and progress are correlated, interrelated and interdependent. Research
is an essential tool in leading man towards progress and prosperity. Research
infact,
has
stimulated
socio-economic,
scientific
and
technological
between basic sciences research and social sciences research, should be given
up. 'Human development' as a human being is more important than the
development of physical infrastructure.
1.2 AREAS OF EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
Education system in our country is beset with multifarious problems and issues.
These problems are diverse, social, political, ideological, economic,
geographical and demographic which need clarification of their objectives,
their goals and their relevance to life and to evolve a realistic and workable
strategies for their solution. The system is particularly plagued with specific
issues like low enrolment of school age children, particularly of girl child, high
dropouts, repetition and failure of children at lower level, unattractive school
environment, unprepared teachers, lack of instructional materials and basic
amenities, ineffective supervision, and defective evaluation system and
inefficient management. These are such problems which need an objective and
purposeful investigation and immediate action for improvement of the
situation.
Other areas of educational research are to bring about qualitative improvement
along with quantitative expansion at any level such as modernization of
curriculum, innovation of teaching strategies, consolidation of higher
educational institutions and research organizations, rationalization of physical
and financial resources, development of human resources and vocationalization
of education at elementary and secondary levels. These are such problems,
which arrest the attention of any person concerned with development of
education. These problems cannot to be solved through assumptions, but
cultural
disharmony,
social
injustice,
inequality,
insecurity,
gender
crimes,
rapid
urbanization
and
the
problems
of
slums,
concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human
behaviour in the society or in social life. Social researcher like an educational
researcher adopts a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and
conceptualizing a social phenomenon in order to extend, correct, or verify the
knowledge, so obtained.
In short, educational ideals are inspired by the ideals of society. Teachinglearning situation cannot be isolated from the sociocultural environment of
children. Schools serve the society and schools exist for the society. Mahatma
Gandhi once rightly said "school is the replica of the society". Socio-cultural
difference in children have serious implications for teaching-learning situation
in the classroom.
To make the concept of interrelationship of educational and social research
more clear, some problems of common nature are listed which are of equal
concern for educationists, working teachers and for social workers.
Problems like social adjustment, individual differences, social stratification,
delinquency, handicapped,
heterogeneity,
coordination between the educational and social research experts and in their
activities.
Research is therefore, to be considered in the area of education as well as of
social sciences, a more formal, systematic, purposeful and an intensive process
of carrying out scientific method of analysis of the problems and arriving at
dependable conclusion.
1.4
on the subject. They should therefore, formulate their own view, their own
concept and their own definition about research with the help of these
definitions.
Similarly, in the next unit, the main features or the main characteristics of
research have been briefly described.
Understanding of these characteristics is important because they enable the
student to differentiate the very concept, nature and scope of research from
other disciplines and they would be in a better position to understand what is
expected of the research in educational and social fields. After thoroughly
studying the characteristics, students would be able to answer these questions
in meaningful manner.
What is research?
What is the scope of research?
What is scientific method?
How is research related to scientific method?
How does research involve scientific process?
What are the elements of scientific research?
Research
provides
guidance
to
decision
makers-
and
phenomena?
e. Why is the job of social scientist more difficult in the field of research
than that of physical scientist?
f. What are the indications of disintegration in our society? And
g. What are the formidable challenges faced by social and educational
researchers?
The concept of social reality as indicated earlier, infact, attributed to the human
nature and human behaviour, which is highly complex and its physiological,
social and psychological elements are inextricably interwoven. The man, his
behaviour and his mode of life involve large number of "overriding variables"
and which are to be studied in entirety. This is a formidable challenge for a
social scientist.
The social phenomena or the social reality can better be understood in
comparison with physical or natural phenomena. Moreover, by comparing the
unique characteristics of physical and social sciences and more importantly by
comparing the problems and difficulties encountered by physical and social
scientists, the concept will be brought into more limelight.
In the first instance the nature and characteristics of physical phenomena or
physical sciences will be briefly stated so that a demarcation line between these
two phenomena could be clearly drawn.
2.2
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL
PHENOMENA/PHYSICAL SCIENCES
human decision
j. The natural scientist can easily achieve detached and objective attitude
towards natural phenomena
These characteristics are unique to physical sciences. These are not only prerequisite for advancement of science but without these there would have been
no science.
2.3
have also altered the entire social, political and demographic patterns of life of
the people.
It has brought with it both "joys and sorrows" "Comforts and shocks" to human
life. Now a days the "Infonnation Technology" (IT) and media explosion
tightening their grips on the nerves, beliefs, thoughts and feelings even of the
common man. Urbanization, for example, has deserted the rural community.
They are becoming more poor and helpless, "Slum culture" has been developed
under the shadows of huge urban structures. The migrants have not only lost
their "hearts and hearths" of their ancestors but they have also lost their
customs, traditions and values of their rural society.
c.
The subject matter of the social scientist is very much complex and difficult to
explain. For example, the teaching-learning process is complex. The social
environment in the classroom is fluid. Individual difference are posing
problems to effective teaching for the teacher. The instances of maladjustment
of children in the classroom is a common phenomena. The situation when a
child is sitting in the last bench of the classroom "hand folded down with head"
cannot be easily explained by the teacher. If a teacher punishes a child, he
cannot explain his reaction. There is always human interaction between the
teacher and the taught, which is socially and emotionally oriented, and so many
social, cultural, physiological and psychological factors are involved in such
interaction.
As the social scientist, a psychologist or an educationist is concerned with man
as an individual and as a member of the group, they present a much more
complex situation. In short, understanding of social problems, involves a large
number of "overriding variables".
e.
The problems of society are complex and multi-dimensional and will have to
be studied in their totality. For example, if a social scientist investigates
problems like crime, poverty, or the state of terrorism, he will have to take into
considerations innumerable social, political, religious, cultural, geographical,
demographic, economics biological and psychological factors, all of which are
interrelated, and inseparable. The global influence will also be not out of place
in such analysis. In individual case how a social scientist will be able to explain
or interpret the human behaviour, the indication of which are motives, dreams,
anxieties, fears, preferences and so many others relating to his 'inner state' of
his personality or consciousness.
f.
"painful feelings" that such revolutionary changes have been brought about at
the cost of their "fine social, cultural tradition, values and ideals".
2.4
Take the example of our education system in Pakistan. It has not been able so
far to develop a unified intellectual outlook and consistent system of ideals and
moral values. It is still lacking a unifying purpose and has been unable to
develop a sound social and personal philosophy. Such confusion is perhaps the
result of a wider and deeper confusion in our social, moral and intellectual
perspective. Such social crisis is growing from the so called the "modernization
of the society". The underlying factors of which are industrialization, amazing
advancement in science and technology, competitive environment, the grave
social, economic and regional disparities and the dilemmatic situation how to
cope with such emerging and powerful situation, we with our inherited beliefs
and habits are not fully prepared to accept, comprehend, control, and adjust to
such dramatically changed environment. The tragedy of the 20`11 Century was
the failure to solve these deep routed social problems, conflicts, and confusion,
which are still hovering over the horizon of present millennium.
Every student of education and social science feels the state of social
disintegration in our society. The common indicators are the loss of ethical and
intellectual
standards,
contradictions,
confusion,
conflicts,
suspicion,
UNIT-3:
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, CHARACTERISTIC
OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, AND REARCH
PROCESS
In the previous section the concept of social reality has been discussed. This
section is devoted to discussion on scientific method, characteristic of scientific
research, comparison of qualitative and quantitative approach in research, and
research process.
3.1 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
3.1.1
The scientific method has been evolved out of strenuous efforts by scientists
for the solution of problems. There are assumption on which the conceptual
framework of scientific method is based. These assumptions directly, influence
researcher's activity. They form the basis for his procedures, influence the
methods of executing them and affect the interpretation of his findings. For
example, there is uniformity in the nature, the nature is not a chaotic mass of
isolated factors. In nature, there are objects, events, processes and having
stricking likeness or similarities. There is relative permanency and orderliness
in nature and that all natural phenomena are detennined. All these assumptions
have facilitated the work of a scientist and are playing indispensable role in
research.
3.1.2
Scientific Method
Gone are the days when people acquired knowledge by 'trial and error' method
and when authority, traditions, opinions of scholars and of experts, deductive
and inductive reasoning were the main source of acquiring knowledge. Now
the modem method of acquiring knowledge is based on observed facts and on
the combination of inductive and deductive thought process.
In scientific method, purposeful facts are collected, premises are tested and
reflective thinking are engaged. According to John Dewey five stages are
involved in the act of problem solving.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
A felt difficulty
Location and definition of the felt difficulty
Suggested solution of the problem/hypothesis
Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the suggested solutions
Testing the hypotheses by action
3.1.3
Application of Scientific Method in Education
and Other Social Sciences
As already stated research is a formal, systematic application of the scientific
method to the study of the problems. Educational and social research is thus a
formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of
educational and social problems. However, there are differences between
educational and social research and other scientific research. The difference is
of the phenomena studied. It is considerably more difficult to explain, predict
and control situations involving human beings as the most complex of all
organisms. There are so many variables known and unknown operating in any
educational or social environment that is extremely difficult to generalize or to
replicate findings. The kinds of controls that can be established and maintained
for example in a biochemistry laboratory are virtually impossible in an
educational or social setting. Observation is also more difficult in educational
and social research. Perhaps it is precisely the difficulty and complexity of
educational and social research that make them such a challenging and exciting
fields.
The main steps involved in conducting research look familiar since they are
directly parallel those of the scientific method such as there are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
3.1.4
There are certain limitations in scientific method, which are briefly stated.
Summary or Key-Points
The characteristics of scientific research described, are summarized below.
A Scientific research is:
3.3
Highly purposive
Systematic
Critical, logical and objective
Accurate
Involving formulation and testing of hypotheses
Recording and reporting data in quantitative terms
Discovering general principles or arriving at generalization
Requiring expertise
Future and policy-oriented
A strenuous and pains taking job
Follows through carefully designed procedure
Discovering 'cause' and effect relationship
Directed towards the solution of a problem
It expands the frontiers of knowledge
Quantitative Research
Approach
a. Qualitative approaches involve the
collection of extensive narrative
data in order to gain insights into
phenomena of interest. The data
analysis includes the coding of the
data and production of a verbal
hypothesis.
b. Qualitative approach involves
primarily induction
c. If hypothesis are involved a
qualitative study is much more
likely to generate them
d. In qualitative approach there is no
such thing as value free inquiry
e. At operational level qualitative
researchers are more holistic and
process
f. Qualitative researchers typically
study many variables intensely
over a period of time in order to
find out the way things are, how
and why they come to be that way
and what it all
measure?
Qualitative researchers are more
concerned with the meaning of
their findings
g. Qualitative researchers do not want
to intervene or to control anything
they want to study phenomena as
they are in natural settings
h. Quantitative researchers conducted
to promote greater understanding
of not just the way things are but
also why?
Approach
a. Quantitative approach involves the
collection of numerical data in
order to explain, predict and
control phenomena of interest. The
data analysis is mainly statistical
b. Quantitative approach primarily
involves deduction
c. If hypotheses are involved a
quantitative study is much more
likely to test them
d. In quantitative research the
researchers try to be totally
objective i.e. value free
e. Quantitative approaches are more
focused and outcome oriented
oriented
f. Quantitative researches conversely
typically concentrate on one or
small number of variables in order
to describe current conditions or to
investigate relationships including
cause and effect relationships. They
are more concerned with the
generalizability of their findings
then with the meaning of their
findings
g. Quantitative researchers on the
other hand often intervene and
attempt to control as many variables
as possible
h. Qualitative research is are not just
concerned with describing the way
things are but also gaining insight
into how things got to be the way
things are, how people feel about
the way things are, what they
believe and what meaning they
attach to various activities?
The researcher should select an area for investigation from his field of interest
or in an area in which he has studied special courses. Some degree programs as
M.A (Ed) M.Ed and M.Phil/Ph.D (Ed) offer specialized courses such as
Step-b:
Once the researcher has sufficiently narrowed down the area of concern, he
should familiarize himself with all available and the current theories in the area
which he intends to select for study. This includes variety of material such as
books, journals, research reports, seminar, conferences and workshop reports,
research abstracts and other official documents. The review of the related
literature will be helpful for researcher in both selection of the area as well as
the delineation of the resources for the study.
Step-c:
Identification and Definition of the Problem
for Research
The researcher has to be specific and clear in his mind about the problem,
which he selects for research purpose. In identifying a problem for research, it
Step-f:
At this point, the researcher prepares a plan of action for conducting the
research and deteimine such things as sample and sampling procedure, sources
of data review of the literature methods and preparation of instrument to be
used for collection of data, use of statistical method, and design of research
report. All such activities be brought under time schedule and should be strictly
followed so that a researcher is able to complete the study in time. In short,
Plan of Action is a timetable according to which research activities are
followed.
Step-g:
As all types of researches are based on data collected from various sources, it is
essential that keeping in view the purpose and type of research, the researcher
identifies the sources of data. It is always desirable in research to use primary
sources. In case, primary sources are not available then authentic secondary
sources should be consulted, in research. The researcher should be adequately
familiar with the services offered by libraries in the form of written
computerized material and other video guides. These sources are of both
primary and secondary nature. Some of these are listed below:
Educational Index
Readers Guide to Periodical Literature Dissertation, Abstracts
Psychological Abstracts
Educational Resource Information Centres Reviews of the Educational
Step-h:
Depending upon the nature of research, the researcher may need to use certain
instruments for collection of data for a study. These instruments may range
from highly sophisticated electronic and mechanical device to tests,
questionnaires and interview guides etc. Whenever, the instrument is selected
to be used by the researcher, it is essential that it is prepared after the researcher
has determined the problem of research, its objectives, hypotheses, or key
questions and the data needed for the study. Incase when a research instrument
specially a questionnaire is prepared as a first step in research process, chances
are that the data collected through the questionnaire may not be quite relevant
for the purpose of study and the researcher may have difficulty in organizing it
and gathering any thing out of it.
Step-i: Preparation of Dummy Tables
When an inexperienced researcher intends to submit "research proposal" for
approval to a committee, it is recommended that (thought it is a not a common
practice) dummy tables should be prepared before hand. These tables help plan
the organization and analysis of data in advance and facilitate the actual work
when research is initiated.
Step-j:
Whatever the research instrument a researcher uses, he should make sure that
they are standard instruments. In cases specially for the purpose of a certain
research study, it is essential to be pre-tested with a limited sample of subjects.
This pre-testing helps improve the administration, procedure and design of the
instrument. It will help the researcher to identify which questions are
Step-k:
The step that follow follows the pre-testing of the instrument, is the collection
of requisite data from the field. Except where a researcher depends solely on a
documentary sources of data, it is essential that data for the study are collected
under standard conditions. Invalid data cannot be used for research purpose.
Step-I:
Analysis of Data
Depending upon the nature of the study, the data collected from various
sources, are organized in appropriate tables and given statistical treatment for
their analysis and interpretation. The researcher should always remember that
the purpose of giving statistical treatment to the data is to quantity the data and
presents the facts in mathematical term. Statistical methods, if properly used,
help scientific analysis and interpretation of data and increase the accuracy of
the findings of a research study.
Step-m:
The formal presentation of a research report follows more or less the above
steps in research (a separate chapter has been written on this stage). For the
purpose of convenience in writing and presentation of information, a research
report is divided into a number of chapters. Depending upon the nature of the
problem of research, a research study may comprise at least five chapters.
Since educational research, as stated earlier, comprises the features of both a
social science research and a scientific research, it is essential that standard
style of writing a research report and typing it, are followed.
UNIT-4:
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH (BY PURPOSE)
Educational and social researches have been classified by research experts in
various categories. However, there is no clear-cut agreement on such types. The
common types of research (by purpose) which have been mentioned in research
documents; are:
Basic or Fundamental Research
Applied or Field Research
Action Research
Evaluation Research (mentioned by LR Gay)
These popular types of research are discussed in this section.
4.1 THE MEANING OF BASIC RESEARCH
This type of research is sometimes called 'pure' or `fundamental research'. It
aims at to discover the basic truth or principles, which are not concerned with
direct or immediate application in the field. Its emphasis is on 'control' and
`precision'. It is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge
and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. Basic
research is usually laboratory based for which a great deal of sophisticated
equipment and apparatus and ideally controlled environment, are needed for
experiment. Research is usually conducted on animals in laboratories as
researchers or scientists are concerned with the "fundamental principles of
behaviour" and research with animals facilitates such higher level of control
than is possible with human subjects. Lot of basic research bearing implications
Applied research
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
aids, and instructional material, the problem of dropouts of children and the
problem of decreasing retention and many other social, emotional and cultural
problems leading children to maladjustment in the school and in the classroom.
Teachers are not only sensitive to these problems but they are quite anxious to
solve them. similarly, the administrators who are concerned with the
implementation of policy of instruction, are feeling the need to solve such
vexing problems in schools.
Both teachers and administrators might be interested for seeking the "right
answers of these questions", which are agitating their minds.
What are the factors and forces responsible for the problems mentioned
above?
How to improve teaching-learning situation?
How to improve the quality of instruction?
How to make the curriculum more relevant and responsive to the changing
needs of children?
How to enrich teaching-learning process?
How to strengthen teacher's professional competence?
How to raise his morale?
How to improve evaluation system?
How to improve supervisory functions of the school'?
How to identify maladjusted children and how to treat them in individual
manner?
How to eradicate the causes of dropout?
How to buildup incentive system for the retention of children in school?
Now the question is are our teachers and administrators competent or in a
position to solve these problems effectively. In fact, they will not be able to do
so. They need to acquire the knowledge, the skill and the attitude of a
researcher who is solving the problem on scientific lines and in scientific spirit.
For this purpose, expert knowledge in research will enable teachers and
local validity. Its purpose is to improve school practices and at the same
time to improve those who try to improve the practices.
The purpose of action research is to combine the research function with
teacher growth in such qualities as objectivity, skill, and research
processes, habit of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others in
professional spirit.
d. Action research according to 'Good' is to secure evidence concerning the
existing conditions to identify standards or norms with which to
compare present conditions in order to plan the next step and to
determine how to take the next step.
e. J.C. Aggraval (1991) claims that action research is sometimes called "on
the job" research because it involves the application of the steps of the
scientific method to classroom problems.
f. Jane Franseth defines action research as a systematic examination
conducted by individuals or groups studying their own practices in
search of sound answers to the unresolved problems in their work and
aimed at in improving their own performance on their job.
g. Corey says that action research is one of the best way to enable people
to improve the curricular practices and to make possible for them to
study what they are doing to experiment with ideas that seem to be
promising and to get evidence to findout if they are better.
h. Lehmann & Mehren (1971) point out that action research is a type of
applied or decision oriented research but with the situation that the
researches is the same person as the practitioner who will make and live
with the decision.
i. L.R.Gay (1998) states that the purpose of action research is to solve
practical problems through the application of scientific method. The
to study their
classrooms.
f. It focuses upon the immediate application of the results obtained
from the study for the solution of the problem.
g. It findings are evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in terms
of universal validity.
h. It strengthens the professional competence of teachers.
i. It raises the morale of teachers and confidence in their capacities for the
solution of their problem.
j. It develops scientific qualities in teachers like objectivity, skill in
research, habit of thinking, ability to work harmoniously with others in
professional spirit.
k. It is more close to applied research.
l. Action research is rightly called "on the job" research because it
involves the application of systematic method to the solution of a
problem in the classroom.
m. Action research provides best opportunity for the teachers, supervisors,
counselor, administrators, to evaluate their practices and problems of
common nature to improve the situation.
n. Action research is not costly and time consuming.
o. In action research the teacher is a practitioner as well as a researcher.
p. Action research provides better opportunities for the teachers and others
concerned to experiment with new ideas that seem to be promising and
workable.
4.6
Comments
Evaluation Research
a.
b.
c.
d.
Any educational programme is evaluated against criteria and accurate data. The
more objective is criteria and accurate data, the better will be the outcome of
evaluation.
In view of researchers, the function of evaluation is not simply to determine a
programme as good or bad as worthwhile or worthless, but to select an
"alternative" in order to make correct decision. As a result of evaluation one
will have to decide either to continue a new programme or to discontinue it and
reverted to the old one.
Evaluation research is also a disputed matter among the researchers. Some
researchers argue that educational research and evaluation research have
different 'distinct' purposes. Research is based on design and seeks control
while evaluation assesses what it is? However, the distinction between the two
is not very sharp. Evaluation research may utilize research design. There are
certain common features in research and evaluation. Both involve decisionmaking and both involve steps which parallel those of scientific methods.
Many researchers are conducted in natural setting. In short, the value of
evaluation research lies in its very purpose to facilitate decision making based
on its authentic evidence.
The common areas in evaluation research are evaluating the goals and
objectives of education, curriculum, instructional methods, physical facilities,
basic amenities and instructional facilities, evaluating the effectiveness of new
UNIT-5:
HYPOTHESES
This section is devoted to discussion on hypotheses. The following aspects will
be focused in this section.
1. Definitions of Hypotheses
2. The Importance or Value of Hypotheses
3. Characteristics of Hypotheses
4. Types of Hypotheses
5. Examples of formulating Hypotheses
These are described here:
5.1 DEFINITIONS OF HYPOTHESES
What is hypothesis? It has been defined by various educationists and research
experts. A few of such definitions are given below;
According to Fred N. Karlinger (1983) hypothesis is a conjectural statement, a
tentative proposition about the relation between two or more phenomena or
variables. For example a scientist will say, if such and such occurs then so
and so results.
In view of Cohen M. (1956) hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the
relation between two or more variables.
Hypotheses place clear and specific goals before us. They provide specific
goals to the investigator with a basis for selecting sample and research
procedure to meet these goals.
Hypotheses serve the function of linking together related facts and information
and organize them into one comprehensive whole. They also enable the
investigator to understand with greater clarity the problem and its
ramifications as well as data, which bear on it.
Hypotheses enable the researcher to clarify the procedure and methods to be
used in solving his problem and rule out methods which are incapable of
providing the necessary data.
Hypotheses serve as a framework for drawing conclusions, makes possible the
interpretation of data in the light of tentative proposition or provisional
guess. They provide the outline for stating conclusion in a meaningful way.
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD HYPOTHESIS
Good hypotheses possess a number of characteristics, which are briefly
described.
a. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts. A hypothesis is
entirely plausible and conceivable. It is based directly on existing data.
b. A good hypothesis does not come in conflict with any law of nature which
is known to be truth.
c. A good hypothesis is stated in scientific and research like language and is
not an ordinary statement.
Declarative Hypotheses
Null Hypotheses
Example:
There is no difference in the achievement level of lO grade biology students
who are instructed using interactive multimedia and those who receive regular
instruction.
The expression of hypothesis in null form is preferred because of logic of
statistical analysis.
5.5
Formulating and testing of hypothesis are the integral elements of the scientific
method. Scientific method has been discussed in the preceding chapter.
However, its stages on steps are briefly re-stated.
A felt difficulty
Location and definition of the difficulty
Suggested solution of the problem! hypotheses
Deductively reasoning out the consequences of the suggested solution
Testing hypotheses by action
Example of Formulating, Testing and Verifying the Hypotheses (This example
is quoted from Deobold B. Van Dalen 1982 p.24)
A man returns from his vacation and discovers his garden is destroyed (step- 1:
Felt Difficulty). He examines the garden and finds a twisted fenee, flattened
flowers and uprooted stakes (step-2 concrete facts that help him precisely
locate and define the difficulty). While searching for an explanation of these
facts, it occurs to him that the neighbours children may have deliberately
destroyed the garden (step-3 hypothesis or generalization explaining the facts).
His hypothesis goes beyond existing knowledge. He did not see the children
perform the act but this hypothesis offers one possible explanation of the facts.
It also occurs to him that a bad storm may have wrecked the garden. Thus he
has a second hypothesis which may explain the facts. Consequently he
responds judgment until he can establish proof.
By deduction he reasons out the consequences of his first hypothesis (step-4).
If the children wrecked the garden, they had to be at home during the time he
was on his vacation. To test this hypothesis (step-5) he asks where the children
were and finds that they were away at camp while he was on vacation. Thus he
must reject his first hypothesis, for it is not in harmony with observable facts.
He then deductively, reasons out the consequences of his second hypothesis
(step-4). If a sever storm destroyed the garden, it probably wrecked other
nearly gardens. He tests this hypothesis (step-5) by observing other gardens and
finds they have also been destroyed. He checks in news paper and finds an
account of a storm which destroyed many gardens in his area of the city. A
neighbour tells he watched the hail and wind uprooting the garden. He
concludes that his second hypothesis is a reasonable explanation of the facts.
He further checks in news paper and finds an account of a storm which
destroyed many gardens in the city. (Further verification of his hypothesis).
From the above example, it is concluded that researcher will have to formulate
several hypotheses and will test them one by one and will retain that one which
may provide, reasonable, verifiable, defensible and reliable explanation of the
facts.
UNIT-6:
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
6.1
6.1.1
What is history?
6.1.2
Is History a Science?
Whether history is a science or not, is not an issue. Those who are against the
idea that history is not a science, forward the following arguments.
a. The purpose of science is prediction. The historian cannot always generalize
on the basis of past events because the past events are unplanned and
involve so many uncontrolled factors, therefore, the same pattern cannot be
repeated.
b. The historian depends upon observations of others which are not as reliable
as self observation.
c. There are gaps and discrepancies in historical information. The historian
had to fill in these gaps and removing these discrepancies what has
happened? And why did it happen, is a really a difficult task.
d. The historian cannot control the conditions and the variables as are done by
the natural scientist in his laboratory.
Those who are in favour of the view that history is a science forward the
following arguments:
The historian like a natural scientist, adopts a scientific method for his
historical study such as:
He selects the problem
He formulates the problem
He delimits the problem
He develops the hypothesis
He collects data
He criticizes the source material
He analyzes data
He tests the hypotheses to see that they are consistent or inconsistent with the
evid7
If history is not a science in the true spirit of the term because of human or
social factor as observed by John W. Best (1994) a historian, however, collects
data from primary sources but sometimes it is very difficult to have access to
the original sources. He then gets requisite information from the secondary
sources. Such information is more authentic, true and reliable.
Moreover, according to Van Dalen (1985) the historian strives to recreate the
past experiences of mankind in a manner that does not violate the actual events
and classifies facts in accord with specific standards and endeavour to interpret
those facts in an exposition that will stand the test of critical examination. They
apply the same scholarly standard to any problem relating to any social and
educational field.
From the above discussion, it is concluded that the understanding of history
both in educational and social context is important to professional workers. It
will help them to understand how and why educational and social
developments that have happened some hundred years ago, still continues with
all their limitations.
6.1.3
As observed by Good (1959) history embraces the entire field of human past
and is as broad as life itself. Our human past includes many areas of social
experiences and activities that frequently have proved more significant than
political history or any other movement or campaign. For example, culture,
ideals, institutions, law, religion, literature, art, travel, engineering, industry,
technology, medical science, philosophy, economic, education, psychology,
anthropology and sociology and the new developments like demography,
environment, globalization, electronic and print media, explosions, wars,
conflicts, terrorism etc. All these issues have implications of historical interest
for a researcher. There is general agreement among the historians that the scope
and the richness of the content of history including social, cultural, economic
and educational development is gradually expanding.
6.2
This section is devoted to examine in detail the concept, nature and procedure
of historical method of research. The method is employed by researchers who
are curious and critical about conditions and events that have taken place in the
past. Obtaining the knowledge in historical research is always intriguing,
therefore, the historians strive to recreate as mentioned earlier, the past
expenences of mankind in a manner that does not violate the actual events and
conditions of the time. They collect, examine, select, verify and classify facts in
an exposition that will stand the test of critical examination.
Historical method of investigation is of particular interest to scholars because
of universality of its application. One can apply it not only to subject matter
that is commonly related to as history but also to ascertain the meaning and
reliability of past facts in the natural sciences and in social sciences.
When undertaking a historical study, a scholar engages himself in some
activities that are common to all investigations but the nature of the subject
matter presents with some peculiar problems and requires him to apply some
special standards and techniques.
6.3 THE PROCEDURE OF HISTORICAL METHOD
In general, a historian is involve in the following procedure.
Selecting the problem
Formulating the problem
Determining the conceptual framework
Collecting source materials
Criticizing source materials
Formulating hypotheses to explain events or conditions
Interpreting data
Reporting the findings
Some of the steps of the procedure of historical study, are briefly discussed.
a.
The location, selection and development of the problem for the study, is the
first step in historical research. An experienced historian realizes that the
Documents
Legislative Acts
Court decisions
Personnel materials
like
autobiographies,
Remains
These include
School buildings, furniture and equipment
memories,
and
Under this system all sources for collection of data are classified as primary
or Secondary. The nature of these sources are briefly discussed.
(a)
Primary Sources
Primary sources are the original documents or remains or the first witness to an
event. They are the eye witness accounts. They are reported by an actual
observer or a participant in an event.
(b)
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are accounts of an event that were not witnessed by the
reporter. He may have talked with the actual observer or read an account
written by an observer but his testimony is not that of an actual participant or
observer. The writer of the secondary source was not on the spot of the event
but surely reports what the person who was there said or wrote.
External criticism deals with the authenticity and genuineness of the document
i.e. whether the document is what it seems to be? Or reads true to the original.
This criticism establishes the authenticity of data and tries to establish whether
a document or relic is true and is not a forgery. Through external criticism, the
historian also checks the textual integrity of source material.
To discover the origin of the source material, according to Van Dalen (1985)
the historian asks many questions such as when and where was the document
produced? Who was the creator or the author? Did the credited author produce
it? Is this an original or accurate copy of the authors work? From what sources
were the contents derived? And how depended upon was the author?
The problem of establishing age or authorship of documents may involve
intricate tests of signatures, handwriting, script, types, spellings, language
usages, documentation, knowledge available at that time and consistency with
the time. They involve physical and chemical test of ink, print, paper,
parchment, cloth, stone, metal or wood. Are these elements consistent with
known facts about the person, the knowledge available and the technology Of
the period in which the remains or document originated? Problems of external
criticism in testing the genuineness of document also involve the characteristics
of the author, the factors or conditions that may have influenced the production,
the purpose and the circumstances of its composition.
The work of external criticism has now been facilitated through development
of science, printing, photography and micro photography.
(b)
Conclusion
Reporting the findings of historical research is the last and the most important
phase of research. In view of the special nature of historical research the report
makes certain demands on the investigator. According to Van Dalen, the report
mainly includes:
a. A statement of the problem
b. b. A review of the literature
c. The basic assumptions underlying the hypotheses
d. The method employed in testing the hypotheses
e. The results obtained and the conclusion drawn
f. Bibliography
(b)
UNIT-7:
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
7.1 THE CONCEPT OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
In this section an attempt has been made to explain the concept of descriptive
research which is a predominant research method of behaviour sciences. Many
types of behaviour cannot be observed under experimental conditions because
under experimental conditions, the variables may be harmful to the subjects.
The prevailing practice of educationists and other social scientists is to
systematically examine and analyze behaviour under conditions that actually
exist in the school, classroom, home and community. Here lies the advantage of
descriptive research.
(i)
The importance of descriptive research lies in the fact that not much progress
can be made in solving problems unless we possess descriptions of the
phenomena with which we work. Moreover, no effective policy of universal
education can be formulated unless we know why parents do not send their
children to school? and what role in played by the teacher and the community
to encourage basic education in the existing situation of the country.
Descriptive research is very popular because a high percentage of reported
research studies are descriptive in nature. The descriptive research is useful for
investigating a variety of educational and social problems. Typical descriptive
research studies are concerned with the assessment of attitudes, opinions,
demographical information, conditions, institutions, instructional practices and
facilities.
Descriptive research sometimes is known as non experimental or correlation
research deals with the relationships between variables, the testing of
hypotheses and the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that
have universal validity.
(ii)
In a descriptive research, the researcher follows certain steps which are briefly
listed. According to Van Dalen, the following steps may be taken by the
investigator to carryout research on proper lines.
a. Examining a problematic phenomena/situation
b. Identifying the problem
c. Defining the problem
Social survey is not a new method. It is as old as history, itself. French social
scholars, German economists, American and British Sociologists, have
conducted detailed social surveys on various social, political and economic
aspects of the society in 19th and 20th centuries. All these investigators have
come to the conclusion that all social problems were interlinked and
interconnected with each other and that no problem can be studied in isolation.
So far as the growth of the social survey is concemed some instance are quoted
in the context of development of Social Survey in United States, mostly in 20th
century.
In the old days, the social survey techniques used were not sophisticated. Most
of the survey conducted on large scale, were quite ambitious. In most cases
these surveys were conducted to find out basic facts of life which were then
unJcriown for example economic conditions of slum dwellers or the effects of
modernization on the poor section of the society.
Moreover, in these days general techniques were used to conduct a social
survey. For example, in a social survey observation method, questionnaire
method, random sampling and cooperative method were all combined to make
Social surveys in modem times are more sophisticated. They are conducted on
more scientific lines. They are very extensive and comprehensive in nature and
scope. They are conducted on regular intervals by government agencies such as
census, market survey, educational survey etc. They are inter disciplinary in
nature. They combine both human as well as economic resources.
In modem survey, the notion of collecting maximum data has been discarded.
The most specific relevant data are collected, tabulated and analyzed by
experts. Only trained workers are engaged for this purpose.
(iv) A Comparison of Social Survey and Social Research
There is difference in aims, scope, method and utility between social survey
and social research. These differences are comparatively stated:
Social Survey
Social Research
a.
a.
Social
research
is
not
concerned with that purpose
b.
c.
d.
e.
with e.
f.
g.
7.3
(I)
existing phenomena to justify the current conditions and to make plan for
improving them.
The survey studies collect data from a number of cases at a particular period of
time. These are not related with the characteristics of individuals but their main
concern is to make generalizations which are based on the data collected from a
number of cases.
Survey may be broad or narrow in scope. They may encompass several
countries or may be confined to one region, city or some other unit. Survey
data may be gathered from every member of a population or from a carefully
selected sample. Data may be collected concerning a large number of related
factors or a few selected items. The scope and depth of the study depend
primarily upon the nature of the problem and the scope of the study.
7.4 KINDS OF SURVEYS
The survey study according to Good, is essentially a research and is clearly
distinguished from a clerical report. It has a distinctive form with a definite
attention given to describing the methodology, the resources, the population,
the traits being studied and other appropriate methodological or technical
details. The survey study is presumably based on original observations. Each
step is taken carefully. The data are summarized and form a definite part of the
contribution of the study. Moreover, the background, sensitivity and general
competence of the investigators as well as the spirit with which he works, are
also vital elements in survey studies.
(ii)
Inspite of the fact that survey researchers make their efforts to take meticulous
care in collection of data but still there are certain limitations in the studies
which are mostly related to the nature of data or information collected for
research purpose. For example:
a. Information that is not known to the respondents cannot be obtained
b. Information that is not significant to the respondents cannot be obtained
c. Information will not be accurate when a respondent tends to conceal it
d. Information about activities shared by a very small proportion of
population, will not be reliable in a cross sectional surveys
e. Data obtained with high sampling error do not suit proper for sample
surveys
f. Information obtained from a single survey is less reliable than the trend
survey, carried out by the same method
g. Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining exact quantitative forecast of things
to come
h. Information will not be accurate if it is collected by inexperienced
investigator or social worker
7.4.1
a.
School Survey
Physical facilities
Instructional materials
Basic amenities
Curriculum offerings
School surveys may be carried out by school staff by experts and both by
school staff and experts, or by collaboration and cooperation of external
agency.
Information for various purposes are collected through school surveys.
However, most of information sought by school survey, falls into the following
categories.
b.
Such survey studies the legal, administrative, social physical setting for
learning so that the entire infrastructure of school system could be developed
and improved.
c.
Community Survey
There is a close relationship between educational and social sector and the
community. Educators often collect data about local setting and particular
aspect of life in it. Sometimes they join social scientists in fact finding projects
prevailing
issues
in
community
life.
For
this
purpose
Child labour
Unemployment
Educational wastage
These are just a few examples. There are hundred and hundred problems facing
to communities in Pakistan which need detailed investigation for improving the
quality of life.
7.4.3
(a)
Job Analysis
The job analysis technique is applied to study administrative, teaching and nonteaching priorities. In this type of research, data is often gathered about the
general duties and responsibilities of workers and their specific activities, their
status and relationship in the administration of the organization, their working
condition and the nature and scope of the facilities available to them. The data
helps the investigator to describe present practices and conditions of
employment and competencies and behavioural traits that personnel should
possess to carryout their own work effectively and efficiently.
(b)
According Van Dalen this type of research helps the administrator to:
Assign workers to jobs best suited to each worker to put the available
manpower to the best use
(c)
Various procedures are adopted for the job analysis studies by a researcher such
as:
- From personal observation and judgment detained from authorities in the
field, the researcher may compile a list of the broad functions involved in
administrative, supervisory or teaching positions
(d)
The job analysis should give equal weight to all activities, functions and
personal characteristics associated with a particular job.
7.4.4
In our society where there are so many controversies, there are so many
opinions. These controversies, these opinions are, however expressed by
organized and interest groups and are usually projected through media. There
are large number of controversies which need ascertaining public opinion or the
opinion of public at large. For example issues relating to education are English
as a medium of instruction. Uniform system of Education, Co-education at
higher level. Self financing scheme etc. So, it is important to find out what
the people think? How do people feel about these issues? Such questions can
be answered by means of public Opinion survey Many research
Follow Up Studies
also helpful for the institutions in evaluating various aspects of their course or
programme in the light of actual results.
Important follow up studies have been conducted in United States. Two of them
are important to be mentioned.
a. Dillons (1949) study of early school leavers had yielded information that
had led to the improvement of the curriculum, guidance services,
administrative procedure and holding power of the American Secondary
Schools.
b. Project Talent both survey and follow up study was conducted by US Office
of Education in 1965. On 44000 students enrolled in 1953 in secondary
schools. The objectives of such survey and follow up study were.
a. To build up linkage between educational instruction and employment
opportunities.
b. To make change and improvement in the curriculum of an educational
programme and to make it more job oriented.
Some other benefits attributed to follow up studies are:
i. To obtain an inventory of young people of their capabilities and
potentialities
ii. ii. To establish a set of standard for educational and psychological
measurement
iii. To provide a comprehensive guide indicating patterns of career success
iv. To provide information on how youth choose their work
Documentary Analysis
Documents and records may be dry and dull reading material to ordinary
persons but a researcher often provides them blood through digging the
exciting and pertinent facts out of these sources. Documentary analysis is
sometimes referred to as content activity or informational analysis.
Documentary analysis is closely related to historical research. Both methods of
investigation explore existing records, but historical research is primarily
concerned with the more distant past while documentary analysis is a type of
descriptive research concerned with the present status of a certain problem.
In this type of research, a researcher may merely gather and clarify factual data
from the official reports of institutions, organizations or may classify or
evaluate the content of documents according to establish criteria.
A researcher has to bear in mind that the date appearing in print are not
necessarily trust worthy and authentic and all documents used in this type of
descriptive research must be subjected to the same careful criticism which is
employed by historians. The authenticity of the document as well as the
validity of content is of crucial importance. The researcher is required to
establish the trust worthiness of all data that he draws from documentary
sources.
b.
Documentary Sources
Letters, Autobiographies
Diaries
Proceeding of meetings
Case studies
Observation reports
Codes of conduct
It spots trends
e.
f.
Specification of objectives
Developing hypotheses
Sampling
Determining categories/classification
Educational and social researchers while carrying out descriptive research not
only try to discover what a phenomena is but also to see how and why it
occurs. They try to determine what factors or circumstances, certain events or
practices accompany the occurrence of the phenomena. In social sciences,
where it is difficult to control various variables, causal comparative method is
usually employed instead of experimental research. It is not always possible for
researcher to select, control and manipulate the factors necessary to study cause
and effect relationship. So this method enables the researcher to analyze what
happens in a natural situation rather than in a laboratory situation. In an
experiment, the researcher hypothesizes, then manipulates important variables.
And exposes the experimental group to experience A while withholding the
experience from a control group and observes the result. In a causal
comparative study, the researcher observes phenomena B and searches back
through multiplicity of possible causes for the factors independent that are
related or contributed to the accurence of phenomena B. three examples are
quoted here to clarify the nature of a causal comparative study.
Examples-1 If a researcher wants to determine the cause of unrest in an
educational institution, he cannot set up a control group to test whether certain
factors will cause an unrest. He will compare the institutions where unrest
occurred with other institutions, which had no unrest or riots. He will study the
likeness and difference between the two situations and will determine the
factors that appear to account for the unrest in one instance and for its lack in
the other.
Example-2 If a researcher intends to identify the causes of automobile
accidents in order to study their causes. He will incline to automobile industry
police department, safety commission and other insurance companies to study
the conditions associated with the accidents that have occurred. Such factors as
mechanical faults, or failure, excessive speed, driving under the influence of
drugs and others have been identified as causes.
Correlation Studies
related or the extent to which variations in one factor correspond with variation
in another factor. The investigator in these types of studies does not manipulate
the independent variable but he merely makes observations of both the
independent as well as the dependent variable as these occur in natural setting.
For example, a researcher studying the relationship between IQ and
achievement randomly selects some groups and measure both the IQ and the
achievement through some tests. The two variables in this type of research may
be closely relatyd, moderately related or completely unrelated. Generally, the
magnitude of the correlation depends upon the extent to which an increase or
decrease in one variable is accompanied by increase or decrease in other
variable whether in the same direction or in opposite direction. For example, a
high positive correlation exists if a high rank in one set is accompanied by a
high rank in other (high IQ high achievement test score) and a low rank in one
set is accompanied by a low rank in the other. A high negative correlation exists
if in general a high rank in one set of scores corresponds with a low rank in the
other (high IQ low achievement test score). No or little correlation exists if a
high score in one set is just as likely to corresponds with a low or with a high
score in the other set. Correlations therefore, range over a state which extend
from a perfect negative correlation to no correlation and to perfect positive
correlation.
The correlation technique is a valuable research tool but a coefficient of
correlation merely qualifies the extent to which two variables are related and it
does not imply that cause- effect-relationship necessarily exists. The meaning
of the relationship is interpreted by logical analysis rather than statistical
Developmental Studies
7.5.4
Growth Studies
A planner in the social sector, for successful and realistic planning, has to be
fully aware of the changes taking place in areas affecting his field. He has to
know what interrelated factors affect growth of education for example at
various stages of economic development when various aspects of growth are
first observed and move forward to reach optional development.
Growth studies can be carried by using other longitudinal or cross-sectional
approach. When applying longitudinal method one person, group or institution
is observed over a period of time while in cross-sectional method different
persons or groups are observed at approximately the same time at different
stages of development. Cross sectional approach has an advantage over the
longitudinal approach. The former is more economical and has the advantage
of gathering data promptly. A planner might will like to study the educational
policies being produced in countries at different levels of economic growth or
might like to study the impact of a certain strategy of educational development
being adopted by a country at comparable level of socio-economic growth.
7.5.5.
Trend Studies
future. The trend study points to conclusion reached by the combined method
of historical and descriptive analysis.
This type of research furnishes valuable data for planning prograrmnes. These
prediction are, however, estimates and represent tentative conclusion because
there are a lot of factors which can hasten or arrest the problem of growth and
development.
7.5.6
Trend Projection
All the future plans can be made on the basis of approximately accurate
estimates about future. That is possible only if we critically analyze the past
data and existing status. The trend can be mathematically educated and trend
projection can be made on the basis of the past trends. These types of studies
may be named as trend projections.
An other type of projection study is target oriented projections. In this way of
projections, the targets are set before hand and the projections are made looking
into consideration the existing data and projecting the figures up to the target.
For example the year 2010 and 2015 have been set as target of achieving
universal enrolment at primary level and universal adult literacy in Pakistan on
the basis of census figures in 1998 for which enrolment projection and
population projection have been made both at national and regional levels.
Moreover, Allama lqbal Open University has carried out a projection for the
demand and supply of primary schools female for the period 1981-82 to 199091.
In Pakistan, however, target oriented projections for the development are made,
the rising cost or the cost factors are not taken into consideration with the result
that programmes are slow and the targets are not achieved. Therefore, more and
more realistic projections are made that is resource oriented projections. In this
type of projections of the planners keep in view the financial allocation made
by the government for the sub sector for which the projections are made.
7.6 INTER-RELATIONSHIP STUDIES
7.6.1
(I)
Case Study
The case studies in research are undertaken for the following purposes.
a. To provide the investigator with hypotheses that might be difficult to study
in other context.
b. To provide the investigator unique situation that can be used to test
hypotheses.
c. To provide new insights, help modify pre-existing beliefs, and point out
gaps in knowledge.
d. To be useful in demonstrating how a theoretical model can be established in
a concrete model.
e. To understand the life cycle or an important part of the life cycle of an
individual unit. This may be a person, family, a group or a social institution
or an entire community.
(iii)
Data for a case study may be collected by a variety of methods such as:
susceptible to the post hoc fallacy, it is also a hazard associated with other
type of non-experimental studies.
7.6.2
Statistical Method of Educational and Social
Research
a.
Many research problems can be solved with the help of statistics, therefore, this
method of research is becoming more popular iii these days. Statistical method
is defined as a method which deals with data obtained by counting or
measuring properties of popular natural phenomena. In the words of Horace,
statistics are aggregate of facts, affected to a marked extent of multiplicity of
causes, numerically expressed according to reasonable standard of accuracy,
collected in a systematic manner for a pre-determined purpose and placed in
relation to each other. In single word statistical method of research lays stress
on facts, figures and nothing beyond that.
b.
The method does not study any individual but a group of individuals.
This method is itself not the source of data but it interprets and analyze
data.
c.
The statistical method inspite of its popularity, has certain limitations such as it
cannot be used under all circumstances and situations. This method becomes
irrelevant when qualitative data is to be interpreted. Another limitation is that it
does not deal with individuals but only with groups or aggregates. This method
need maximum care. When this method is handled by incompetent persons
then misleading results are bound to arise.
UNIT-8:
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
8.1 THE CONCEPT OF EXPERIMENT
An experiment according to Kanneth D. Bailey is a highly controlled method
of attempting to demonstrate the existence of a causal relationship between
one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables.
In an ideal experiment the researcher gets control over the environment in
which the experiment is conducted and is able to hold consistent or
otherwise control over any experimental or extraneous factors that might
affect the experiment.
In the words of M.A Bukhari (1990) an experiment is a scientific device for
obtaining an answer to the question like If this is done under carefully
controlled conditions, what will happen?
An experiment is a situation in which relationship between the cause and effect
is established. The underlying logic being if two situations are alike in every
respect and if one element is added to one but not to the other the resultant
difference may be considered to be the effect of the element. Similarly, if
two situations are alike in every respect and one element is removed from
one situation but not from the other, any observable difference may be
attributed to the element removed.
What is educational experimentation? Engal Hart (1991) has described
experimentation as the name given to the educational research in which the
investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or a group of
children is subjected during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting
achievement. In the simplest type of educational experiment the investigator
seeks to evaluate the influence of some one educative or experimental factor on
a single group of children. He must start the experiment with some
measurement of the initial attainment of the children in the trait or ability to be
influenced. He then subjects the group to the experimental factor. At the end
the investigator applies a final test for the purpose of determining the gain the
achievement that has resulted from the application of the experimental factor.
According to John W. Best (1994) experimentation provides a systematic and
logical method if this is done what will happen under carefully controlled
condition.
Experimentation provides a method of hypotheses testing. After experimenter
defines a problem, he proposes a tentative answer or hypothesis. He tests the
hypothesis and confirms or disconfirms it in the light of the controlled variable
relationship that he has observed.
According to Van Dalen (1985) in experimental research, the researcher does
not confine himself to the activities such as to observe and describe what exists
but he deliberately manipulates certain factors under highly controlled
conditions to ascertain how and why a particular condition or event occurs.
8.2 THE CONCEPT OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
According to L.R. Gay (1992) experimental research is the only type of
research that can truly test the hypotheses concerning cause and effect
relationship. It represents the most valid approach to the solution of educational
problems both practical and theoretical and to the advancement of education as
a.
Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Intervening Variables
Extraneous Variables
8.6
TECHNIQUES/MEASURES TO BE ADOPTED
CONTROLLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
FOR
Randomization
Matching Cases
available classes a spelling test and assigned students to the two groups so that
for each student in the regular drill group, there is a student in the spaced drill
group with the same or almost the same score on the spelling test. This method
assures that the two groups had the same spelling ability at the beginning of the
experiment and that any difference found after exposing the two groups to the
methods of drill was due to the method of drill itself.
Matching cases method can only match groups on the basis of one variable and
can thus control only one extraneous variables.
d.
Balancing Cases
Analysis of Co-variance
Internal Validity
Internal validity is the basic minimum limit necessary to make the result of the
experiment interpretable. Internal validity questions whether the experimental
treatment really makes a difference in the dependent variable? An adequate
answer to this question requires adequate internal validity. Before, it can be
answered, the researcher must be confident that extraneous variables have not
produced an effect that is being mistaken as an effect of the experimental
treatment. According to Best an experiment has internal validity to the extent
that the factors that have been manipulated (independent variables) actually
have a genuine effect on the observed consequence (dependent variables) in the
experimental setting.
b.
External Validity
The value of an experimental research lies in its validity to provide a basis for
generalization from a sample to total population.
in the degree to which they control the various threats to internal and external
validity. However, a researcher selects a design which is appropriate for the
study, is feasible in the presence of any constraints, under which the researcher
is operating, controls the sources of internal and external invalidity and which
tests the hypotheses.
UNIT-9:
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
9.1 A RATIONALE FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
Experimental design as described by M.A Bukhari is the blue print of the
procedure that enables the researcher to test hypotheses by reaching valid
conclusions about relationship between independent and dependent variables.
Selection of a particular design is based upon the purposes of the experiment,
the type of variables to be manipulated and the conditions or the hmiting
factors under which it is conducted.
The design deals with such practical problems such as:
how subjects are to be manipulated or controlled
the way extraneous variables are to be controlled
how observations are to be made and
the type of statistical analysis to be employed in interpreting data relationships
9.2 ISSUES IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
L.R Gay (1992) has pointed out some basic issues in the experimental design.
A selected experimental design dictates to a great extent the specific procedure
of a study. Selection of a given design dictates such factors as whether there
will be a control group whether subjects will be randomly assigned groups,
whether each group will be pretested and how resulting data will be analyzed.
Depending upon the particular combination of such factors experimental
designs vary widely
Treatment
O=
Observation
E=
Experimental Group
C=
Control Group
R=
Randomly Selected
P=
Period
Example:
A group of principals of high schools are taken on a study tour of some modern
and well- equipped and well-managed educational institution of the country.
After some times the Director of Schools visit their schools to observe how
well their institutions were being managed by them. If he feels that schools are
well managed, he will conclude that the difference he noticed was due to the
influence of the study tour and hence the purpose of the study tour has been
achieved.
(ii)
O2
There is also a weakness in the design. In physical sciences, like physics and
chemistry, this design may be more efficient but in behavioural science i.e.
education, one cannot be so sure in inferring cause and effect relationship. In
this design and the location of the treatment between pre-test (01) and post test
((02) affords no warrant that this treatment (i.e. pretest) alone is responsible for
any gain or difference between the two observations i.e. (d=02 O)
Moreover, during intervening period, between pre-test and post-test events
other than the treatment will also have occurred and may have caused 0 to
increase up to 02 particularly, if the period between 01 and 02 is long, the
change may reflect the maturation and experience of the principals even in the
It is due to the criticism on design No.2 that the researcher tries to look for
some better experimental design. Design No.3 given below, may provide an
answer to this criticism. It provides two groups for comparison. One group is
experimental (E) which is given and is to be subsequently compared on the
basis of performance on some post test with the second group, the control
group (C) which has not exposed to the treatment. There is no pretest for both
groups.
01
C=
02
Example:
Comparison of the result obtained with one group of principals provided
training in technique of school management (E Group) with the result obtained
from another group of principals not exposed to such treatment of such training
(C- Group)
(ii)
O1
RC=
O2
All the factors are equated. At the end of the period (P) the experimental and
control groups were administered a test of statistical significance. In case, the
statistically significance difference is found in favour of the experimental
group, one can safely conclude that this effect in the efficiency of the principals
is due to the training variable and in this way, the cause and effect relationship
is determined between the training treatments and efficiency (observation).
In case the difference between the mean score is found to favour the
experimental group but not to the extent of being statistically significant. one
can conclude that this superiority of experimental group (E) over the control
group (C) could well have been the result of sampling error and that there was
no evidence of the superiority of the training component over those principals
who were not provided such training.
However, there is one drawback in this design that is the non existence of pretest. If a pre-test is added to both the groups. we can arrive at another design
which can be named as Design No.5.
2. Design No-5Pre Test Post-Test Equivalent Groups
The following is the symbolic representation of the design.
(i)
(ii)
RE= O1
O2
RC=03
O4
D= dRE
O2 -
O1
dRC=O4
O3
(iii)
D=dRE-dRC
The design is similar to Design No.4 except that pretests are administered
before the appreciation of the experimental group treatments and post test at the
end of the treatment. The difference between the scores on pre-test and post test
for the experimental group is denoted as dRE and is calculated by the use of
formula dRE= 02 0 where as the difference between the scores on pre-test
and post-test of control group is dRE and is calculated by the use of formula
dRC= 04 03. Thus the gains in experimental and control group are dRE
dRC respectively and can be compared by calculating the net difference
between these two gains i.e. with the help formula
D= dRE - dRC
It is reasonable to attribute the difference between these two gains (i.e. capital
D) to the treatment (Training to the principals in the example referred
frequently) that one group received and the other group did not. The gain score
may also be compared and subjected to a test of significance of the difference
means. Pre-test scores can also be used in the analysis of co-variance to
statistically control for any difference between the groups at the beginning of
the study.
Let us take the example of training of principals as discussed in design 4 where
in each of this experimental and control groups is to be subjected to a pre-test
(the same or parallel) before the conduct of experiment. Then the training
component is planned to be given to the experimental group and the control
group is not to be exposed to treatment (training) After the experimental
treatment is over, the same or parallel test (post-test is to be conducted for both
the groups. The gain (02 - Oi) named as dRE in the experimental group now
has its counterpart dRC which is equal to (04 03) in the control group and
these gains can be compared. Their difference is D which is equal to dRE
dRC or (02 01) (04 03). It is reasonable to attribute the difference
between these gains (D) to the treatment or training received by experimental
group and not by control group.
The design is clearly an improvement over design No.4 where in no pretest was
provided and the group had been equated only statistically. This design is also
an improvement our design no.2 in which there was no assurance that the
treatment alone was responsible for any gained observed. The presence of
control group in design No.5 now makes it possible to control maturation and
practice effects. In brief, Design 5 has an advantage over previous designs that
the pretest affords an opportunity to check on the initial equivalence of the
groups. Thus this is a strong and a true experimental design but there may be
possibility of the influence of the effect of testing and the interaction with the
experimental variability.
Design No-6
O1
O2
RC
O3
O4
RE
O5
RC
O6
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
O1
O2
03
O4
Where O1and O3 are observation or pre-tests and 02 and 04 are the observation
on post-tests.
The design I as indicated earlier makes use of intact groups which are formed
on the basis of some natural grouping. Thus experimental and control groups
are formed neither by randomly assigning scores nor by matching.
Randomization is preferred over the selection of intact groups. Randomization
(as compared to matching which can equates groups, on a few variables) can
assure the researcher that there is no systematic biases in groups containing
randomly assigned individuals and it can determine which individual is to
receive treatment and which is not to receive, thus eliminating systematic
difference between the groups. The addition of control group is the major
advantage of this design, though it lacks the characteristics of Design No.5.
A researcher should be aware of the fact that the basic requirement of design 7
is not pre test scores for experimental and control groups. They are as similar as
possible and that the initial assignment of individuals to groups does not reflect
biases.
This design is justified on the following grounds. The design is adopted when
obtaining of equivalent groups through randomization for experimental and
control groups may sometimes become difficult because this would involve
splitting classes, disturbing class schedule or assembling scattered subjects at
one place. Therefore, there is need to have a design which could use preassembled subjects for experimental and control groups. The difference
between the mean of the 0 and 02 scores and the difference between the mean
of the 03 and 04 scores are tested for statistical significance. Analysis of co-
variance may also be used. Because this design may be the only possible one,
the comparison is justified but the results should be interpreted with care.
Design No-8:
05 06 07 08
There are four observation period (the number may vary considerably).
The time series design is actually an elaboration of the one group pre test and
post test design. One group is repeatedly pre-tested (more than once but not
necessarily four times as shown in the above diagram) expoed to a treatment
and then repeatedly post tested. If a group scores essentially the same on a
number of pre-test and then significantly improve following a treatment, the
researcher has more confidence in the effectiveness of the treatment than if just
one pre test and one post test are administered.
The characteristics of this design are that maturation is eliminated in most time
series design, testing is also absent because the effects of repeated
measurement can be eliminated.
Weaknesses in the Design
There are certain weaknesses in the design such as:
History is still a problem in this design something might happen between the
last pre test and the first post test the effect of which might be confused with
the treatment
UNIT-10
TOOLS OF RESEARCH
10.1 SAMPLING: MEANING, PURPOSE AND
CHARACTERISTICS
(i)
According to Van Dalen sampling does not consist in collecting data usually
from any conveniently located units. To obtain a representative sample. one
systematically selected each unit in a specified way under controlled
conditions. Several steps are involved in the process.
a.
the available population frame without investigation of the methods that are
used to comply them without and without ascertaining whether all members of
the population are included.
c.
Once a population is defined and all units are tested, the next essential task is
relatively simple one. It involves the procedure of selecting units from the list.
Despite the mechanical ease of drawing a sample, mistakes are made by the
researcher. They select any group of units that conveniently at hand to them. A
good sample must be as nearly representative of the entire population as
possible.
d.
The researcher should not select some samples which are too small to represent
the characteristics of the population. However, there are no specific rules on
how to obtain adequate sample. Each situation present its own problems. It
depends upon the size of an adequate sample, the nature of population, the type
of sampling design and the degree of precision. However, it should not too
small to be insignificant and not too large to be properly managed.
(iii) Types of Sample
a.
Stratified Sampling
(i)
The Nature
Since random sampling may by chance, have under proportion of one type of
unit in it, it is sometimes advisable to use stratified random sampling to get a
more representative sample. When applying this technique of the researcher
divides his population into strata or groups by some characteristics and from
each of this smaller groups homogeneous groups draws at random a
predetermined number of units. For example to ascertain the views of the
people on female education issue, one can sub-divide a population into groups
on the basis of known characteristics or behaviour such as age, income,
educational level or religion. Proportional or equal sampling enables one to
achieve even greater representation in the sample. In this technique one will
select units at random from each stratum in proportion to its actual size in the
total population.
(ii)
c.
Cluster Sampling
(i)
The Nature
(iii)
The cluster sampling technique would be easier (though not necessarily good)
than either random sampling or stratified sampling. According to Van Dalen
cluster sampling produces a larger sampling error than a simple random
sampling of the some size for each cluster. In the above example, a block in a
given neighbourhood may be composed of units that are like one another,
which reduces the representativeness of the sample.
(iv)
The steps to be taken in cluster sampling are not very difficult from those
involved in random sampling. The major difference as already indicated is that
random selection of groups (clusters) involved not individuals.
Cluster sampling involves the following steps.
Identifying and defining the population
Determining the desired sample size
Identifying and defining logical clusters
Listing all clusters that comprise the population
Estimating the average number of population members per cluster
Determining the member of clusters needed by dividing by the size or by the
estimated size of the cluster
Randomly selecting the needed number of clusters (using a table of random
numbers)
Systematic Sampling
(i)
The Nature
Questionnaire Defined
Forms/Kinds of Questionnaire
Close Form
Questionnaire that call for short, check responses are as the restricted, or close
form type. They provide for marking a Yes or No, a short response or
checking an item from a list of suggested responses.
The following example illustrate a closed form item.
Why did you intend to do your M.Ed from I.E.R University of Peshawar?
Please indicate three reasons in order of importance using, for most important.
2 for the second most important and 3 for the third most important.
Accessible
Enjoys reputation
Expenses are low
Financial assistance is available
Courses are easy
Any other (please specify)
Even when using the close form, it is desirable to provide for unanticipated
responses, providing an other category as given in the above example, permits
the respondents to indicate what might be his most important reaction, one that
the questionnaire frame had not anticipated specification is essential for
tabulation or interpretation purpose. Such type of option relaxes the rigidily of
the form.
(ii)
It is relatively objective
(iii)
The open form or unstructured type of questionnaire calls for a free response in
respondents own words. For example:
Why did you intend to take admission in M.Ed Programme in IER University
of Peshawar?
In what respects IER programme needs improvement?
The open form probably provides for greater depth of response. The respondent
reveals his/her frame of reference and possibly, the reasons for his/her
responses. Since it requires greater effort on the part of respondent, return are
often meager. This type of item question is sometimes difficult to interpret,
tabulate and summarize in the research study.
(v)
In the words of Dr. Ahmad A. Arain several advantages are attributed to open
end questionnaire such as:
Open end questions are flexible. They have the possibility of depth and have
the capacity to encourage cooperation and achieve support and to make
better estimates of respondents true intentions, beliefs and attitude
The response to open end questions may suggest the possibility of relations and
hypothesis. Respondents will sometime give unexpected answers that may
indicate the existence of relations not originally anticipated by researcher in
the development of questionnaire
They can be used when all possible answer categories are not known
They allow the respondents to answer adequately
They can be used when there are too many potential answer categories to test
on the questionnaire
They are preferable to complex issues that cannot be condensed into small
categories
They allow more opportunity for creativity, thinking and self expression
They are used for complex questions that could be answered in a few simple
categories but require more detail discussion
(vii)
Pictorial Form
Some questionnaire present respondents with drawings and photographs rather
than written statement from which to choose answers. This form of
questionnaire is particularly suitable tool for collecting data from children and
adults who had not yet developed reading ability. Pictures often capture the
attention of respondents more readily than printed words, lessen subjects
resistance and stimulate the interest in questions.
Scale Items
A scale items is a question to which the respondents expresses his agreement or
disagreement of various levels. Such items have fixed alternative and the
respondent indicates where he stands on the scale. For example the item
indicated earlier relating to English medium school may be presented as
follow:
All English Medium Institutions should be closed forth with.
Strongly agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly disagree
(i)
What is Interview?
(ii)
Advantages
Observers need to be trained in order to have some assurance that all observers
are observing and recording the same behaviour in the same way.
Reducing Observation Bias
Efforts be made to reduce observers bias in the process of observation which
refers to invalid observation, the halo- effect or the observers effect.
Methods of Recording Observation
As indicated earlier, for recording observations a number of devices are used.
Two of them which are popular and exclusively used are check-list and
rating scale. The instruments help the researchers focus his attention on
specific phenomena, make objective observation and systematize the collection
of data. These instruments are briefly observed.
10.5 CHECK-LIST
The check list is the simplest device consisting of prepared list of items. The
presence or absence of the items may be indicated by checking yes or No.
this simple laundry list type of device systematizes and facilitates the
recording of
observations and helps to assure the consideration of important aspects of the
subject or an act observed. For example assessing the nature of a project
relating to school building before its implementation, the following items may
be checked.
Items Yes
Yes
No
___
__
___
__
___
__
___
__
___
__
Has in responsibility for execution of each major activity been assigned ___
__
Rating Scale
A rating scale is used for qualitative description of a limited number of aspects
of a thing, situation or traits of a person. In this device the aspect of thing,
situation or trait of a person are rated on a three, five point scale from the
highest to the lowest. For example in describing the quality of a building the
following categories on 5 point scale may be used.
Scale Excellent
Weightage
Good Average
4
Below Average
Poor
1
For example for identifying The Educational Factors Responsible for Low
Enrolment, Poor Attendance and Dropout of Children at Primary Level the
following 3 point scale may be used with wieghtage 3, 2, 1 respectively.
Item/Statement
Factors
Major Minor Notat All
____
____
____ ____
Unattractive curriculum
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
Teachers absentees
____ ____
____ ____
Inefficient supervision
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
____ ____
One of the problems in rating scale is that different scale may interpret the
quality to be rated differently. If a rating scale uses brief behaviour statement
and are kept at minimum level, it may be used with greater objectivity and may
minimize the effect also.
Merits of Various Observation Technique
Following are some of the merits or values of observation technique in the
collection of data as discussed above.
a. Observation techniques supply information which supplements the
information obtained by other methods
b. Observation supplies information which cannot be gathered by other
available technique
c. Observation provides a sample of individuals real behaviour
d. Observations are selective
e. Observation promotes the growth of person doing the observation
Achievement Tests
Achievement tests (also known tests of proficiency) yield measures of what the
individual knows or the extent of his achievement and performance in the
solution of problem and completion of set tasks. These tests attempt to measure
what the individual has learned, his present level of performance/* in a subject
or skill as result of instruction. Such tests measure performance in a specific
area e.g. typing, computer, spellings, reading or arithmetic. Achievement tests
can be used for diagnosing strength and weaknesses of an individual and for
evaluating influence of a course of study, teaching methods etc. These tests can
also be used to select equivalent groups to be used as control and experimental
group to measure gains made by experimental and control group by applying
the test before and after the treatment and to evaluate the relative effectiveness
of two teaching methods, courses of study, text book etc.
b.
Aptitude Tests
Aptitude tests seek to assess the level of achievement that an individual can
attain in some particular academic or vocational field. In other words, aptitude
tests attempt to predict an individuals capacity to require improved
performance with additional training. Aptitude tests may measure mechanical,
motor coordination, artistic aptitude, aptitude for medicine, engineering,
computer language etc.
c.
Personality Tests
Another broad area of psychological testing is concerned with the nonintellectual aspect of human behaviour. Personality tests most often refer to
measure of such characteristics and attitudes. Most of these tests are usually
self-report instruments. The individual checks responses to certain questions
indicating what he prefers to do or how he intends to act in a given situation.
Personality tests are classified in the broad categories; personality
questionnaires and proj ective techniques. The Minnesota Multiple Personality
Inventory (MMPI) and the Edward Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) are
used as personality questionnaires for assessing the personality. Projective
method has been applied in a number of ways. The more well-known one
Rorschach Ink Blot Test and Thematic Apperception Test TAT) are used
for personality assessment.
Steps in the Construction of a Standardized Test
The following steps are followed in the construction of a standardized test.
a. Test construction is started with the definition of ability for which test is
written
b. Test questions/items are written for each component
c. The test is pre-tested and statistically analyzed. It goes through a series of
revision till it becomes an adequately valid and reliable test
d. The norms are prepared for purpose of interpretation
Qualities of a Good Test
The qualities of a good test are:
a. It is standardized
b. It is reliable
c. It is valid
d. It is consistent
UNIT-11
PREPARATION OF RESEARCH PLAN OR
PROPOSAL
11.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PLAN OR PROPOSAL?
Development of a research plan or proposal is critical step in conducting
research. Having formulated specific hypotheses, it is necessary to carefully
delineate the method and procedure to be followed in testing them.
occasionally it will become apparent in formulating a plan that the proposed
study is not feasible in its present form. That decision is best made before the
researchers have extended considerable time and energy on a study which
cannot be properly executed.
The research plan has been defined by various specialists such as according to
L.R. Gay (1992) a research plan is a detailed description of a proposed study
designed to investigate a selected problem. It includes justification for
hypotheses to be tested, a detailed presentation of the research steps that will be
followed in collecting and analyzing data and a projected time schedule for
each major step. It also includes proposed budget if it is submitted to a funding
agency.
According to John W. Best (1982) the proposal is comparable to the blue
print which the architect prepare before work on a building is started. The
initial draft proposal is subject to modification in the light of the analysis by the
student and his adviser. Since good research must be planned and
systematically carried out, procedures that is improvised from step to step, will
not suffice. A worth whole research project is likely to result only from a welldesigned proposal.
11.2 WHAT ARE THE
PLAN/PROPOSAL
PURPOSES
OF
RESEARCH
(i)
a.
b.
Introduction
Statement of problem
Statement of Hypotheses
Method
Subjects
Instrument
Design
Procedure
c.
Data Analysis
d.
Time schedule
e.
(ii)
In the words of Dr. JR. Hassan (1990) one of the unholy joys one feels as
Pakistani researcher is the realization that what a fertile land Pakistan is for
research. There are in fact, unlimited number of problems to be investigated
by researcher. Research students usually are not taking pains to identifS certain
important problems for research. Even they show lack of insight or they are
problem blind. The research proposal may be considered as responses to a
problem, because that is what research really is. The deficiency or weakness
which is usually observed in a research proposal is the lack of a clear problem
statement to define and guide the inquiry. The problem statement should be
adequate to define, guide and conduct systematic research.
(i)
Now the question is what are the qualities of a good research problem. The
qualities attributed to a good research problem are:
It is manageable
It is researchable
(ii)
b.
When the problem has been selected and its theoretical, framework determined,
the * step is to state the purposes, objectives and significance of the study.
Research is always undertaken in response to a problem. Accordingly the
purpose of the study is always to understand better more possible solutions of
the problem.
Free floating objectives, and objectives without criteria add no new knowledge
to the one already known. Therefore, objectives should be carefully thought out
and they must be involved from the theoretical framework and confirm to the
criteria laid down for the relationship to be established amongst a set of
variables.
c.
(i)
In this section the research student provides definitions of all such terms being
used in the statement of the problem as are ambiguous and likely to
misinterpreted. The definitions of these terms help to establish or sharpen the
frame of reference with which the researcher approaches the problem. The
researcher should also explain the abbreviations, which would be used in the
study.
(ii)
The assumptions that the researcher has made, should be stated. He should not
make a long list of such assumptions. He should also clearly and frankly state
the limitations or short comings of his study. This will not reduce the
significance of the study but will provide more confidence in the solution of the
problem.
e.
A review of the literature is an integral part of the study. It should not be taken
as luxury. It provides researcher insight into the problem, broaden his
horizon of the nature of the problem and prevents him from repetition and
duplication and overlapping of his research efforts, while reviewing related
literature, a resume or a brief summary of previous researches and writings of
the recognized experts provide evidence that researcher is familiar with what is
already done and with what is still to be done. In reviewing other researches,
the researcher should specifically look into matters like the nature of problem,
design of the study, population. variables, deficiencies and suggestions for
further researches. Preferably the review should include a summary of the areas
of agreement and disagreement in findings.
f.
Theoretical Framework
and within that perspective identified and orders the variables on which he will
concentrate his attention (Ed Research 1999 p.92).
The concept of theoretical framework can better be explained through
answering such questions.
a. Which factors are most responsible for the solution of a problem?
b. How to restrict the study?
c. How to restrict the population? from which a sample is selected?
d. How to restrict the variables so as to make a meaningful study possible?
e. How to sharpen the focus and increase clarity?
f. In simple words what should be included and what should be excluded?
In short, such focalization, clarification and exclusion are essential in the
process of choosing a theoretical framework and should be decided explicitly
and rationally before initiating the study otherwise the study will be obscure
and vague and the researcher will be confused.
The study of related literature is therefore, important in the sense that in
developing a research design, it helps the researcher to realize how many facts
of the problem do exist and what other conceptual framework has been applied
to solve the problem earlier.
g.
study, the objectives narrowed further the investigation and the statement of
hypotheses/questions formulated.
The statement of the hypotheses and questions is actually a two-steps process
i.e. selecting the key questions appropriate to the objectives and
operationalizing the definitions that will be employed for the major variables in
the study in preparation for describing the design, instrumentation and analysis
appropriate to the inquiry.
It may be advisable to formulate a major hypothesis and several minor
hypotheses. This clarifies the nature of the problem and the rationale behind the
method adopted for collection of data. The hypotheses should first be stated in
positive or in literacy form. For example participation in extra-curricular
activities by students of ix-x classes adversely affect their academic
performance in Board Examination later on in the chapter on research
methodology, the statistical hypotheses should be stated in negative or null
form. Such as There is no significant difference between the academic
performance of Board Examination of those who participate and those who do
not participate in extra curricular activities in classes ix-x.
A good hypothesis has the following characteristics:
It is researchable
From the above example, it is observed that the proposed procedure describes
what must be done and how will be done? What data will be needed? And what
gathering device will be employed with evaluation of their validity and
reliability? How sources will be selected and how the data will be analyzed and
conclusion reached?
(i)
Time Schedule
A schedule should be prepared so that the researcher may budget his time and
energy effectively. Dividing the project/study into parts/phases and assigning
dates for the completion of each part helps to systematize the project/study and
minimize the natural tendency to procrastinate.
The preparation of work plan with definite dates/goals is most important
because the academic research project usually involves critical time limitation
and definite deadlines for submitting the complete report.
The preparation of the schedule also allows the advisor of the student to
monitor the progress of his work. Thus it serves as a stimulus helping the
researcher to proceed systematically towards the goal of completing the project
with the deadline set by the degree awarding institution.
Conclusion
The ultimate objective of this chapter is to familiarize the research students of
steps to be taken towards the formulation of their research outline or proposal.
Various steps have been discussed but for which specific care and attention are
UNIT-12
RESEARCH REPORT
(GENERAL ONSIDERATIONS)
Research undertaken for any purpose, culminates with the production of a
Research Report, various formats and styles have been adopted for writing
research report. However, all reports contain certain common elements like a
statement of the problem a description of procedure, and a presentation of
results. However, all research reports have a common purpose like to
communicate the purpose, procedure, and produce main findings of the study.
A well written report describes a study in sufficient detail, what are the general
rules to be followed in writing and presentation of research report? What are
the major section and sub-sections of a research report, will be discussed in this
chapter.
12.1 GENERAL RULES FOR PREPARATION OF THE
RESEARCH REPORT
The following general rules in the preparation of the research report which
should be observed by the researcher are:
a. The writer must be as objective as possible in reporting the study
b. The report should not contain subjective statements over statements and
emotional statements
c. It should be clearly, directly and briefly stated
c. Table of content
d. List of tables
e. Abstract
B. Main Body of the Report
Chapter-1: Nature and Background of the Study
a. Statement of the problem
b. Reasons for making the study
c. Review of the related literature
d. Further elaboration of the problem
e. General hypotheses
Chapter-2: Method of Study and Presentation of Data
a. Actual steps followed in the course of research
b. Instrument used for collection of data
c. Validity and reliability of the instrument
d. Population and sample studied
e. Description of the evidence gathered
f. Summary of data
Chapter-3: Summary and Conclusion
Chapter-4: Recommendations
In this chapter, the researcher makes recommendations about actions to
be taken to use the new knowledge discovered in the study.
C.
References
Appendix:
(ii)
L.R. Gay in his book Educational Research (1992) has suggested the following
Format for the presentation of the research report.
A.
Preliminary Pages
Acknowledgement
Table of content
Abstract
B.
Chapter-I: Introduction
a. Statement of the problem
b. Review of the Related Literature
c. Statement of the Hypotheses
Chapter-2: Method
a. Subjects
b. Instrument
c. Design
d. Procedure
Chapter-3: Results
a. Discussion/COncluSi01 and Recommendations
b. References/Bibliography
c. Appendex
(iii) Format Forwarded by John W. Best in his books
Research in Education
(1982) for Presentation of Research Report
A.
Title page
Acknowledgement
Table of content
List of tables
List of Figures
Chapter-I: Introduction
References Section
Bibliography
Appendex
(iv)" Format Usually Adopted by the Author with
some Modification, is stated below:
A.
Acknowledgement
Table of content
Abstract
B.
Chapter-I: Introduction
a. Background of the study
b. Statement of the study
c. Objectives of the study
d. Significance of the study
e. Assumptions underlying the study
f. Delimitation of the problem
g. Hypotheses or key questions to be answered in the study
h. Definition of terms/abbreviations used
Chapter-2: Review of the Related Literature
In this chapter, the related literature is reviewed which, provides further
justification for the research and the knowledge which is related to those
aspects of the problem with which the research deals.
Chapter-3: Method and Procedure of the Study/Design of the
Study
Actual steps followed in course of research
Preparation/construction of instruments
Validity and reliability of instrument
Population and sample studied/selected
Characteristics of sample
Chapter-4: Analysis of Data
The data collected is organized, tabulated and interpreted accordingly. If
tables are long, they are placed in Appendix and their interpretation is
presented in the text.
Chapter-5: Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
Major findings are drawn
Conclusions are made
Recommendations are forwarded for correction or improving the
situation
C. References Section
Bibliography
Appendex
12.3 GUIDE-LINES FOR WRITING RESEARCH REPORT
Writing of a research report infact, is a strenuous and pains taking task and
requires careful planning and repeated revision. The very aim of report writing
is to communicate it effectively in objective and unbiased manner and
language. However, some guide-lines are important to be taken in view while
writing a report in acceptable format as discussed earlier. These are:
a.
The researcher before starting writing the report should prepare a detailed
outline following the general framework of the report as discussed earlier. Each
chapter should be divided into sections and sub-sections. This outline should
indicate the actual organization of the material that would be placed in each
section of the report.
b.
High rounding words and phrases, long and complicated sentences and
unfamiliar words should be avoided. Grammatical mistakes be looked into. The
report should be written in short, simple sentences consisting of commonly
used words.
c.
Using Dictionary
Spellings mistakes are commonly found in the report which leaves had
impression on the part of researcher. Therefore, for writing correct spellings,
dictionary be frequently consulted. Some universities require a certificate from
the advisor to the effect that there are no spelling mistakes in the report.
However, the introduction of computer has solved this problem.
d.
Care should be taken that each sentence should express one distinct idea or
fact. Overloading the sentence with many ideas may lead to confusion. As few
A written draft be read critically and those parts which are not clear and which
do not follow logically, should be revised carefully. Moreover, any sentence
which contains unnecessary words, should be reworded to enhance its clarity.
The revision of the draft be made at regular interval and in a quite relaxed
mood.
UNIT-13
ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
Thesis writing is a systematic approach. Its style is based on a standard
procedure. It is a formal presentation of an objective, critical investigation and
is written in a formal scholarly fashion. Students are always facing difficulties
in finding and adopting an appropriate Manual for thesis writing.
Department/Institutes, however, require that their students must prepare their
thesis according to a standard manual. The manual of the American
Psychological Association (Fifth Edition, 2001) Popularly known APA
Manual is recommended to students for writing of thesis at M.A, M.Ed,
M.P.hil and Ph.D levels. The important features of the Manual have been
described in this unit. The preliminary requirements of a thesis have been given
in the Appendix. These specimens have been prepared in the high of format
recommended by Allama Iqbal Open University.
If this unit is studied thoroughly by students, they will not only gain insight and
understanding of writing a research report on proper line but they would also
be able to write it efficiently and with quality.
The content of this unit has been divided into four sections for convenience
sake which are briefly described.
Section-A: This section describes the organization of the report with reference
to its titles, forwarding sheet, approval sheet, acknowledgement, abstract, table
of content, list of tables and list of figures.
Title of Thesis
The title of thesis aims at to inform the reader about the phenomena under
study therefore, it should be:
a. Explanatory by itself
b. Specific
c. Concise statement of the main topic
d. It should refer to the major variables or theoretical issues under study
e. It should summarize the main ideas of the report
f. Redundant or words that serve no purpose, should be avoided
k. In all cases the font size of the Time New Roman should be used. Specimen
1 and 2 (Appendices A and 13) are given for outer title and inner cover
3.
This forwarding sheet (see specimen 3) is given by the supervisor (in case of
M.Phil and Ph. D Thesis by supervisor as well as by co-supervisor) to the effect
that the researcher has completed the study under their guidance and is
recommend for external evaluation.
4.
Approval Sheet
In thesis the Approval Sheet follows the title page and the forwarding
sheet. It contains the title of the thesis, name of the students, a statement
of acceptance of the research report. The statement starts with the
acceptance, be the name of faculty, discipline (where applicable) and
areas of specialization. The signatures of viva voce committed follows
the statement which includes Dean, ChainnanlDirector, External
Examiner, Supervisor and a member of (if needed). Names of committee
members usually appear at the right margin.
The page number (iii) appear from the bottom of the page.
The signature lines must be 2 i4 in length and the date line 2 in length.
The format differs from degree to degree (see specimens 4,5 and 6).
5.
Declaration
Some universities require declaration from the researcher to the effect that
the work done by him/her is original and shall not in future be submitted for
obtaining any other degree from any other university or institution. This
declaration contains. Name of the researchers Fathers name Roll No. and
Registration No. Statement of text of the declaration, signature of the
researcher and date. (Specimen given relates to the declaration).
6.
Acknowledgement
7.
Abstract
In all thesis, this part is most widely read. Therefore, it should be the
distillation of the thesis best written towards the end. It is a brief
comprehensive summary of the content of the thesis. A good abstract is
accurate, self contained, concise, specific, coherent and readable.
In theoretical and methodological studies the abstract should be limited to 250
350 words. In empirical studies it should be 350 500 words (preferably
400 words).
The abstract should be written in clear and vigorous prose. Active verbs and
present tense be used to describe results, while past tense be used to describe
specific variables manipulated or tested.
The abstract should contain.
a. The problem under investigation
b. A brief description of the background and purpose of the study
c. A statement of the conceptual or theoretical framework and hypotheses
d. A specification of the object or sample, the research design, the instrument
and the data collecting procedure
e. The main results and conclusions
8.
Table of Contents
The table of contents lists the preliminary part, the chapter titles alongwith subdivision of the body of the report and the supplementary material included in
the appendices.
The preliminary parts are listed first. After these the word chapter is
typed flush on the left hand margin, the word page flush with the right
hand margin. Each of these words has only the first letter capitalized on
12 pts.
The first chapter should be listed a triple space below the word
chapter.
The title of the first chapter should be followed by double space. Other chapters
title and sub division headings should like wise be both preceded and followed
by a double space.
Chapter title should be in capital letters bringing two spaces after the
period following the chapter number
Headings of a chapter division should have only the first letter of the
principal words capitalized. They should be typed single space.
9.
List of Tables
Tables should be listed separately from the chapter and section headings
The words list of Tables should appear in capital letters on the first
page of the list on 8th single space from the top of the page of the paper
in 16 pts
The number of each table should appear in capital letters (in Arabic
numerals) and should be followed by a period
The table litters in the list of tables should have only the first letters of
principal words capitalized
Table litters should be single spaced within individual title and double
spaced between litters. Tables appearing in the appendex should be
included in the list of tables
10.
List of Figures
Title of pictures, graphs, charts and other illustrative materials are all included
in the list of figures.
11.
Introduction (Chapter-i)
The body of the thesis begins with an introduction that presents the specific
problem, objectives under study and describes the research strategy. It explains
the following.
a.
The statement of the problem indicates what does the researcher want to do?
How did it arise from a situation of unresolved difficulty? Therefore, it should
be precisely, accurately and clearly stated either in declarative or in question
form. It can be one main statement, question or a series of statements, questions
or combination of both.
c.
This section of the study requires justification. The study should justify itself,
why the problem investigated is important and what will the significant results?
It should state its relevance to felt needs, the potential contribution of the
research to knowledge, policy implications, and other possible uses for its
results.
e.
Hypotheses
They should originate from substantially the same ground as that which
sound to identify the problem
They are changed in the null form when they are tested statistically
g.
Definitions of Terms/Variables
Many terms and variables are used in research studies which are subjected to
variety of definitions and interpretation. Therefore, all these terms be defined
operationally
according to their
precise
meaning.
Moreover, where
Methodology (Chapter-3)
This chapter vanes from thesis to thesis depending upon the nature of problem
and the type of study. However, it is required almost in every study:
This section includes description of the sources of data, the data processing
techniques and treatment applied. The procedure followed in conducting a
statistical study, are explained in detail. Techniques, devices and procedure
followed are described. Moreover, a set of a description of adoption,
construction and administration of instrument is included in this section:
Statistical techniques are used while analyzing data. The level of significance
(at 05, 01, 001 level) will be needed in accepting or rejecting the null
hypotheses.
4.
This chapter summarizes the collected data and statistical treatment applied to
them. The results are presented in a straight forward and unbiased manner. The
data are reported in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions. The presentation
must be geared to the research questions and hypotheses. Some other points be
taken in view.
5.
(i)
Summary
This last chapter of the body of the report contains an overview of the research,
It gives a brief restatement of the problem, the procedure and findings. Some
considerations should be taken in view.
The summary chapter should not contain any new information but
should briefly recapituate the entire content of the report
(ii)
Conclusions
Conclusions are short, concise statements of the inferences that the researcher
has made because of his works. These should be organized as short numbered,
arranged in order from most to least importance. All conclusions should be
related to research questions stated in first chapter.
(iii)
Discussion on Findings
While discussing the findings, the following points should be taken in view.
(iv)
Recommendations
Quotations
Citation of Sources
a.
b.
In-mid Sentence
End the passage with quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses
immediately after the quotation marks and continue the sentence
(Quotation-I).
c.
Close the quoted passage with quotation marks, cite the source in
parentheses immediately after the quotation marks and end with period
(Quotation-2)
d.
Examples
The following examples illustrate the application of APA Style to direct
quotation of a source.
Quotation-I (Quotation to be produced in text and which is less than 40
words)
He stated, The, placebo effect, disappeared when behaviour were studied in
this manner (Smith, 1982, p.276) but he did not clarify which behaviour were
studied.
Quotation-2 (Quotation to be produced in text and which is less than 40
words)
Smith (1982) found that the placebo effect which had been verified in
previous studies, disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner
(p.276)
Quotation-3 (Quotation which is a direct block quotation and which is more
than 40 words
Smith (1982) found the following:
The placebo effect which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared
when behaviours were studied in this manner. Further more, the behaviours
were never exhibited again even when real drugs were administered. Earlier
studies were clearly premature in attributing the results to a placebo effect
(p.276).
Other Examples:
a. According to them, The students come to realize that teachers expect them
to behave in a certain way in the class. (Ducke, Meckel, 1989, p.15)
b. Duke, and Meckel (1984) observed that, The students come to realize that
teachers expect them to behave in a certain way in class. (p.15)
3.
Tables
(i)
Tables are always complicated to set in type. However, they are best reserved
for important data directly related to the content. A well constructed table is
economical in isolating data from the text and enables the reader to quickly see
patterns and relationship of the data not readily discernible in text. The reader
can more easily comprehend and compare data when they are presented in
tabular form. Tables usually communicate quantitative data. The presentation
of data is effective only when they are arranged so that their significance is
obvious at a glance.
Before constructing a table, the researcher should consider that:
Rounded off values may display patterns and exceptions more clearly
than previous values.
A reader can compare members down a column more easily than across
a row
Column and row averages can provide a visual focus that allows the
reader to inspect the data easily and
Ample spacing between rows and columns can improve a table because
white space creates a perceptual order to the data
(ii)
One style of table caption be consistently followed through out the thesis
The table may also be placed vertically on the page if it will not fit horizontally
the page, however, it should have the same margin as the rest of the thesis
The headings in the list of tables should correspond in the body of the thesis.
Capitalize only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives
The main body of the table may be typed double space or one and half space
If tables continued over two or more pages, the box headings are not repeated
on the second page
(iii)
Where percent is used as column heading, the % sign is not placed after each
entry in the column
typing of the text should begin on the third space below the table
4.
Footnote to Tables
If a table extend over several pages, any footnote applying to the table as
a whole is written on the last page
i.
5.
Figures
The caption serves both as an explanation to the figure and as a figure title,
therefore, it should describe the content of the figure in a brief sentence or
phrase.
6.
Bibliography
The first page of the bibliography should have the word bibliography
centered and in capital letters on the 8th single space from the top of the top
of the page.
The entries in the bibliography are arranged in an under hang, single spaced
form with double spacing between reference. Each entry begins flush with
the left margin and the second and ensuring lines are indented five to seven
spaces. One style be followed through out the reference list.
The bibliography is divided into categories if it is long.
Within the bibliography, category headings are separated from preceding
material, by a triple space
ii. References are arranged in each division of a divided bibliography in
alphabetical order
If you have cited many works by one author, order them in reference list by
publication date from older to new
Italicize or underline books and journals.
Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and sub title of a work.
7.
Books
B.
Journals
C.
Government Reports
D.
Cheema, Iqbal Pervez (2004 April 11) Contrived Policy Pursuits. The
News Islamabad p.7
Saleem Farruith (2004 April 11) A Brighter Future The News, Islamabad
p.6
E.
thesis
Khan Rashid, (2002) Assessing the Role of Government and NonGovernment Organizations (GOs and NGOs) Towards poverty
Alleviation in the Rural Areas of NWFP (Pakistan) Unpublished
Doctoral Thesis, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University
of Peshawar.
F.
Dictionaries
G.
Encyclopedia
H.
Unpublished Manuscript
I.
Electronic Media
Abstract on CC-ROM
Meyer, A.S and Book (1992) The Tip of the Tongue, Phenomenon: Blocking or
Partial Activation [CD.ROM] Memory & Cognition, 20, 7 15-426 Abstract
form silver platter File PSYCLIT Item: 80-16351
(iii)
Computer Programme
Miller, M.E (1993) The Interactive Tester (Version 4.0) [computer software]
Westminster C.A: Psy text Services, Binder Report [computer software) (1993)
Melbourne EL Psycho motive software
(iv)
(vii)
Boreman, W.C. Hanson, M.L Oppler, S.M (1993) Role of Early Supervisory
Experience in Supervision Performance, Journal of Applied Psychology 78,
443-449 Retrieved October 23, 2000 from ARTICLES data base.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Best, J.W and James, V. Kahn (1986) Research in Education, New Jersy
Englewood Cliffs. (Eight Ed).
Caplouiz, David (1993). The Stages of Social Research, New York: John
Wiley.
Entwistte,
N.J.
(1973)
The
Nature
of
Educational
Research.
Raj, Hans. (1992) Theory and practice Social Research. New Delhi:
Bookmark (Pvt. Ltd).
APPENDIX
Preliminary Material
Specimen _A
Outer Cover
Spine
Name
RESEARCH TOPIC
(Hard Bound Black /Royal Blue/Dark Green/
Maroon Colour)
Full Research
Topic
Students name
Year of Acceptance of
Thesis
Rool No.______
Year
Specimen-B
Inner cover
Title of Thesis ___________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Name of Student
Roll No. ______
Specimen-C
Bismillah
Specimen-D
Forwarding Sheet
FORWARDING SHEET
The Thesis entitled _______________________________________________
submitted by
of Son/Daughter
_____________________
(Name)
Supervisor
_____________________
(Name)
Co-Supervisor
(in case of M.Phil/Ph.D)
Specimen-E
Declaration
DECLARATION
I,
____________________________________________________________
declare
that
the
thesis
entitled_________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
submitted by me in partial fulfillment of M.Phil/Ph.D degree in
__________________________ I is my original work, except where otherwise
acknowledged in the text, and has not been Supervisor submitted or published
earlier and shall not, if future, be submitted by me for obtaining any degree
from this or any other University or institution.
Signature _____________________
Name in Full __________________
Specimen-F
Approval Sheet for M.A/M.Sc/M.Ed
APPROVAL SHEET
The
Thesis
entitled
_________________________________________
__________________________
Chairman/Chairperson
Department of ____
Specimen-G
Approval Sheet for M.Phil
APPROVAL SHEET
Title of thesis ____________________________________________________
Name of student ________________________________________________
Roll No. _______________________ Accepted by the Faculty /Department /
Institute
of
__________________________
University
of
Specimen-H
Approval sheet for Ph.D
APPROVAL SHEET
Title of Thesis__________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Name of student ______________ ___________________________________
Accepted by the Faculty of _____________________________in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in
_________________ with specialization (if any) in ______________________
Viva Voce Committee.
__________________________
Dean
__________________________
Chairman/Chairperson
__________________________
Advisor
__________________________
Member (if required)
Dated: day, month, year
APPENDEX
II. Proposals/Synopses (Specimen)
(Specimen)
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF URBAN-RURAL EDUCATION
AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL IN N.W.F.P AND ITS
IMPLICATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACTION
PLAN FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF 2010 - 2015
TARGETS
1.
financial sustainability. These goals and targets have been set from time to time
in all successive educational policies, plans and development programmes but
could not be achieved due to various reasons.
The initiatives taken by the government of N.W.F.P for the development and
improvements of elementary education, can be revealed from its efforts made
during the past two decades. The government had been executing a long range
project Elementary Education Development Programme N.W.F.P. (1989-99)
since 1990 which had been sponsored by the Federal Government (Islamabad)
with the assistance of USAID worth of Rs. 3200.00 millions. The broad goals
of the programme were to establishing a foundations for sustained economic
reforms in elementary education, to strengthen the institutional capacity of the
province, to formulate and implement policy that would improve
accessequity and quality of elementary education and thus leading to the
removal of grave disparity which existed between urban and rural areas and in
male female education.
The planners of the programme had taken in view some related facts while
formulating the plan of development. The most important feature of the
development efforts were to raise the participation rate which in (1988-89) of
male was 81.0 percent (78.0 percent urban and 83.0 percent rural) and of
female children, it was 24.0 .percent (49.0 percent urban 19.0 percent rural).
The total participation rate of both sex was 54.0 percent (64.0 percent urban
and 52.0 percent rural). Similarly, the dropout rate indicated in the plan was
63.0 percent, urban (60.0 percent, male and 70.0 percent female) and 71.0
percent rural (70.0 percent, male and 78.0 percent female) which was higher as
compared to other provinces. In 1989, there were 207 shelterless schools, most
of them were in the rural areas.
The planners had further pointed out major issues like low participation and
poor standard of education at elementary level, lack of proper accommodation,
absence of permissive atmosphere, poor teachers training, defective and
unrelated curricula, unattractive text books, lack of proper administration and
supervision, defective methods of recruitment and training,
the shortage of teachers and lack of facilities in schools in rural areas. Now this
project and other similar projects have been completed. What changes and
improvement have been brought about, needs thorough investigation. The
present study concentrates on such basic issues. To what extent gaps in
education at the fist level in urban and rural areas, and in male and female
education, still exist? What is the nature of such unbalanced situation? How are
such disparities challenging and demand changes and improvement in future?
And how a balanced education system at elementary level could be developed
and sustained in future? And how can an Action Plan of development be
devised to meet such target by 2010 and 2015? These are such questions which
have stimulated the researcher to undertake such type of study.
2.
ASSUMPTIONS
6.
Questions to be answered in the study are primarily based on the concept and
underlying assumptions of the study. These however, concentrate on the
specific nature, issues and concerns of the problems, such as:
a. What main concerns have been expressed by policy makers regarding the
existing disparity in education?
b. What are the main issues in the existing urban and rural disparities
particularly at elementary level?
c. What are the contributing factors for the existing gender disparities in
education?
d. What is the nature and extent of such disparity that exists in the selected
area of NWFP?
e. Which are the variables that reflect the gravity of situation relating to the
disparity in question?
f. What would be the socio-economic implications of narrowing down such
disparities?
g. What would be the implications for policy formulation and future planning
for removing the gaps so exist in the target level?
h. How would this research influence the policy of the government regarding
the development of education in general and primary education in particular
in future? And
a.
The study is descriptive in nature and scope, focusing on the system analysis
and other situational factors, obstructing the developments of elementary
education in the region.
b.
LITERATURE SURVEY/REVIEW
The following documents which will be specifically consulted for the study
are:
9.
Guidelines:
The Questionnaires:
The data obtained through a documentary analysis and from the field will be
organized, tabulated and interpreted according to the standard design of
research. The method of percentage will be used for the interpretation of
statistical data collected from the field. On the basis of findings of research, a
set of recommendations will be forwarded to the government to correct the
10. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Seventh Five Year Plan
(1988-93) Islamabad
11. Government of Pakistan Planning Commission the Eight Five Year Plan
(1993-98) Islamabad
12. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics (1996)
Peshawar
13. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics (1997)
Peshawar
14. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics (1998-99)
Peshawar
15. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics SocioEconomic Indicators of NWFP (1997-98) Peshawar
16. Government of NWFP, Planning Environment and Development.
Department Bureau of Statistics NWFP Development Statistics SocioEconomic Indicators of NWFP (1998-99) Peshawar
17. Khan Namdar, (1970), Some Aspect of Planning for Primary Education in
Pakistan, Islarnabad.
18. Qureshi M.H. (1980) Universalization of Primary Education in Pakistan
Islamabad.
Specimen-B
Poverty is a big denier with many facets. It denies comfort, dignity, freedom
and participation; somewhere it is relative where every person is provided with
the basic needs of food, shelter and dress, whereas, somewhere likes ours it is
absolute. Some segments of the society have every opportunity to avail what
they want and some are so helpless and powerless to get a two square meals a
day. This condition is growing in our society for the last more than half a
century and the plight of haves not is worsening.
Despite decades of development assistance received through a complex system
of lending institutions, multilateral agencies, bi-lateral aid programmes and
foreign NGOs, Pakistan remains in the grip of grinding and persistent poverty.
During the past fifty years, approaches to development have been varied,
influenced by the prevailing geo-political climate, shifting ideologies and everchanging fashions in thinking about development and poverty alleviation. From
modernization theories to basic needs, from import-substitution to export- led
growth, from technology transfer to sustainable development and participatory
approaches - There had been no shortage of models that had shaped
development planning.
What have not changed, are the basic facts of poverty in Pakistan, where large
number of people continue to live in conditions of absolute poverty. If poverty
alleviation initiatives have, indeed, been a failure on the large scale, it is not
because reaching the poor and securing for them wider opportunities have not
been the focus of development, but because the development programmes have
not rightly identified the main causes of poverty. Instead, they have been
treating the symptoms all along. The UNDP and many other programmes from
trickle down to targeting the poor approach can be more strengthened if it is
directed after the real understanding of causes of the problem.
The simple idea, which has not always been acknowledged when planning to
alleviate poverty is that we need to know the underlying sources and social
explanation of our poverty because policies, even if targeted directly to the
poor, can hardly succeed unless they are directed at the root causes of the
poverty. And such causes vary from country to country and society to society. A
strategy followed by one country need not be appropriate with the same
packages and ways of implementation for another.
ii.
people are without safe drinking water and ninety million people are deprived
of basic sanitation facilities. The death of eight lakh children every year is
linked with malnutrition. Half of them are usually dropped out before
completing the cycle of primary education as revealed by the official statistics.
In fact, poverty has many social dimensions as well.
Poverty is the central problem of the Third World. Most of these countries are
poor and their people are subject to many different forms of deprivation,
powerlessness, hunger, urban squalor, landlessness, illiteracy, avoidable ill
health, familial deprivation, the exploitation of women and so on. Most of the
poverty in underdeveloped countries is concentrated in the rural areas where
almost 70% people live. Various aspects of poverty interact. For instance
inequality in education perpetuates inequalities in status and life chances,
squalid living condition adversely affect health and life expectancy, inequality
of power stands in the way of any steps towards greater social justice. Their
interactions are endless.
iii.
The current millennium will see more & more advances in the field of science
technology and information. The real potential of future will be found in the
three billion people, living in poverty that collectively represent the greatest
potential for growth and opportunity the world has ever seen.
The development strategies, being devised by the government in the prevailing
critical condition, center around the enhancement of social and economic
welfare of the people. They are being pursued at time of fundamental changes
in domestic and global economic scenario. The intended adjustments or
reforms include decontrol, deregulation, liberalization, privatization, marketorientation, community involvement and conservation of physical environment.
These initiatives have altered both in concept and nature of planning prevalent
in Pakistan. The government has not only considered the main vehicle for
economic change but also a catalyst, and a motivator of change. The future
plans of development are expected to be more pragmatic and relevant in view
of the pressing demands of the society. Besides these issues, poverty alleviation
is the most strategic and crucial one and is fortunately on the top of the agenda
of the present government. Ghurbat Mukau (Eradicate Poverty) is the clarion
call of the day.
iv.
e. As a social policy concern, what should be the best solution of the problem?
These are some of the issues which have inspired the researcher and which
make the differences of the proposed study.
2.
The problem of this study is to assess the role of both government and nongovernment organizations towards poverty alleviation in the rural areas of
NWFP.
3.
a. The need and importance of the study is attributed to its greater contribution
both in academic and practical terms towards better understanding of the
requirement of human resource development, removing gender disparities,
and improving the life style of the people living in rural areas of the region.
b. The study is expected to highlight problems, issues, weaknesses and
deficiencies in achieving the goals of human development, particularly
eradication of poverty among the rural community.
c. The study is expected to influence the social policy towards adopting better
and workable strategies for the achievement of their objectives by
The problem of the study will be delimited to the selected popular government
and non-government organizations involved in multifarious activities in the
backward areas of the region.
The thrust of the activities will be further looked into crucial problems such
as:
a. Literacy, formal and non-formal education,
b. Health and sanitation,
c. Family welfare,
d. Improvement of physical infrastructure,
e. Agriculture and livestock,
f. Community participation,
g. Women empowerment,
h. Income generating activities, and
i. Environmental protection
6.
As indicated earlier, two of the most popular and reliable government and nongovernment organizations will be selected for the study. Their projects about
poverty alleviation in the rural areas of the Province completed during the last
five years (1995-1999) will be evaluated.
7.
The nature of the study is descriptive and may involve a variety of research
activities, ranging from wide review of the related literature to making a
comprehensive survey of the activities performed by their organizations. The
research activities will involve:
a. Undertaking an intensive review of literature to highlight the concept of
development and its relation to poverty,
b. Preparation of a comprehensive questionnaire for collection of both
quantitative and qualitative information from the GOs and NGOs on the
subjects,
c. Formulation of an Interview Schedule for all concerned who have executed
various activities,
d. Formulation of an interview guide for the community people, the
beneficiaries of projects to ascertain their views and future aspirations
REFERENCES
Australian International Development Assistance Bureau. Poverty Alleviation
Through
Australian
Development
Cooperation.
Australia:
Australian
and Argroecological
Perspective
Wahid, Abu, N.M. ed. 1993 The Grameen Bank of Bangladesh: A New
Dimension in Poverty Alleviation. USA: West view Press,
World Bank. Colombia: 1990 Social Programs for the Alleviation of Poverty:
World Bank Study, USA: World Bank,.
World Bank. Namibia: 1992 Poverty Alleviation with Sustainable Growth:
World Bank Country Study. USA: World Bank,.
World Bank. 1988. World Banks Support for the Alleviation of Poverty. USA:
World Bank,
Specimen-C
BACKGROUND
Access
Physical facilities
Teacher training
Material development
3.
The output of the project can better be judged in qualitative terms. This
institute is expected to play a leadership role in the development of trained
manpower and research experts. This project will provide such opportunities as
already mentioned, to teachers and students to acquire, knowledge, skill and
attitude as how to investigate scientifically problems and suggest solutions for
them. An other main output of this study will be that it will influence the
development strategies of the government relating to primary education and
will provide a supplementary reform parkage to all concerned with policy
formulation, planning and implementation of educational programmes at first
level.
6.
7.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT
Physical facilities i.e. space, furniture, storage, phone, electricity and other
secretarial equipment like computer, photo copier, etc. will be available in the
institute free of charges. However, typing photo stating, stationary and field
work expenses will be met from the proposed project budget.
Specimen-D
INTRODUCTION
A teacher plays a pivotal role in the system of education. His position is central
and carries the major responsibility for influencing the education policies,
effecting change and innovations in the system and ensures the quality in
teaching learning environment in the classroom. If depends upon teachers
competence and resourcefulness to provide flesh and blood to the bare bones of
curriculum which he deals with in the class room
In fact, teachers are neither adequately equipped nor motivated to bring about
desirable change in the system. This is because of inadequate pre-service
professional preparation and lack of facilities of in service education. It is,
therefore, almost important that any reforms to be introduced for widening the
base of education, improving the content and teaching learning process, should
focus particularly on the training of teachers. There would be little hope of
advocating and advancing the quality aspects of education unless the teacher
revives commitment for his/her profession and is also given place of honour
and recognition in the society.
Teachers knowledge skill and attitude and his/her commitment depend upon
his/her professional preparation through both types of pre-service and in-
The problem of this study in to assess the effectiveness of in- service training
programme availed by University teachers in the Staff Training Institute (STI,
University of Peshawar.
3.
4.
The University of Peshawar, inspite of its financial constraints. has taken a bold
step to institutionalize in-service training programme for its young teachers to
bring about qualitative Improvement in their teaching learning situation. The
University is investing due financial resources of its budget in the programme
but no attempt has been made so far to assess the effectiveness of its output and
determine the extent to which the objectives have been achieved. The study,
therefore, hoped:
a. To influence the policy of the Government and University authorities
intending to bring about change and improvement in the programme.
b. To replicate the experiment in other Universities if it is carried on
successfully.
c. To bring out in lime light the deficiencies and shortcomings of the
programme so that the situation could be corrected in further.
d. To provide a rationale for restructuring of the training programme on sound
lines in future.
e. To prove a useful documents for University teachers planners, organizers
and research students on teacher education in the region.
5.
ASSUMPTIONS
The following questions will be answered in the study. These questions are
based on the very spirit of objectives formulated for the study.
a. What is the nature of the policy of the Government on the development of
teacher education in Pakistan?
b. What problem and constraints the Government is facing in the organization
and implementation of the In-Service Training Programme?
c. What is the policy of University of Peshawar for the development of teacher
training programme in future?
d. How far the curriculum offered in the staff training institute is relevant and
based on modern concepts and trends in education.
e. How far the existing facilities of the STI are adequate?
f. How far the teacher educators of STI are themselves fully oriented with the
modem techniques of teaching?
g. What in the impact of the incentives given to teachers who avail the
training opportunity in the STI on raising their professional competence,
moral and commitment to their profession?
h. How the idea of in-service training for University teachers has been
appreciated and supported by the heads of the departments or deans of
faculties of the University?
7.
i.
The nature of the study is descriptive. It will involve intensive study of the
related literature and field work on the problem. A descriptive study approach
suits the problem under investigation because it interprets what is? It is
concerned with the conditions or relationship that exist, opinion that are held,
process that are going on, effects that are observed and trends that are
developing. The present problem of the study aims at a thorough analysis of the
existing situation and conditions of an rn-service programme and pin pointing
all the related factors and forces affecting the effectiveness of the programme.
ii.
iii.
The sample of the study will include teachers (as mentioned above), Director of
the Institute. Chairmen of Departments, Deans of Faculties and concerned
administrators as respondents of the study.
iv.
Various types of instruments will be used in the study. These will mainly
include:
a. Questionnaire for collection of factual information front the office of the
Director of the Institute.
b. Interview Schedule for Director of STI to ascertain problems and
constraints facing the institute and future programmes being planned.
c. Interview schedule for participants elicit their views on the effectiveness of
the training programme available by them.
d. Interview schedule for the chairmen of the departntents deans of faculties,
the key administrator of the University to ascertain their view on the
relevance, and effectiveness of the training prograrnnte launched in the STI
by the University of Peshawar.
v.
8.
10.
Specimen-E
RATIONALE
The Basic Minimum Needs (BMN) Project was initiated through collaborative
efforts of the provincial government and WHO in a small union council of
MandorilJabbi in the area of Nizampur District Nowshera North-West-Frontier
Province in 1994. About 14000 people of the area live below the poverty line in
the target area. The village Jabbi having population of 6588 was selected on the
basis of being most backward area and the availability of potential resources to
be developed as the pilot site for the implementation of BMN programme.
Later on the BMN activities were extended to other five adjoining villages
including Mandori.
The BMN is an innovative and bold initiative of human resource development.
It aims at to alleviate the poverty of the people and promises a better quality of
life. The priorities set in the project are the solution of irrigation problem,
introduction of cash crops, development of diary activities, starting forestation
of land in the target village. So far as education and health are concerned, a
general assessment of the situation has been made by the planners and grey
areas have been identified for improvement. The project is in its second phase
of implementation indicating encouraging impact on the improvement of socioeconomic situation of the village. Such impact is attributed to the financial
support of WHO, community share, and bottom up planning of selfmanagement and community participation.
As revealed from the BMN project, Jabbi village holds 1830 (997 male and 833
female) population of schools going children 25.0 percent of which are enrolled
in six primary schools (4 for boys and 2 for girls). The situation is grave.
Children dropout for various reasons. The main contributing factors are
poverty, malnutrition, other physical disabilities, lack of instructional facilities,
poor scholarship and unstimulating school environment. Teachers academic
and professional preparation is low. The phenomena of untrained teachers
exists in schools. Most of teachers are matric and have undergone short inservice courses which are inadequate.
In view of the importance of basic education providing firm bedrock to the
socio-economic development of a poor society, an integral part of the BMN
project, the grave situation that prevails in the institutions, the interest of
UNESCO to provide technical assistance for its re-orientation in the village
seems essential. The UNESCO therefore approached Institute of Education and
Research (IER) University of Peshawar as a research center to help it in
identifying the orientation mandate for which it could provide technical
assistance in planning and implementation of reorienting basic education
towards poverty alleviation and improvement of quality of life of the people of
village Jabbi.
According to the terms of reference of the TSS-I given to the researcher i.e. to
review the governments poverty alleviation policy and practices, the basic
education delivery system, the current status of teaching-learning situation with
reference
to
facilities,
teacher
preparations,
supervision,
curriculum,
OBJECTIVES
Under the education for all (EFA) goals and the basic minimum needs (BMN)
project objectives are:
a. To
develop
strategy
to
introduce/implement
community-based
EXPECTED OUTCOME
Activities
Phase-I
Preparing Plan of
Action
Phase-II
In-Service
Training/Orientation
Programme
programme
planners
for
and
policy
community
makers
administrators
leaders. These
are
Improving
instructional aspect of
Basic Education
Preparation of
preparation of guide-books for Instructional
Instructional Materials
Relating to School
Materials school teachers and instructors of Relating
Curriculum
to School literacy centers modules on various
Curriculum subjects and model lessons on various
topics for teachers of primary schools. These
activities to be completed in 12
5.
TARGET GROUP
The people of village Jabbi will be directly benefited by this pilot project. The
facilities so developed in the village if not utilized by the people of Mandori
and other villages included in BMN project can be replicated in these villages.
People who had sent their children away from their homes for education and
work, would bring them back because of their enhanced confidence on quality
and productive nature of basic education.
The people of Jabbi when are given opportunities to lead more productive life
and play leadership role in the community affairs, would invariably, find
positive impact on their socioeconomic life and would banish the feelings of
dependency, deprivation and resignation to frugal and poverty stricken life.
6.
COLLABORATION PARTNERS
The participation of the people at grass root level will also be insured. With
reference to reorientation of basic education a School Management
Committee composed of elected people among parents and other influential
persons, will be set up for the specific purposes of helping to increase
enrolment eliminate wastage, maintaining effective supervision. generatmg
their own resources for meeting the immediate needs of institution, and
motivating people to send children to school and to take part in the welfare
activities for their schools and children.
7.
PROJECT
COORDINATION,
EVALUATION
MONITORING
AND
8.
The basic principles and mandate given to WHO and UNESCO for their
multifarious activities relating to improving the living standard of the people.
providing basic knowledge and skills for making the life of poor people
creative and productive, and to change the attitude of the people towards their
dependent life etc. are common and agreed and hence need joint efforts for
their attainment. This project is not only in line with the goals of WHO with
special reference to BMN activities but also of the strategies of other
international bodies functioning under the aegis of UN and is hoped to achieve
the desired objective through such collaborating efforts.